Ces dernières années, les tensions avec les militants islamiques se sont intensifiées en Afrique de l’Ouest. Al Qaeda au Maghreb islamique (AQMI) ou des groupes dans sa mouvance ont lancé une série d’enlèvements, d’attaques et d’attentats à la bombe au Sahel,246 outre le trafic de cocaïne à travers le Nord du Mali.247 L’ambassade de France au Mali, à Bamako, a été endommagée par une bombe en janvier 2011 et peu de temps après deux ressortissants français ont été enlevées à Niamey. Nouakchott a été bombardée en février 2011248 lors d’une tentative d’assassinat du président mauritanien.
Au Nigeria, Boko Haram (Jamaatul Ahjilsunnah lidawati wal Jihad) est responsable d’une série d’attentats à la bombe et de fusillades, visant par exemple des établissements de boisson mais aussi des lieux de culte chrétiens dans des villes de grandes et moyennes dimensions dans le Nord du pays. Dans les zones urbaines dominées par la religion, comme le quartier Jésus notre sauveur à Lagos, la ségrégation et l’intolérance religieuses peuvent exacerber les conflits (souvent pré-existants, d’origine historique ou ethnique). De nombreux jeunes exclus et sans emploi, qui dominent la démographie de la sous-région et de ses villes, constituent un terreau privilégié pour la radicalisation, qu’elle provienne d’extrémistes religieux ou ethniques, de bandes, du crime organisé ou des trafiquants de drogue ou d’êtres humains. L’inégalité est fortement liée à la violence sectaire et ethnique dans la région249 et tel est particulièrement le cas avec les inégalités qui, en ville, sont dues aux migrations.250
V
Un touareg d’AQMI, groupe qui cherche à contrôler de vastes étendues au Sahel ©Magharebia. Licence générique Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
CHAPITRE 3
ENDNOTES
1 Potts, D. (2012). “Whatever happened to Africa’s rapid urbanisation?” Africa Research Institute, Counterpoints, February 2012. p. 6 &
10.
2 Ibid, p. 3.
3 UNOWA (2007). Urbanization and Insecurity in West Africa. Population Movements, Mega Cities and Regional Stability, UNOWA Issue Papers, United Nations Office for West Africa (UNOWA), October 2007, p. 11.
4 Africapolis (undated), Urbanization Trends in West Africa 1950-2020. Available online www.
afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/PUBLICATIONS/
THEMATIQUES/autres-publications/BT/080 8ProjetFicheResumeeAfricapolisV4-en.pdf.
Accessed on: 13 May 2013, p. 2; Hitimana, L., Heinrigs, P., Trémolières, M. (2011). West African Futures: Settlement, Market and Food Security, Sahel and West Africa Club (SWAC) Secretariat/OECD, No. 1, June 2011, p. 1.
5 Bah, M., Cissé, S., Diyamett, B. Diallo, G., Lerise, F., Okali, D., Okpara, E., Olawoye, J., and Tacoli, C. (2003). Changing rural-urban linkages in Mali, Nigeria and Tanzania, Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 13-24, p. 15.
6 Ibid, p. 18.
7 Ibid, p. 20.
8 World Urbanization Prospects (2011). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2011 Revision, United Nations Departments of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), Population Division, April 2011.
9 Africapolis (undated). Africapolis: Urbanization Trends in West Africa 1950-2020, accessed from www.afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/
PUBLICATIONS/THEMATIQUES/autres-publications/BT/0808ProjetFicheResumeeAfrica polisV4-en.pdf on 13 May 2013.
10 World Urbanization Prospects (2011). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2011 Revision, United Nations Departments of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), Population Division, April 2011.
11 Ibid
12 AEO Western Africa (2012). African Economic Outlook 2012. Western African Countries, African Development Bank, Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD DEV), United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, p. 4-5.
13 Ibid, p. 4; IMF REO (2012). Regional Economic Outlook. Sub-Saharan Africa. Maintaining Growth in an Uncertain World, World Economic and Financial Services, International Monetary Fund (IMF), October 2012, website: www.imf.
org, p. 2.
14 Ibid, p. vii).
15 AEO Western Africa (2012). African Economic Outlook 2012. Western African Countries, African Development Bank, Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD DEV), United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, p. 4.
16 UNECA/AU ERA (2012). Economic Report on Africa 2012. Unleashing Africa’s Potential as a Pole of Economic Growth, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), African Union (AU) (Ethiopia: Addis Ababa), p.
37.
17 AEO Western Africa (2012). African Economic Outlook 2012. Western African Countries, African Development Bank, Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD DEV), United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, p. 5.
18 IMF REO (2012). Regional Economic Outlook.
Sub-Saharan Africa. Maintaining Growth in an Uncertain World, World Economic and Financial Services, International Monetary Fund (IMF), October 2012, website: www.imf.org, p. 2.
19 Schumacher, I. (2009). “Sierra Leone sees iron ore investment”, Miningmx, 18 September 2009, www.miningmx.com/news/ferrous_
metals/Sierra-Leone-sees-iron-ore-investment.
htm; Reuters (2011). “London Mining starts up Sierra Leone iron ore”, 2 December 2011, accessed from www.miningmx.com/news/
ferrous_metals/London-Mining-starts-up-Sierra-Leone-iron-ore.htm on 13 May 2013.
20 Reuters Online (2012). “Niger says more oil found in CNPC’s Agadem”, Reuters Online, 3 August 2012, accessed from http://
in.reuters.com/article/2012/08/03/niger-oil-idINL6E8J381420120803 on 13 May 2012;
Xe Currency and Forex News (2013). “China’s CNPC in Niger oil pact with Taiwan’s CPC”, Xe Currency and Forex News , accessed from www.xe.com/news/2013-03-29%20 00:44:00.0/3280865.htm on 13 May 2012.
21 ADB RISP (2011). Regional Integration Strategy Paper for West Africa 2011-2015, African Development Bank (ADB), African Development Fund, Regional Departments – West (ORWA/
ORWB), Regional Integration and Trade Department (ONRI), March 2011, p. i, 5.
22 Ibid, p. 5.
23 AEO Western Africa (2012). African Economic Outlook 2012. Western African Countries, African Development Bank, Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD DEV), United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, p. 4.
24 ADB RISP (2011). Regional Integration Strategy Paper for West Africa 2011-2015, African Development Bank (ADB), African Development Fund, Regional Departments – West (ORWA/
ORWB), Regional Integration and Trade Department (ONRI), March 2011, p. 5; see later section 3.6.1 and 3.6.2 on Emerging Issues.
25 Ibid, p. 5: see Graph 4: Source ADB Statistics
Department April 2011.
26 AEO Western Africa (2012). African Economic Outlook 2012. Western African Countries, African Development Bank, Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD DEV), United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, p. 5.
27 Ibid, p 6.
28 ADB RISP (2011). Regional Integration Strategy Paper for West Africa 2011-2015, African Development Bank (ADB), African Development Fund, Regional Departments – West (ORWA/
ORWB), Regional Integration and Trade Department (ONRI), March 2011,p. 9-10.
29 Ibid, p. 5: see Graph 4: Source ADB Statistics Department April 2011.
30 The multidimensional poverty index (MPI)
“looks at overlapping deprivations in health, education and standard of living … (t)he MPI is the product of the multidimensional poverty headcount (the share of people who are multidimensionally poor) and the average number of deprivations that each multidimensionally poor household experiences (the intensity of their poverty)”. Source: UNDP (2013). Human Development Report 2013.
The Rise of the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World, United Nations Development Programme, p. 27.
31 ADB (2011). African Development Bank. The Middle of the Pyramid: Dynamics of the Middle Class in Africa, Chief Economist Complex, African Development Bank, market Brief, April 20 2011, p. 2.
32 Ibid, p. 2.
33 UNDP (2011).Human Development Report 2011.
Sustainability and Equity: A Better Future for All, United Nations Development Programme, p.
143.
34 UNDP (2013). Human Development Report 2013. The Rise of the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World, United Nations Development Programme, p. 143 & 160.
35 ADB (2012). African Development Bank.
Statistical Yearbook 2012, African Development Bank (ADB), p. 47.
36 UNECA/AU ERA (2012). Economic Repofrt on Africa 2012. Unleashing Africa’s Potential as a Pole of Economic Growth, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), African Union (AU) (Ethiopia: Addis Ababa), p.
37.
37 AEO Western Africa (2012). African Economic Outlook 2012. Western African Countries, African Development Bank, Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD DEV), United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, p. 110.
38 These are the Islamist Ansar Dine and Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West
L’ETAT DES VILLES D’AFRIQUE DE L’OUEST
ENDNOTES
Africa (MOJWA) versus the separatist group National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA).
39 Ibid, p. 4.
40 Ismail. N. (2011). “Whether it comes from the West or rising powers like China, foreign direct investment has made a significant contribution to Western Africa’s economic development”.
Position paper for Centre for Security Studies (CSS), ETH Zurich, Switzerland.
41 Stearns, S. (2010). China and Nigeria Building Huge Free Trade Zone in Lagos, Voice of America, 2 September 2010, accessed from www.voanews.com/content/china-and- nigeria-building-huge-free-trade-zone-in-lagos-102148814/155724.html on 13 May 2013.
42 ECOWAS/WAEMU/EU(2008). European Community – West Africa. Regional Strategy Paper and Indicative Programme 2008-2013, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), European Union (EU), 30 July 2008, p. 17.
43 Ibid, p. 32.
44 UN-Habitat (2008). State of African Cities Report 2008: A Framework for Addressing Urban Challenges in Africa, Nairobi, p. p. 52.
45 ACET (2012). West African Trends Newsletter.
Special Issue: Reflections on 2011. A newsletter for the Rockefeller Foundation prepared by the African Centre for Economic Transformation (ACET), Issue 1 2012, p. 18.
46 ECOWAS/WAEMU/EU(2008). European Community – West Africa. Regional Strategy Paper and Indicative Programme 2008-2013, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), European Union (EU), 30 July 2008, p. 33, 54 & 60.
47 ADB RISP (2011). Regional Integration Strategy Paper for West Africa 2011-2015, African Development Bank (ADB), African Development Fund, Regional Departments – West (ORWA/
ORWB), Regional Integration and Trade Department(ONRI), March 2011, p. 8-9.
48 Ibid, p. 8-9.
49 Ibid, p. 8.
50 Ibid, p. 9.
51 Ibid, p. 14-19; Annex 1 in source.
52 Metzger, M. (2008). “Regional cooperation and integration in sub-Saharan Africa”, UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development), Discussion Paper No. 189, September 2008, p. 22.
53 ECOWAS/CSAO/SWAC/OECD (2006).
Migration, Atlas on Regional Integration in West Africa, Population Series, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Sahel West African Club (CSAO/SWAC), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), p. 13-15.
54 Ibid, p. 10.
55 Ibid, p. 13.
56 Potts, D. (2012). Whatever happened to Africa’s rapid urbanisation?, Africa Research Institute, Counterpoints, February 2012, p. 14.
57 ECOWAS/CSAO/SWAC/OECD (2006).
Migration, Atlas on Regional Integration in West Africa, Population Series, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Sahel West African Club (CSAO/SWAC), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), p. 13.
58 Ibid, p. 10.
59 ADB RISP (2011). Regional Integration Strategy Paper for West Africa 2011-2015, African Development Bank (ADB), African Development Fund, Regional Departments – West (ORWA/
ORWB), Regional Integration and Trade Department (ONRI), March 2011, p. 9.
60 This is a Gini-coefficient measure - which ranges from 0 to 1 and where 1 represents complete equality.
61 Ibid, p. 10.; no date was given by the source.
62 Herrera, K., C. Nordman, X Oudin and F.
Roubaud. (2011). “Informal Sector and Informal Employment: Overview of Data for 11 Cities in 10 Developing Countries.” In: WIEGO Urban Policies Research Report Resource Document.
Available at: http://wiego.org/sites/wiego.org/
files/publications/files/Herrera_WIEGO_WP9.
pdf, accessed 6 June 2013.
63 ADB RISP (2011). Regional Integration Strategy Paper for West Africa 2011-2015, African Development Bank (ADB), African Development Fund, Regional Departments – West (ORWA/
ORWB), Regional Integration and Trade Department (ONRI), March 2011, p. 10.
64 DiAL (2009). Decomposing Gender and Ethnic Earning Gaps in Seven West African Cities, Nordman Christophe, Robilliard Anne-Sophie and Roubaud Fancous (authors), DiAL Document de Travail DT/2003/09, p. 2.
65 ADB RISP (2011). Regional Integration Strategy Paper for West Africa 2011-2015, African Development Bank (ADB), African Development Fund, Regional Departments – West (ORWA/
ORWB), Regional Integration and Trade Department (ONRI), March 2011, p. 10.
66 Ibid, p. 5.
67 Olaseni, M. & Alade, W. (2012). “Vision 20:
2020 and the challenges of infrastructural development in Nigeria”, Journal of Sustainable Development, vol. 5, No. 2 February 2012, www.ccsenet.org/jsd, website: http://dx.doi.
org/10.5539/jsd.v5n2p63, p 63.
68 Ibid, p. 63.
69 Ogunlesi, T., (2012)., In Lagos, a BRT System Struggles to Make an Impact, Perspectives, No.
3.12, pp..24-26, p. 24.
70 Such as gender inequalities, drug production and trafficking on a global scale, political insecurity and conflict, tedious bureaucracies,
corruption, and socio-economic and ethnic segregation.
71 Fuwape, J.A. and Onyekwelu, J.C. (2011).
Urban forest development in West Africa:
benefits and challenges, Journal of Biodiversity and Ecological Sciences, vol. 1, No. 1, Issue 1, p. 87.
72 ICLEI CBO (2012). Cities and Biodiversity Outlook. Action and Policy. A Global Assessment of the Links Between Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI), Secretariat for the Convention on Biological Diversity, Stockholm Resilience Centre, p. 8.
73 Hodson, M., Marvin, S., Robinson, B. Swilling, M.(2012). “Reshaping urban infrastructure material flow analysis and transitions analysis in an urban context”, Journal of Industrial Ecology, In Press, website: www.wileyonlinelibrary.com/
journal/jie
74 IUCN (2004). “Réduire la vulnérabilité de l’Afrique de l’Ouest aux impacts du climat sur les ressources en eau, les zones humides et la desertification”, International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). In Sahel and West Africa Club (SWAC) (2008). Climate and Climate Change, Atlas on regional integration in West Africa, Environment Series, , ECOWAS-SWAC/OECD, January 2008, p. 14.
75 ECOWAS/ CSAO/SWAC/OECD (2008). Climate and Climate Change, Atlas on Regional Integration in West Africa, Environment Series, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Sahel West African Club (CSAO/
SWAC), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); In UNEP (2011).
Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 29 see Box 3.
76 Ibid, p. 1.
77 Ibid, p. 29, Box 3.
78 UNEP (2011). Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 30.
79 IFAD (2010). Addressing climate change in West and Central Africa, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).f
80 UNEP (2011). Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine) UNEP (2011). Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 30.
81 UNEP (2011). Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 31.
82 Ibid, p. 31.
CHAPITRE 3
ENDNOTES
83 Ibid, see Figure 4 from IPCC in source.
84 UNEP (2011). Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 35.
85 Ibid, p. 35.
86 Ibid, p. 35.
87 Ibid, p. 35.
88 Ibid, p. 35.
89 Sahel and West Africa Club (SWAC) (2008).
Climate and Climate Change, Atlas on Regional Integration in West Africa, Environment Series, ECOWAS-SWAC/OECD, p. 11, map 5, accessed from www.oecd.org/swac/
publications/40121025.pdf on 14 May 2013.
90 Boko, M., I. Niang, A. Nyong, C. Vogel, A.
Githeko, M. Medany, B. Osman-Elasha, R. Tabo and P. Yanda, (2007). Africa. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J., and Hanson, C.E. (eds.), Cambridge University Press, (UK: Cambridge), 433-467; UNEP (2011).
Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 39.
91 UNEP (2011). Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 46.
92 Ibid, p. 39.
93 Boko, M. et al (2007), p. 437.
94 IFAD (2010). Addressing climate change in West and Central Africa, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)., no page numbers in source.
95 Ibid
96 Ibid
97 ECOWAS/ CSAO/SWAC/OECD (2008). Climate and Climate Change, Atlas on Regional Integration in West Africa, Environment Series, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Sahel West African Club (CSAO/
SWAC), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), p. 19.
98 Ibid, p. 19.
99 AMAP SWIPA 2011; In UNEP (2011).
Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 47.
100 UNEP (2011). Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 47; Boko, M., I. Niang, A. Nyong, C. Vogel, A. Githeko, M. Medany, B. Osman-Elasha, R. Tabo and P. Yanda, (2007). Africa. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Contribution of
Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J., and Hanson, C.E. (eds.), Cambridge University Press, (UK:
Cambridge), 433-467; IFAD (2010). Addressing climate change in West and Central Africa, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)., no page numbers in source.
101 Boko, M., I. Niang, A. Nyong, C. Vogel, A.
Githeko, M. Medany, B. Osman-Elasha, R. Tabo and P. Yanda, (2007). Africa. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J., and Hanson, C.E. (eds.), Cambridge University Press, (UK: Cambridge), 433-467, p. 450.
102 Ibid, p. 451.
103 UNEP (2011). Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 47.
104 ECOWAS/ CSAO/SWAC/OECD (2008). Climate and Climate Change, Atlas on Regional Integration in West Africa, Environment Series, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Sahel West African Club (CSAO/
SWAC), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), p. 21.
105 Ibid, p. 22.
106 AGRHYMET 2010; In UNEP (2011). Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 38.
107 FAO GGC (2012). Growing Greener Cities in Africa. First Status Report on Urban and Peri-Urban Horticulture in Africa, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), p. 15.
108 UNEP (2011). Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 46.
109 Ibid, pp. 8, 54, 72
110 ECOWAS/ CSAO/SWAC/OECD (2008). Climate and Climate Change, Atlas on Regional Integration in West Africa, Environment Series, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Sahel West African Club (CSAO/
SWAC), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), p. 18.
111 Ibid, p. 34.
112 AGRHYMET 2010; In UNEP (2011). Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 34.
113 Ibid, p. 34.
114 FAO (Food & Agriculture Organization). (2008).
Food climate E-newsletter 2. Accessed from:
www.fao.org/climatechange/53883/en/ on 13 May 2013, December 2008. In UNEP (2011).
Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Mitigation and Conflict in the Sahel, United Nations Environment Programme (Geneva: Châtelaine), p. 34.
115 IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). (2007).Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J., and Hanson, C.E. (eds.), Cambridge University Press, (UK: Cambridge), 433-467. In ECOWAS/ CSAO/SWAC/OECD (2008). Climate and Climate Change, Atlas on Regional Integration in West Africa, Environment Series, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Sahel West African Club (CSAO/SWAC), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), p. 16.
116 World Bank (2012), Food Price Watch, Poverty Reduction and Equity Group, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management (PREM) Network, The World Bank, Volume 3, Issue 12, November 2012.
117 FAO GGC (2012). Growing Greener Cities in Africa. First Status Report on Urban and Peri-Urban Horticulture in Africa, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), p. 21.
118 Ibid, p. 24.
119 Ibid, p. 22.
120 Ibid, p. 24.
121 Drechsel, P., Graefe, S., Fink, M. (2007). “Rural-urban food, nutrient and virtual water flows in selected West African cities”, (IWMI Research Report 115), International Water Management Institute (Colombo: Sri Lanka), p. 15-16.
122 UNEP (2013) City-Level Decoupling: Urban resource flows and the governance of infrastructure transitions. A Report of the Working Group on Cities of the International Resource Panel. Swilling, M., Robinson, B., Marvin, S. and Hodson, M., p. 68.
123 Urban sustainability, as outlined by Professor Edgar Pieterse of the African Centre for Cities (ACC) at the University of Cape Town, is contingent on social, economic, ecological, physical (infrastructural, technological) and political sustainability (Pieterse 2011).
124 Eyoh, D. (2007). “Politics of urban identity in Anglophone Africa”, in Eyoh, D. and Stren, R.
(eds.) Decentralization and the Politics of Urban Development in West Africa, Comparative Urban Studies Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, pp. 117-134.
125 UNOWA (2007). Urbanization and Insecurity in West Africa. Population Movements, Mega Cities and Regional Stability, UNOWA Issue Papers, United Nations Office for West Africa (UNOWA), October 2007, p. 9-12.
126 Ibid, p. 15.
L’ETAT DES VILLES D’AFRIQUE DE L’OUEST
ENDNOTES
127 Ibid, p. 18.
128 ICG (2004). Liberia and Sierra Leone: Rebuilding Failed States, ICG (International Crisis Group) Africa Report No. 87, December 2004, p. 16;
In UNOWA (2007). Urbanization and Insecurity in West Africa. Population Movements, Mega Cities and Regional Stability, UNOWA Issue Papers, United Nations Office for West Africa (UNOWA), October 2007, p. 12)
129 UNOWA (2007). Urbanization and Insecurity in West Africa. Population Movements, Mega Cities and Regional Stability, UNOWA Issue Papers, United Nations Office for West Africa (UNOWA), October 2007, p. 35.
130 Diouf, M. (2007). “Social crises and political restructuring in West African cities”, in Eyoh, D. and Stren, R. (eds.) Decentralization and the Politics of Urban Development in West Africa, Comparative Urban Studies Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, pp.95-116., p. 105.
131 UN-Habitat (2008/9). State of the World’s Cities 2008/9: Harmonious Cities, United Nations Human Settlements Programme, UN HABITAT, London, Sterling, VA, p. 104.
132 UN-Habitat (2009). Global Urban Indicators – Selected Statistics: Monitoring the Habitat Agenda and the Millennium Development Goals. Available online: www.unhabitat.org/
downloads/docs/global_urban_indicators.pdf.
Table 9.
133 Stren. R. and Eyoh, D. (2007). Decentralisation and urban development in West Africa, in Eyoh, D. and Stren, R. (eds.) Decentralization and the Politics of Urban Development in West Africa, Comparative Urban Studies Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, pp.
1-24, p. 2.
134 That is, according to the Lagos State Traffic Management Authority (LASTMA); see Ogunlesi 2012, 25.
135 UN-Habitat (2009). Global Urban Indicators – Selected Statistics: Monitoring the Habitat Agenda and the Millennium Development Goals. Available online: www.unhabitat.org/
downloads/docs/global_urban_indicators.pdf.
Table 11.
136 WHO & UNICEF (2008). “A snapshot of drinking water and sanitation in Africa. A regional perspective based on new data from the WHO/
UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for water Supply and Sanitation”, prepared for AMCOM as a contribution to the 11th Summit of Heads of State and Government of the African Union, with special theme: Meeting the Millennium Development Goal on Water and Sanitation 30
UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for water Supply and Sanitation”, prepared for AMCOM as a contribution to the 11th Summit of Heads of State and Government of the African Union, with special theme: Meeting the Millennium Development Goal on Water and Sanitation 30