The L2 Motivational Self System

One possible answer to all these issues presented itself in the form of contemporary considerations in psychology, founded on the theory of possible selves (Higgins, 1987). To showcase the link between the key elements of the theory and the findings of the Hungarian study (for the final report see Dörnyei et al, 2006), Dörnyei (2010) explains:

[T]wo types of possible selves – the ideal self and the ought self – seemed particularly relevant (Higgins, 1987). The former refers to the representation of the attributes that someone would ideally like to possess (i.e. representation of hopes, aspirations or wishes), whereas the latter refers to the attributes that one believes one ought to possess (i.e. a representation of someone's sense of duty, obligations or responsibilities) and which therefore may bear little resemblance to desires or wishes. The motivational aspect of these self-guides was explained by Higgins's (1987, 1998) self discrepancy theory, postulating that motivation involves the desire for people to reduce the discrepancy between their actual and ideal/ought selves. (p. 78)

This interpretation meant, at a fundamental level, that integrativeness, any type of integrativesness, indicated an involvement of the learner’s self. In the Canadian context, this manifested itself, in its strong form, as a willingness to adopt characteristics associated with the L2 group or, in its weak form, as an assimilation of positive attitudes toward the target community. In the case of Hungarian learners, this explanation requires further broadening of the concept, diluting it to encompass general openness toward international issues and favorable disposition regarding foreigners and other cultures. However, this account of the phenomenon is far from perfect as it does not explain the unwavering strength of the variable.

On the basis of Higgins’s (1987) model, Dörnyei (2005) claimed that the integrative motive could be reinterpreted in terms of one’s future self-image, the ideal self. The notion stands for one’s vision of oneself, a collection of the attributes one envisions to possess in the future.

Regardless of the actual degree to which these characteristics feature in the vision, the strength of their influence depends on the intensity of the image. For instance, a learner with a strong vision of himself or herself as speakers of the L2 at a satisfactory level can experience higher levels of integration, and thus motivation, than one with a weak self-image of becoming a

highly proficient speaker. Upon consideration of such examples it becomes evident that the theory holds severe educational implications. Before I discuss these at length, however, let us examine the other elements of the model.

As expected of a composite framework, Dörnyei’s (2005) L2 Motivational Self System offers a learning-in-context view, as it centers around three key constructs, the dynamic interactions of which are to a great extent accountable for motivated learning behavior (for an overview cf.

Dörnyei, 2010). It is important to note that the model furthermore accommodates influences exerted by other variables, or a combination of these factors, on any of the central elements, rendering the application of the theory highly versatile. Further research into the reliability of the Self System relies exactly on these attributes and has revealed significant links to other fields of investigation. Therefore, the triad of variables that the model builds on can be considered as a stable and, at the same time, flexible guide.

The first and, as research conducted all around the world has indicated (see Dörnyei, 2010), most important of these factors is the ideal L2 self, which refers to the L2 specific part of the vision of one’s ideal future self. The model, therefore, interprets integrativeness partly in terms of this self-vision: learners with high integrative scores are, in fact, in possession of very concrete notions as to what level of linguistic competences they intend to acquire to fulfill their future personality goals. This, in turn, reflects powerful emotional ties to proficiency in the L2, as the strength of the desire to achieve such goals determines the driving force of the vision.

However, in accord with earlier hypotheses, the concepts included in learners’ ideal images of themselves as successful users of the L2 show strong links to the environments in which the language is acquired and used. As language learning and, especially, language use are inseparable of either the immediate or the broader social context, no investigation of learners’

Ideal L2 self is complete without taking into account the impact of environmental factors.

These influences, in the form of perceptions related to external influences, are represented in the model through the construct of the ought-to L2 self. This self-guide comprises of L2 related characteristics one thinks one should possess, in other words an image of oneself as a personality that adapts completely to the expectations put forth by one’s social environment.

The ought-to L2 self can, moreover, be associated with some of the motives earlier attributed to instrumentality, that is, the social and economic benefits proficiency in the L2 provides.

Indeed, closer examination of empirical data obtained from a series of projects in Japan and China revealed that while prevention-related aspects of instrumentality correlate strongly with

the ought-to L2 self, promotional drives, on the other hand, are part of the ideal L2 self.

Nonetheless, I must emphasize the fact that similarly to the ideal L2 self, the power of the ought-to L2 self lies not so much in the severity of the actual requirements the learner is faced with, but the importance he or she contributes to them.

From this respect the two self-guides shed light on a formerly unconsidered aspect of the internal-external dichotomy of language learning motivation. Learners’ perceptions are key to the definition of the concepts, and it is the place accorded to these perceptions in learners’

identity that determines the strength of the various motivational factors. Thus, depending on whether they are reflected in one’s personal future goals or rather as part of the expectations one feels one has to conform to, motivational factors are assigned these traditional labels by learners themselves throughout the process of self creation. Arguably this novel approach to internal and external influences places the two self-guides in a central role, with high expectations as to their influence on learner behavior.

Research shows that, in line with these considerations, the driving force exerted by these two aspects of one’s self image is indeed reflected in their relation to motivation. A list of studies investigating the correlation between the ideal L2 self and motivated learning behavior in order to testify the impact of one’s future self-vision on the actual effort invested in language learning can be found in Dörnyei and Ushioda (2009). While the significance of these papers is discussed in detail in the following subsection, there is one important point to make here concerning the interpretation of the findings they report on.

It can be argued, from the perspective of learner identity, that a strong ideal L2 self denotes, in fact, a significant L2-related component in one’s identity. It is, therefore, the need to express this identity and to live up to the standards set by this vision that results in increased involvement in developing skills in the L2. This argument goes beyond the boundaries of ethnolinguistic considerations and remains pertinent in any context. Thus further exploration of the factors loading into the ideal L2 self is inevitable in order to gain sufficient understanding of the construct and shed light on the underlying patterns behind the process of incorporating an L2 element into one’s self concept. On the other hand, the notion is to be applied with care, as it represents a complex process, and its application in research practice presupposes sound theoretical foundations.

To continue our overview of the key elements of the theory, it can be concluded that the L2 Motivational Self System offers a reinterpretation of the traditional intrinsic-extrinsic dichotomy, with the prospect of revealing a more intricate pattern of factors originating from these two directions and gaining power through their integration into learners’ identity. Based on my observations above, the ought-to L2 self can be theorized to impact the ideal L2 self, or, in accordance with the process of internalization, to partially or even fully load into it. Two questions arise in relation to this reasoning. The first of these, namely whether internalization results in elevated correlations between the two variables or a complete dissolution of the ought-to L2 self in the construct of the ideal L2 self, was one of the issues investigated in the studies discussed below. The second question, that of the origin of the extrinsic values involved in forming the two self-guides, however, was already addressed in the original model, in the form of the third central construct of the theory.

The third, not yet fully researched, pillar of the theory, the L2 learning experience covers the plethora of factors related to the immediate learning environment. Influences from the part of the teacher, peers and other social actors as well as the teaching material, course objectives and specific tasks and the curriculum are, among others, are gathered under the broad umbrella of the term (Dörnyei, 2010). In addition, learners’ experience of failure and success also constitutes an aspect of the drive. Dörnyei states that the L2 Learning Experience “is conceptualised at a different level from the two self-guides” (2009b,) and I believe the difficulty of tracking its influence consists exactly in its comprehensive nature discussed above.

As mentioned earlier, some features of the learning environment, such as perceived expectations, are also crucial elements of the ought-to L2 self, indicating that this last constituent of the model in fact might be described as a composite set of variables loading into various other factors, which in turn affect motivated learning behavior either directly or indirectly. Indeed, elements of the notion are apparent in both self-guides, which indicates the relevance of the learning context and hints at its potential as a predictor of both the ideal L2 self and the ought-to L2 self. It is questionable, though, whether statistical evidence can be found for the existence of one separate variable corresponding to as complex a construct as the L2 Learning Experience. From a psycholinguistic point of view, the impact of the educational milieu is clearly observable as a set of background factors (cf. Segalowitz et al, 2009), while its implications are the topic of much research and discussion in the field of pedagogy (cf. last section).

The profound relation of theory to practice becomes apparent in light of Dörnyei’s (2009a) account of the viewpoint the framework presents. In a recent overview of the model he writes,

“possible selves involve images and senses, approximating what people actually experience when they are engaged in motivated or goal-directed behavior” (2009b). This approach is especially important from a practical perspective, and it not only gives rise to pedagogical conclusions but also renders the model a valid guide to the mechanisms of L2 motivation.

Rooted in learners’ everyday experiences, possible selves are thus pliable to a wide range of influences, some of which can, to some extent, be monitored and even regulated in a classroom environment.

2.2.3.1 The L2 self and empirical evidence

In a 2009 volume Dörnyei and Ushioda (2009) set out to compile a collection of papers on research projects investigating the relevance of identity and the ideal L2 self in various learning contexts. The studies included in the book originate from a wide range of countries, including, among others, Japan and China, Iran and Saudi Arabia as well as Canada and Hungary. They also offer different approaches to the interpretation of the data, which often transcend original considerations related to the L2 Motivational Self System, thus contributing to a very productive trend in motivation research. Following the theoretical developments outlined above, a surpassingly rich pool of research findings emerged through empirical testing. My aim in discussing these findings here is twofold. Firstly, it is to investigate the applicability of the model in different language learning contexts and draw conclusions as to its potential relevance to the sample of Swiss university students in the present study. Secondly, a subsequent section is dedicated to the examination of the key elements of the model in relation to other well-established frameworks and theories and, especially, to proposing further directions both in terms of research questions and theoretical perspectives.

Since the L2 Motivational Self System was designed to accommodate all types of learning environment, partly due to the fact that the ideal L2 self was theorized to encompass a more general phenomenon than the strong version of integrativeness, it logically follows that the model would function in settings formerly identified as highly integrative in Gardner’s terms (1985). In order to test this hypothesis and compare the predictive value of both the integrative dimension and the ideal L2 self, MacIntyre et al. (2009) conducted quantitative studies of Canadian high school learners of French. Comparative analysis of a host of scales adopted from the AMTB (Attitude/Motivation Test Battery, Gardner & Smythe, 1981) and 18 items

centering around an L2 specific conceptualization of Higgins’s (1987) Self Discrepancy Theory found that possible selves were a single factor structure, in contrast to integrativeness, which was composed of 11 scales tapping into its 3 distinct components. Self-related items in the questionnaire were based on the work of Markus and Nurius (1986), whose writings were also seminal in the development of the L2 Motivational Self System (cf. Dörnyei, 2009b). The theory defines learning as a process of continuous development the starting point of which is the actual self and that has as target the learner’s future self. Therefore, the scales corresponding to the concept of possible selves describe facets of the ideal L2 self, as they aim to define learners’ vision of their future French-speaking selves through questions regarding desired characteristics associated with proficiency in French. Correlation analysis revealed that although the two notions tap into the same motivational processes, they do not define the same constructs. However, results showed that they can be considered complementary, accounting for different facets of the same phenomenon. Furthermore, while the accord between AMTB scales and motivation was greater, the scales of self-concepts demonstrated higher correlations with perceived competence in all but one instance. It is important to note that the AMTB was developed precisely in order to analyze motivational directions in contexts similar to the Canadian one, a fact which, along with its long history of development, might explain its close fit. Indeed, the authors emphasize that further studies are needed to adapt the new instrument and to refine the description of possible selves. In conclusion, the results of the study indicated that the integrative dimension produced a better fit as opposed to the scales employed to measure the influence of the ideal L2 self. On the other hand, the question remains whether the findings are related to the physical presence of a significant target language group, and thus whether the Ideal Self proves to be a better guide in foreign language settings.

Interestingly, Taguchi et al (2009) replicated the above findings almost exactly in China, Iran and Japan. A large-scale nationwide Japanese study (Ryan, 2009) yielded partly similar results, in addition to revealing a strikingly strong link between integrativeness and the ideal L2 self, while showing that the two concepts are nevertheless significantly different. The fact that the participants in these studies were learners of English renders the results only more remarkable.

In response to my initial query, Ryan argues that the two guides are in fact context-specific manifestations of the same emotional affiliation to values associated with the language and its speakers (2009). The unique global status of English, outlined in the previous section, lends this argument special importance, since foreign language learners perceive the target language group vastly differently from their peers in second language environment. As it was discussed

earlier, the presence of a tangible target community renders future membership possible, thus enabling learners to be driven by their goal of acceptance. However, where such a target community is expected to be not only distant but also very vaguely defined, the notion of integration becomes problematic.

On the other hand, the similarities between the two seemingly opposing constructs, instead of disqualifying, further confirm the hypothesis (Dörnyei & Csizér, 2002) that brought about the above mentioned second shift in paradigm describing language learning motivation as an assimilation of language-related values and behavior into one’s self concept. It can, therefore be argued that the integrative motive contains more elements related to the target community than does the ideal L2 self, while positive attitudes toward the language and the values it represents constitute a significant component of each guide. Dörnyei (2009) explains the fact that positive attitudes toward L2 speakers remain strong among FL learners as well by noting that speakers represent manifestations of the values incorporated in learners’ future self. Who these speakers are and what their role is in shaping learners’ self-concepts will be discussed in the next section of this chapter. The notion of imagined communities might provide some insights, since such images might be theorized to contribute to the construction of stable learner identities, which enable learners to keep their goals in sight. In conclusion, while integrativeness remains a better predictor of motivation and success in certain second language environments (MacIntyre et al., 2009), it can nonetheless be redefined as a form of identity creation, as its relation to the ideal L2 self suggests.

Nevertheless, as Ryan (2009) argues, the Japanese context represents a unique example, where the English taught throughout the different levels of education is completely stripped of its communicative function. The fact that the ideal L2 self proves to be a strong predictor of motivation in Japan (ibid.) raises the question whether its relevance can be generalized over a larger variety of more traditional FL contexts. It is therefore worth looking at the results of a similar study conducted in Hungary, where the target community, though arguably distant and almost exhaustively restricted to speakers from England and the United States of America, presents a central aspect of English language teaching.

In order to validate the theory as part of a larger framework, Csizér and Kormos (2009) investigated the validity of a set of scales based on the three components of Dörnyei’s (2009b) L2 Motivational Self System, and the relations among these variables and motivated learning behavior. Applying previously standardized scales, piloted and tested for internal consistency,

they collected questionnaire data from a criterion-based sample representing students learning English at both secondary and tertiary level of education, in the capital city of Budapest.

Analysis of correlation coefficients identified three distinct variables that interacted with each other only to a small extent, thus confirming the existence of the three separate components of the selfsystem. Moreover, the SEM model emerging for both subsamples partly verified the initial hypotheses, since two components of the system contributed significantly to motivated learning behavior. On the other hand, while both the ought-to L2 self and learning experience showed low regression values toward the ideal L2 self, there was no further connection among the variables. Despite the high internal reliability of the scale, the ought-to L2 self remained

Analysis of correlation coefficients identified three distinct variables that interacted with each other only to a small extent, thus confirming the existence of the three separate components of the selfsystem. Moreover, the SEM model emerging for both subsamples partly verified the initial hypotheses, since two components of the system contributed significantly to motivated learning behavior. On the other hand, while both the ought-to L2 self and learning experience showed low regression values toward the ideal L2 self, there was no further connection among the variables. Despite the high internal reliability of the scale, the ought-to L2 self remained