Certaines parties du littoral méditerranéen de l’Afrique du Nord se sont développées avec une rapidité extrême au cours des dernières décennies (voir Carte 2.4). Les surcroîts de population et les pressions qui sont allées de pair sur l’aménagement comme sur les ressources et les systèmes ont suscité un certain nombre d’interventions visant à améliorer la résilience aux crises et aux enjeux auxquels doit faire face l’écosystème méditerranéen. Les villes et pays du littoral d’Afrique du Nord participent à diverses initiatives destinées à améliorer la gestion de l’environnement à plus grande échelle, pollution et érosion
CHAPITRE 2
comprises. Le risque d’effondrement de l’écosystème méditerranéen, qui est relativement fermé, constitue une menace redoutable pour les pays riverains qu’il dessert de multiples façons.
La pollution
Les facteurs de pollution terrestre et marine accroissent la pression sur les écosystèmes. Toutefois, des villes d’une certaine importance comme Tanger, Tétouan et Nador (Maroc) produisent des polluants industriels et autres, y compris des métaux lourds et des eaux d’égout.
En Algérie, la capitale et des villes comme Oran et Annaba sont tout à la fois productrices et victimes de polluants, y compris de nature organique, ainsi que des métaux lourds et autres composés toxiques en provenance des raffineries de pétrole et des usines chimiques, surtout à proximité des grandes zones industrielles portuaires. En Tunisie, la côte nord est la plus affectée, notamment la baie de Tunis.121
L’érosion
Les atteintes aux habitats naturels réduisent la résilience naturelle à l’érosion côtière en perturbant et en dégradant les écosystèmes qui stabilisent le rivage. L’étalement urbain et les aménagements « en ruban » ont affecté l’intégrité de ces systèmes. La majeure partie du rivage de l’Afrique du Nord, Egypte exceptée, est moins menacée par la densification urbaine extrême que les côtes d’Espagne ou du Liban (Carte 2.1).122 La différence, c’est que l’étalement est apparaît clairement dans toute son étendue, avec réduction notable de la stabilisation du littoral et résilience réduite à la montée du niveau des mers liée au changement climatique. En Méditerranée orientale, l’érosion des Terrasses Vermétides du Levant, qui ont des vertus protectrices, est exacerbée par l’altération de la qualité de l’eau123 et pourrait intensifier l’érosion du littoral, affecter les terres agricoles,
porter atteinte à la sécurité alimentaire et hydrique, augmenter les crues et les inondations, et faire peser des risques supplémentaires sur la vie et les moyens de subsistance des citadins.
Il est essentiel que tous les pays et les villes du littoral méditerranéen de l’Afrique du Nord rejoignent les initiatives existantes, tant mondiales que régionales, afin d’améliorer la gestion à long terme de cet écosystème à la fois vaste et fragile. Par exemple, des initiatives locales en matière de gestion des déchets peuvent améliorer la qualité de l’eau, tandis qu’une bonne utilisation des sols et un urbanisme bien étudié peuvent garantir que les aménagements sur les côtes ne portent pas atteinte aux habitats naturels qui protègent le littoral de l’Afrique du Nord et ses villes, tout en renforçant la résilience de la sous-région aux bouleversements extérieurs.
V
Plage polluée à Hammamet (Tunisie). ©Habib M’henni. Licence (non transposée) Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0.
CARTE 2.5: POPULATION URBAINE DU BASSIN MÉDITERRANÉEN – PRÉVISIONS
C a n a r y
(Estimation where data not available) 16 Mio
Sources: Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Columbia University; World Gazetteer
L’ETAT DES VILLES D’AFRIQUE DU NORD
ENDNOTES
1 Quoique le Sahara Occidental apparaisse dans le présent rapport comme une entité séparée, son statut est resté contesté dès avant le retrait de la puissance colonisatrice espagnole en 1976. Le Maroc a revendiqué ce territoire de 266 000 km² riche en phosphates contre les objections du front armé de libération Polisario, qui a proclamé l’indépendance du territoire sous le nom de République arabe sahraouie démocratique (RASD). Celle-ci est actuellement reconnue par une cinquantaine d’Etats et par l’Union africaine, ce qui a conduit le Maroc à se retirer de cette organisation. Les négociations sur un référendum qui déciderait de l’avenir du territoire sont actuellement au point mort, et le Front Polisario a menacé de reprendre son combat pour sa libération. La population du Sahara Occidental est de l’ordre de 500 000 habitants, dont la majorité habite les 80 pour cent du territoire administrés par le Maroc, y compris la ville principale, Laâyoune (200 000 habitants), où les autorités marocaines ont énormément investi. Le gouvernement de la RASD, en exil dans les camps de réfugiés de Tindouf en Algérie, a déclaré que le petit oasis de Bir Lehlou, près de la frontière mauritanienne, serait la capitale provisoire. (Source: New York University, Center on International Cooperation (2012), Annual Review of Peace Operations 2012. Boulder, Lynne Reinner, pp 123-126).
2 UNDESA (2012).World Urbanization Prospects:
the 2011 Revision, (New York, 2012).
3 UN-Habitat (2008). The State of African Cities 2008. Nairobi: UN-Habitat, pp. 23-25.
4 UNDESA. (2012).World Urbanization Prospects:
the 2011 Revision, (New York, UNDESA). 2012.
5 IMF (2013). World Economic Outlook, April 2013:
Hopes, Realities, Risks. (Washington DC, IMF), pp 1-23, 39-41, 46-51.
6 Clark, P. (2013). ’Body blow’ for carbon prices after EU votes against emissions policy, in Financial Times, 17 April 2013.
7 Fioramonti, L. (2013). Gross Domestic Problem:
The Politics behind the World’s Most Powerful Number. (London, Zed Books).
8 IMF. (2012). Middle East and North Africa:
Economic Outlook and Key Challenges.
(Washington DC, IMF) April 2012, p. 3; IMF (2012) Regional Economic Outlook: Middle East and Central Asia. November 2012 p. 88; IMF (2013). World Economic Outlook April 2013:
Hopes, Realities, Risks (Washington, IMF) p 154.
9 International Crisis Group (2013), Marching in Circles: Egypt’s Dangerous Second Transition;
Hamid, S (2013), “A future worse than Mubarak’s reign”, New York Times, 14 August 2013;
Economist Intelligence Unit (2013), Libya: Country Report, 6 September 2013; Economist Intelligence Unit (2013), Tunisia: Country Report, 6 September 2013; International Crisis Group (2013), Tunisia:
Violence and the Salafi Challenge.
10 AfDB (2012). African Economic Outlook:
North Africa is Gradually Recovering from Political Turmoil, accessed from www.
africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/outlook/north- africa-is-gradually-recovering-from-political-turmoil/ 20 10 2012.
11 IMF (2012). Middle East and North Africa:
Economic Outlook and Key Challenges.
(Washington DC, IMF) April 2012, pp. 7-8.
12 Noueihed, L. and Warren, A. (2012)The Battle for the Arab Spring: Revolution, Counter-Revolution and the Making of a New Era, (New Haven, Yale University Press), pp 1-43; Ali, K. (2012), Precursors of the Egyptian Revolution, in IDS Bulletin, vol 43, no 1, January 2012, pp 16-25.
13 Africa Confidential (2012). Egypt: A country polarized; Libya: Unity under strain; Tunisia:
Wilting jasmine, vol 53, no 25, 14 December 2012; International Crisis Group (2013), Marching in Circles: Egypt’s Dangerous Second Transition;
Hamid, Shadi (2013), A future worse than Mubarak’s reign,in New York Times, 14 August 2013.
14 Economist Intelligence Unit (2012). Morocco Country Report, December 2012
15 Economist Intelligence Unit (2012). Arab Spring, economic winter? 23 May 2012; IMF (2012).
Middle East and North Africa: Economic Outlook and Key Challenges. (Washington DC, IMF) April 2012, pp. 4-6.
16 Brady, J. (2012) After the Arab Spring: How Islamists Hijacked the Middle East Revolts, (New York, Macmillan).
17 Africa Confidential (2013), Egypt: After the crisis, the crackdown, 23 August 2013.
18 Bowen. J. (2012). The Arab Uprisings: The People Want the Fall of the Regime. (London, Simon &
Schuster).
19 UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012:
Challenges of Urban Transition. Nairobi, p 99.
20 Sharp, D. (2012). How the Urbanism of Small Cities Helped Shape the Arab Uprisings. In Global Urbanist, 31 July 2012, accessed from www.
globalurbanist.com/2012/07/31/small-cities-arab-uprisings/ on 6 December 2012.
21 UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012:
Challenges of Urban Transition. (Nairobi, 2012), pp. 3-4.
29 Paciello, M. (2012). “Foreword”, in Reversing the Vicious Circle in North Africa’s Political Economy:
Confronting Rural, Urban and Youth Related Challenges, in Mediterranean Paper Series, May 2012, pp. iii-v
30 UNDP (2011). Arab Development Challenges Report 2011: Towards the Developmental State in the Arab Region, pp 22-8
31 UNDESA. (2012). World Urbanization Prospects:
The 2011 Revision. (New York, UNDESA), pp
32 Bibi, S. and Nabli M. (2010) Equity and Inequality in the Arab Region. Policy Research Report no 33, Economic Research Forum, Cairo, February 2010, pp iii-6, 19-54.
33 Oxford Poverty and Development Initiative (OPHI), Country Briefing Tunisia 2011; Country Briefing Morocco 2011; Country Briefing Egypt 2011 at www.ophi.org.uk accessed 1 September 2012.
34 Oxford Poverty and Development Initiative (OPHI), Multidimensional Poverty Index 2011 at www.
ophi.org.uk/mpi-2011-research-brief/ accessed 1 September 2011.
35 Siemens AG, African Green City Index, Munich, 2011, p 7 at www.siemens.com/greencityindex accessed 30 September 2012.
36 Oxford Poverty and Development Initiative (OPHI), Multidimensional Poverty Index 2011 at www.
ophi.org.uk/mpi-2011-research-brief/ accessed 1 September 2011.
37. National Intelligence Council (2009). North Africa: The Impact of Climate Change to 2030 (Washington DC, NIC) August 2009, p 3
38. UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012:
Challenges of Urban Transition (United Nations, Nairobi) pp 18, 109
39. National Intelligence Council (2009). North Africa: The Impact of Climate Change to 2030 (Washington DC, NIC) August 2009, pp 3-4, 33-34
40 Ibid, pp 4, 22, 43-45.
41 UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012:
Challenges of Urban Transition (United Nations, Nairobi) p 110.
42 National Intelligence Council. (2009). North Africa: The Impact of Climate Change to 2030 (Washington DC, NIC) August 2009, pp 4, 22-32;
UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012:
Challenges of Urban Transition (United Nations, Nairobi) p 109; World Bank (2012).Poor Places, Thriving People (Washington DC, World Bank) pp 72-74.
43 National Intelligence Council. (2009). North Africa: The Impact of Climate Change to 2030 (Washington DC, NIC) August 2009, pp 23-24.
44 Ibid, pp 77-83.
45 Ibid,, pp 22-28.
46 African Economic Outlook. (2012). Morocco, p 11.
Available from: www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/
en/countries/north-africa/morocco/, accessed 20 May 2013.
47 National Intelligence Council. (2009). North Africa: The Impact of Climate Change to 2030 (Washington DC, NIC) August 2009, p24; United Nations Environment Programme (2007). Sudan:
Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment (Nairobi, UNEP) pp 242-245; Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (2010). Egypt Second National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, (Cairo EEAA) May 2010 p 12.
48 Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda,
CHAPITRE 2
ENDNOTES
Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo.
49 National Intelligence Council. (2009). North Africa: The Impact of Climate Change to 2030 (Washington DC, NIC) August 2009, p 24: United Nations-Habitat (2010) The State of African Cities:
Governance, Inequality and Urban Land Markets (Nairobi, UN-Habitat) Text Box 4.9, p 165.
50 Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency. (2010).
Egypt Second National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, (Cairo EEAA) May 2010 p 69.
51 Ibid, pp 70-73.
52 National Intelligence Council (2009). North Africa: The Impact of Climate Change to 2030 (Washington DC, NIC) August 2009, p 25.
53 UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012:
Challenges of Urban Transition (United Nations, Nairobi) p 108.
54 World Bank and Marseille Center for Mediterranean Integration. (2011). North African Coastal Cities Address Natural Disasters and Climate Change: Summary of the Regional Study (Washington DC, World Bank) p 2.
55 Egis BCEOM International, IAU-IDF and BRGM.
(2011). Climate Change Adaptation and Natural Disasters Preparedness in the Coastal Cities of North Africa. pp 66-85.
56 Ibid, pp 37-55; Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (2010). Egypt Second National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, (Cairo EEAA) May 2010 pp 83-84.
57 Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency. (2010).
Egypt Second National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, (Cairo EEAA) May 2010 pp 85-89.
58 World Bank and Marseille Center for Mediterranean Integration. (2011). North African Coastal Cities Address Natural Disasters and Climate Change: Summary of the Regional Study (Washington DC, World Bank) p 7.
59 Ibid, p 10.
60 World Bank and Marseille Center for Mediterranean Integration. (2011). North African Coastal Cities Address Natural Disasters and Climate Change: Summary of the Regional Study (Washington DC, World Bank) p 11.
61 Egis BCEOM International, IAU-IDF and BRGM.
(2011). Climate Change Adaptation and Natural Disasters Preparedness in the Coastal Cities of North Africa. (Marseilles) pp 86-93.
62 Ibid, pp 37-55.
63 World Bank and Marseille Center for Mediterranean Integration (2011) North African Coastal Cities Address Natural Disasters and Climate Change: Summary of the Regional Study (Washington DC, World Bank) pp16-17.
64 Ibid.
65 Asher, M.. (1986) A Desert Dies, (London, Penguin Books); Gerard Prunier (2005), Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide, London, Hurst,
66 UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012:
Challenges of Urban Transition (United Nations, Nairobi) p 187.
67 Waal, A.. (2005) Famine that Kills, Revised edition, Oxford, OUP; John Ryle, Justin Willis, Suliman Baldo and Jok Madut Jok (eds.). (2011).
The Sudan Handbook James Currey, Woodbridge, pp 140-141.
68. UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012:
Challenges of Urban Transition (United Nations, Nairobi) pp 202-203.
69 Republic of Sudan. (2003), Sudan’s First National Communications under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, volume 1, Khartoum, Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources, pp 4-6.
70 Booz Allen. (2009). Booz Allen Annual 2009 Report: Delivering Results that Endure, Annual Report, Booz Allen Hamilton.
71. UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012:
Challenges of Urban Transition. Nairobi, UN-Habitat, p 20.
72. Ibid, p 110.
73. One of the climate investment funds. Online at:
www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/cif/node/2.
74. Akhtar, Shashad. (2009). “Governance, integrity, and transparency: An important development agenda for MENA”, World Bank MENA Knowledge and Learning Quick Notes Series, no 17, December 2009, p. 1.
75. UN-Habitat (2010). The State of African Cities 2010, pp 75-79; UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012: Challenges of Urban Transition.
Nairobi, UN-Habitat, p 104.
76. UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012:
Challenges of Urban Transition. Nairobi, UN-Habitat; Siemens. (2012). African Green City Index (AGCI): Assessing the Environmental Performance of Africa’s Major Cities, Economist Intelligence Unit for Siemens; Humanitarian Policy Group, ODI (2011), City Limits: Urbanisation and Vulnerability in Sudan, Khartoum Case Study (London: HPG).
77 Gillot, Gaëlle and Jean-Yves Moisseron. (2012).
“The Arab Spring and urban governance challenges in North African countries” in Reversing the Vicious Circle in North Africa’s Political Economy: Confronting Rural, Urban and Youth Related Challenges, Mediterranean Paper Series, May 2012, p 14.
78. UN-Habitat (2010), The State of African Cities 2010, pp 72-74; UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012: Challenges of Urban Transition.
Nairobi, UN-Habitat, pp 97-100.
79 Amnesty International. (2011). “We are not Dirt:
Forced Evictions in Egypt’s Informal Settlements.”
London.
80 UN-Habitat (2010). The State of African Cities 2010, Nairobi, p 66.
81 UN-Habitat (2006). “Slums: Some definitions.”
Available at: www.unhabitat.org/documents/
media_centre/sowcr2006/SOWCR%205.pdf.
Accessed 30 September 2012.
82 UN-Habitat (2010). The State of African Cities 2010, p 66.
83 Tarbush, N. (2012). “Cairo 2050: Urban dream or modernist delusion?” Journal of International Affairs, Spring/Summer 2012, Vol. 65, No. 2, Spring/Summer 2012.
84 Stadnicki, R. (2012). La Caire après la revolution:
blocages de la ville et déblocage de l’urbanisme Blog post on Les carnets de l’Ifpo. La recherché en train de se faire á L’Institut français du Proche-Orient, 23 October 2012 at http://ifpo.hypotheses.
org/4651 accessed 21 December 2012.
85 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit. (2010). Improving Informal Areas in Greater Cairo: The Cases of Ezzbet al Nasr and Dayer el Nahia.(Berlin: GTZ)
86 Siemens. (2012). African Green City Index (AGCI):
Assessing the Environmental Performance of Africa’s Major Cities, Economist Intelligence Unit for Siemens, p 16.
87 IEA WEO. (2006). World Energy Outlook, International Energy Agency (IEA); UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012: Challenges of Urban Transition. Nairobi, UN-Habitat, p 110.
88 Siemens. (2012). African Green City Index (AGCI):
Assessing the Environmental Performance of Africa’s Major Cities, Economist Intelligence Unit for Siemens, pp 43-45.
89 Ibid, pp 52-53.
90 Ibid, pp 88-89.
91 UN-Habitat (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012:
Challenges of Urban Transition. Nairobi, UN-Habitat, p 62-63; UN-Habitat (2010), The State of African Cities 2010, Nairobi, p 83.
92 Siemens. (2012). African Green City Index (AGCI):
Assessing the Environmental Performance of Africa’s Major Cities, Economist Intelligence Unit for Siemens, pp 42-43.
93 Ibid, p 54.
94 GUI. (2009). Global Urban Indicators – Selected Statistics: Monitoring the Habitat Agenda and the Millennium Development Goals, Global Urban Observatory, November 2009.
95 Siemens. (2012). African Green City Index (AGCI):
Assessing the Environmental Performance of Africa’s Major Cities, Economist Intelligence Unit for Siemens, p 42.
96 Ibid, p 47.
97 Ibid, p 54
98 Ibid, p 91.
99 Ibid, p 42.
100 UN-Habitat. (2012). The State of Arab Cities 2012:
Challenges of Urban Transition. Nairobi, UN-Habitat, p 112.
101 Afifi, R. (2011). “Youth as agents of change”, in Arab Youth: Civic Engagement and Economic Participation, UNESCO Regional Bureau in Beirut, pp. 8-12.
102 Doumit, G. (2011). “Economic systems in favour of social justice”, in Arab Youth: Civic Engagement and Economic Participation, UNESCO Regional Bureau in Beirut, pp. 26-31.
L’ETAT DES VILLES D’AFRIQUE DU NORD
ENDNOTES
103 Online: http://6april.org/english/
104 Heiderman, K. and Youssef, M. (eds.). (2012).
Reflections on women in the Arab Spring, Women’s Voices from Around the World, Middle East Programme Woodrow Wilson International Centre for Scholars, in Celebration of International Women’s Day 2012.
105 Ibid; Fernández, R.A.A, Ortega, O.M. (2011).
“Women’s rights in the Arab Spring: a chance to flourish, a risk of hibernation”, Revista de Estudios Juridicos, No. 11.
106. Siemens. (2012). African Green City Index (AGCI):
Assessing the Environmental Performance of Africa’s Major Cities, Economist Intelligence Unit for Siemens.
107. Abufayed, A.A. and Elkebir, A.A. (2010).
“Water Supply and Sanitation in Libya: Gap Analysis, National Needs Assessment and UNDP Interventions. Strategic Entry Points Identification.” Water Governance Program for Arab States. UNDP. Available at: www.wgpas-undp.org/Reports/NNA-Libya.pdf, accessed on 20 May, 2013.
108. European Union Water Initiative. (2009).
“Financing water supply and sanitation in the
Greater Cairo area” Egypt Country Dialogue on Water, April 2009, p 3
109. UN-Habitat (2011). State of the World’s Cities Report 2010/11: Bridging the Urban Divide. UN Habitat, London,.
110. Paciello, M. (2012). “Foreword”, in Reversing the Vicious Circle in North Africa’s Political Economy:
Confronting Rural, Urban and Youth Related Challenges, in Mediterranean Paper Series, May 2012
111. African Development Bank. (2012) African Economic Outlook: North African Countries, p 4.
112. IMF (2012). Middle East and North Africa:
Economic Outlook and Key Challenges.
Washington DC, 2012, pp 15-16.
113. African Development Bank. (2012). African Economic Outlook: North African Countries pp 90-91
114. Youssef Wardany. (2012). “The Mubarak Regime’s Failed Youth Policies and the January Uprising”, IDS Bulletin, vol 43, no 1, January 2012, pp 37-45
115. African Development Bank. (2012) African Economic Outlook: North African Countries p 34.
116. Furceri, Davide. (2012). Unemployment and Labor Market Issues in Algeria, IMF Working Paper
WP/12/99April 2012, p 4
117. African Development Bank. (2012). African Economic Outlook: North African Countries p 19.
118 Ibid, p 76.
119. Ibid, pp 64, 76.
120. Ibid, p 138.
121. UNEP (2012). “Mediterranean Action Plan. Initial Integrated Assessment of the Mediterranean Sea: Fulfilling Step 3 of the Ecosystem Approach Process.” Proceedings of the 17th Ordinary Meeting of the Contracting Parties to the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean and its Protocols. Paris. Accessed on 20 May, 2013.
122. Proceedings of the International workshop on the Impact of large coastal Mediterranean cities on Marine Ecosytems, Alexandria, Egypt – 10-12 February 2009. Accessed on 20 May 2013.
123. Ibid.
CHAPTER 3
Vue de Lagos (Nigeria) et des trois ponts la reliant au continent.
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