L2 selves and motivation at the University of Geneva: a study of language learning in social and economic contexts

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Thesis

Reference

L2 selves and motivation at the University of Geneva: a study of language learning in social and economic contexts

CSILLAGH, Virag

Abstract

Cette thèse porte sur une étude quantitative qui avait pour objectif d'explorer les attitudes et la motivation des étudiants envers l'anglais langue étrangère dans le contexte multilingue de Genève. Dans ce but, la recherche a adopté une approche basée sur les aspects identitaires de l'apprentissage des langues (les L2 selves), en s'interrogeant sur la pertinence et l'utilité de ces derniers dans le contexte genevois. Cette perspective a apporté des résultats inattendus et a mené à des questions importantes dans l'enseignement des langues, concernant notamment l'identité, les représentations sociales et les valeurs économiques associées aux langues étrangères. Basé sur des données quantitatives obtenues d'une enquête numérique, le projet met l'accent également sur l'influence motivationnelle des contextes multiples avec lesquels les étudiants interagissent. La thèse argumente pour une perspective dynamique et contextuelle de l'apprentissage de langues qu'elle définit en termes de création d'une identité langagière. Cette approche, inspirée par des développements récents dans le domaine de [...]

CSILLAGH, Virag. L2 selves and motivation at the University of Geneva: a study of language learning in social and economic contexts. Thèse de doctorat : Univ. Genève, 2020, no. L. 975

DOI : 10.13097/archive-ouverte/unige:143601 URN : urn:nbn:ch:unige-1436018

Available at:

http://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:143601

Disclaimer: layout of this document may differ from the published version.

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L2 selves and motivation at the University of Geneva:

a study of language learning in social and economic contexts THÈSE

présentée à la Faculté des lettres de l’Université de Genève

par

Virág Csillagh

sous la direction de prof. Claire Forel et prof. François Grin

pour l’obtention du grade de Docteur ès lettres

Octobre 2020

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Cette thèse porte sur une étude quantitative qui avait pour objectif d’explorer les attitudes et la motivation des étudiants envers l’anglais langue étrangère dans le contexte multilingue de Genève. Dans ce but, la recherche a adopté une approche basée sur les aspects identitaires de l’apprentissage des langues (les L2 selves), en s’interrogeant sur la pertinence et l’utilité de ces derniers dans le contexte genevois. Cette perspective a apporté des résultats inattendus et a mené à des questions importantes dans l’enseignement des langues, concernant notamment l’identité, les représentations sociales et les valeurs économiques associées aux langues étrangères. Basé sur des données quantitatives obtenues d’une enquête numérique, le projet met l’accent également sur l’influence motivationnelle des contextes multiples avec lesquels les étudiants interagissent. La thèse argumente pour une perspective dynamique et contextuelle de l’apprentissage de langues qu’elle définit en termes de création d’une identité langagière.

Cette approche, inspirée par des développements récents dans le domaine de la motivation, semble essentielle pour une interprétation complète des résultats. Ceux-ci, en effet, démontrent que des éléments sociaux et économiques, liés aux « sphères » contextuelles locales ainsi que globales auxquelles les étudiants participent, se reflètent dans leurs attitudes langagières et dans leur concept de soi. Les différences significatives entre participants suisses et étrangers et entre étudiants de différentes facultés de l’Université de Genève soulignent ces constats. Ces conclusions attestent l’importance des L2 selves, qui permettent de bien comprendre non seulement l’apprentissage des langues dans ses contextes différents et continuellement en interaction dynamique mais également l’apprenant, en tant qu’individu qui interagit activement avec son environnement. Ainsi, les résultats de cette recherche sont indicatifs du potentiel des approches théoriques tenant compte de ces dynamismes ainsi que des nouvelles méthodologies de la recherche en motivation qui seraient mieux adaptées. Enfin, ils offrent des retombées didactiques importantes pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage d’une langue « mondiale » dans un contexte plurilingue.

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This dissertation reports on a quantitative survey study investigating Swiss university students’

attitudes and motivation toward English as a foreign language in multilingual Geneva. In order to do so, the study applied a self-based approach, examining the relevance and applicability of the L2 selves in the Geneva context. This approach led to some unexpected results that raised questions of identity, social representations and economic value in foreign language learning.

Based on quantitative data obtained through an online questionnaire, the project also placed special emphasis on the motivational influence of the multitude of contexts in which learners and users participate. This dissertation argues that a dynamic, contextually enhanced view of language learning as an aspect of identity creation, inspired by the latest developments in L2 motivation theory and research, is essential for a meaningful interpretation of the survey results.

Indeed, the findings indicate that elements of the social and economic spheres, both local and global, with which participants interact are reflected in their language attitudes and their self- concept. This is underlined by significant differences between Swiss and foreign students and among participants enrolled at different faculties of the University of Geneva. These conclusions testify to the importance of the L2 selves as a means to understanding language learning in its various, dynamically interacting, contexts and language learners as individuals who actively navigate and shape their environment. They are also suggestive of the potential of theoretical approaches that take these dynamics into account and highlight the need for new, emerging, methodologies in L2 motivation that can further such investigations. Last but not least, they offer important insights into the pedagogical implications of teaching and learning a global language in a plurilingual environment.

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Working on this project, I often found myself facing unfamiliar challenges. Fortunately, I met some amazing people along this journey, without whose kindness and help this work would not have been possible. I know I will never be able to thank them enough, nor the friends who supported me in this venture as in so many others before. Nonetheless, I would like to express my gratitude and address this work to them all.

First of all, I would like to thank my supervisors for accepting me and my slightly (?) unorthodox ideas, and for their continued support and patience. Professor Claire Forel, at the Department of English language and literature, there are no words to express how grateful I am for your unrelenting professionalism and infinite compassion, which always kept me on the right track. Thank you so much for the inspiration and the reality checks.

None of my results would make sense without the insights I received from Professor François Grin, my co-supervisor at the Faculty of Translation and Interpreting. I will forever be indebted to you for the new vistas your comments have opened up for my research and for pointing out the weaknesses of my original design that only your experienced eyes could identify. Thank you for sharing this logical, quantifiable world view with me.

Secondly, I owe so much to the colleagues and senior researchers on whom I could always rely for wisdom and motivation. Dr. Stephen Ryan, thank you for being such an inspiring mentor in my early days as a young researcher and for answering all those inexperienced questions.

Dr. Kata Csizér, I owe my interest in and love for statistics to you and I am grateful for your help pointing me in the right direction once more. I would also like to thank Dr. Eva Waltermann, whose friendship and collaboration have meant so much to me over the past years.

Moreover, my special thanks go to the Deans and the heads of various associations for their help administering the questionnaire. In the same vein, Brigitte Gerber and my amazing pilot participants, Delphine, Fabian, Karine, Lucas, and Natasha, thank you all for your patient help with my French. I am also thankful to my students, in all walks of life, for the challenging and thought-provoking discussions that made me ask so many of my own questions and that finally led to this research.

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throughout all these years and were always ready to offer their support. I would like to mention my mother, whose world of many languages has undoubtedly always inspired me and whose sharp editorial eyes have been such an invaluable help. To David, my husband, I can only promise that from now on I will live outside of my office too. And that I will forever be grateful for your silent support that spoke volumes to me. Finally, heartfelt thanks to my daughter, Ariana, whose incredibly warm heart and witty sense of humor kept me smiling through the toughest of times.

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Résumé ... 3

Abstract ... 4

Acknowledgements ... 5

Contents ... 7

List of Tables ... 13

List of Figures ... 16

List of Abbreviations ... 19

Chapter 1 Introduction ... 22

1.1 The UNIGE project ... 23

1.1.1 Questions asked ... 24

1.1.2 Tools of investigation ... 25

1.1.3 Complex answers ... 25

1.2 This dissertation ... 26

1.2.1 Aims ... 26

1.2.2 Organization ... 27

1.2.3 To the reader ... 28

Chapter 2 Theory and context ... 30

2.1 Current challenges in (researching) language learning and teaching ... 30

2.1.1 English as a global language: implications for teaching and learning ... 30

2.1.2 Native speakers: disappearing role models? ... 35

2.1.3 Learner identity in a globalized world ... 37

2.2 Language learning motivation ... 40

2.2.1 Dualities in language learning motivation ... 40

2.2.2 A brief history of early L2 motivation theory ... 41

2.2.2.1 The socio-educational model ... 42

2.2.2.2 Cognitive-situated theories ... 43

2.2.2.3 Toward dynamic approaches to motivation ... 48

2.2.3 The L2 Motivational Self System ... 50

2.2.3.1 The L2 self and empirical evidence ... 54

2.2.3.2 Further motivational factors: a broader framework... 59

2.2.3.3 Words of caution ... 63

2.2.4 Alternative dynamic theories ... 64

2.3 Swiss language learners: individuals in multiple contexts ... 68

2.3.1 The linguistic context: “speaking Swiss” ... 69

2.3.2 The social context: Swiss plurilingualism ... 73

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2.3.4 The economic context: language skills at market ... 77

2.3.5 Social representations of English and German ... 78

2.4 Studying the economic context: insights from language economics ... 80

2.4.1 A system of values ... 81

2.4.2 Language education and economic efficiency ... 82

2.4.3 Efficiency in L2 motivation ... 85

2.4.4 Love or money? Economic value in L2 motivation theory ... 89

2.4.5 The potential of an interdisciplinary approach ... 95

2.5 Brief summary of the background of the study ... 96

Chapter 3 Research methods ... 100

3.1 A foreword on methodology ... 100

3.2 Research design ... 100

3.3 The questionnaire ... 101

3.3.1 Part I: Demographics ... 101

3.3.2 Part II: Language skills and use... 103

3.3.3 Part III: Language attitudes ... 105

3.3.4 Comments ... 106

3.4 Attitudinal variables included in the study ... 106

3.4.1 Motivated learning behavior ... 108

3.4.2 The ideal L2 Self ... 109

3.4.3 The ought-to L2 Self ... 110

3.4.4 Attitudes to learning English ... 111

3.4.5 Attitudes toward traditional target groups ... 112

3.4.6 International posture ... 115

3.4.7 Ethnocentrism ... 116

3.4.8 Global village ... 117

3.4.9 Willingness to communicate ... 119

3.4.10 Perceived importance of contact ... 120

3.4.11 Direct contact ... 121

3.4.12 Principal component analysis of the main scales ... 127

3.5 Piloting ... 131

3.6 Data collection ... 132

3.6.1 Sampling ... 132

3.6.2 The online survey ... 135

3.7 Participants ... 138

3.7.1 Sample and target population ... 138

3.7.2 Age and gender ... 139

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3.7.4 Level of instruction... 142

3.7.5 Place of secondary education ... 144

3.7.6 Work experience ... 152

3.7.7 Language proficiency: mother tongues ... 152

3.7.8 Language proficiency: foreign languages ... 156

3.7.9 Representativeness ... 158

3.8 Analysis ... 160

3.8.1 Data cleaning and reduction ... 160

3.8.2 Statistical analysis ... 162

3.8.3 Contextual analysis ... 165

3.9 Advantages and limitations of the research design ... 166

3.9.1 Advantages ... 166

3.9.2 Main challenges ... 168

3.9.3 Limitations... 170

Chapter 4 Results ... 174

4.1 From data to results ... 174

4.2 Presentation of the results ... 174

4.3 Insights from the language data: a context of true plurilingualism ... 175

4.3.1 Mother tongues ... 175

4.3.2 Foreign languages ... 180

4.3.3 Language use... 191

4.3.4 Testing for significance ... 198

4.3.5 Gender differences ... 199

4.3.6 Swiss students and foreigners... 201

4.3.7 Language skills at the four faculties ... 206

4.4 Attitudes and selves: a basic analysis of UNIGE students’ perceptions of English ... 207

4.4.1 A first glance at the survey results ... 213

4.4.3 Differences in motivation ... 216

4.4.4 The ideal L2 self ... 217

4.4.5 Stronger and weaker future self-guides ... 219

4.4.6 The ought-to L2 self ... 220

4.4.7 The changing importance of a socially constructed self ... 222

4.4.9 Different learning experience ... 226

4.4.10 Attitudes toward traditional native speaker target groups ... 227

4.4.11 Varying interest in native speaker cultures... 232

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4.4.13 Slight differences in international openness... 237

4.4.15 Low levels of ethnocentrism through all subsamples ... 240

4.4.16 The global village ... 241

4.4.17 Few differences among aspiring global citizens ... 244

4.4.19 Some more willing to use English ... 247

4.4.21 Language skills and the importance of using English ... 251

4.4.23 Factors related to direct contact with English ... 262

4.4.24 Findings of the descriptive analysis ... 266

4.5 Mapping relationships: correlation analysis ... 267

4.5.2 The ideal L2 self ... 270

4.5.3 The ought-to L2 self ... 272

4.5.5 Attitudes to traditional target groups ... 274

4.5.7 The global village ... 277

4.5.12 Swiss students and foreigners... 285

4.5.13 Correlations at the different faculties ... 288

4.5.14 Summary of the correlation analysis ... 296

4.6 Predicting motivated learning behavior through stepwise multiple regression ... 297

4.6.3 The ideal and ought-to self-guides... 302

4.6.5 Traditional native speaker target groups ... 310

4.6.7 The community of world citizens ... 312

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4.7.1 The complete schematic model ... 316

4.7.2 Swiss students ... 321

4.7.3 Foreign participants ... 324

4.7.4 University students in Hungary ... 327

4.8 Limitations and applicability of the results ... 328

Chapter 5 Discussion ... 332

5.1 Introduction: A story of research-in-context ... 332

5.2 Language diversity and plurilingualism: life in many languages ... 334

5.2.1 First, second and sixth languages... 335

5.2.2 Language use in context(s) ... 338

5.2.3 Swiss official languages ... 342

5.2.4 The role of English in the sample ... 344

5.2.5 Lessons from the language data ... 346

5.3 English-speaking selves and learning attitudes: the L2 Motivational Self System in the Geneva context 347 5.3.1 UNIGE students’ English-speaking selves ... 348

5.3.2 Participants’ experience as learners of English and its power to shape their future attitudes 357 5.4 Selves in a complex system: the final model of participants’ L2 motivation ... 361

5.4.1 Motivation as a criterion measure ... 363

5.4.2 Native speaker communities and international openness ... 365

5.4.3 Communication and language learning ... 375

5.4.4 Ethnocentrism, the odd one out ... 381

5.4.5 Complex and contextually driven... 383

5.5 Through a “shifting lens”: selves in multiple contexts ... 386

5.5.1 Context matters: Swiss students and foreigners ... 387

5.5.2 Global and local selves ... 403

5.5.3 Homo economicus, the economic self ... 406

5.5.4 Complex and dynamic selves ... 407

5.6 Economic motives, motivational economics ... 408

5.6.1 A return to economic concepts in L2 motivation theory ... 409

5.6.2 Economic factors in the study ... 412

5.6.3 L2 selves, language skills and economic value in the Geneva sample ... 418

5.6.4 Signs of an efficient system ... 422

5.7 Researching the L2 selves in context ... 428

Chapter 6 Conclusion ... 432

6.1 Research questions and hypotheses ... 432

6.1.1 Questions and hypotheses ... 433

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6.2 Methods and challenges ... 434

6.2.1 The quantitative data ... 434

6.2.2 An interdisciplinary toolset ... 435

6.3 Answers ... 437

6.3.1 A multilayered model of UNIGE students’ motivation to learn English ... 437

6.3.2 Contextual influences in the survey data ... 438

6.3.3 The L2 selves at the center of a complex and dynamic system ... 438

6.4 Lessons and limitations ... 440

6.4.1 Benefits of the research ... 440

6.4.2 Limitations and challenges ... 441

6.5 The way ahead ... 443

6.5.1 Questions and tools for future research ... 443

6.5.2 Teaching and learning English in context ... 445

6.6 Final thoughts ... 447

References ... 448

Appendices ... 462

Appendix 1 The survey questionnaire ... 462

Appendix 2 Participants’ comments on the questionnaire ... 481

Appendix 3 Linguistic diversity in the sample ... 483

Appendix 4 Language skills across subsamples ... 485

Appendix 5 Language attitudes across subsamples ... 503

Index ... 523

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Table 2.1 Correlations between independent variables and intended effort (Dörnyei & Csizér, 2002)... 46

Table 2.2 A system of values, adapted from Grin (2003) ... 81

Table 3.1 Number of items, reliability scores and mean values for the attitudinal scales ... 108

Table 3.2 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the motivated learning behavior scale ... 109

Table 3.3 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the ideal L2 Self scale ... 110

Table 3.4 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the ought-to L2 Self scale ... 111

Table 3.5 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the attitudes to learning English scale ... 112

Table 3.6 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the attitudes toward target groups scale ... 113

Table 3.7 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item on attitudes toward the English ... 114

Table 3.8 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item on attitudes toward Americans ... 114

Table 3.9 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the international posture scale ... 116

Table 3.10 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the ethnocentrism scale ... 117

Table 3.11 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the global village scale ... 119

Table 3.12 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the willingness to communicate scale ... 120

Table 3.13 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the perceived importance of contact scale . 121 Table 3.14 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the direct contact scale ... 123

Table 3.15 Principal Component Analysis (Rotated Factor Matrix^a) for the direct contact scale ... 124

Table 3.16 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the written contact sub-scale ... 125

Table 3.17 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the direct contact sub-scale ... 126

Table 3.18 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the social & media sub-scale ... 127

Table 3.19 Reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each item in the Secondary contact sub-scale ... 127

Table 3.20 Principal Component Analysis (Rotated Factor Matrix^a) of the main attitudinal scales ... 129

Table 3.21 Number of students per faculty at the university in 2013 compared to the number of participants in the study ... 142

Table 3.22 Participants per faculty and level of instruction ... 143

Table 3.23 Participants per place of secondary education and level of instruction ... 144

Table 3.24 Number of participants per place of secondary education and faculty ... 146

Table 3.25 Number of students per place of secondary education ... 148

Table 3.26 Number of students per place of secondary education ... 151

Table 3.27 Number of participants per number of languages spoken ... 153

Table 3.28 Number of participants per number of mother tongues ... 155

Table 3.29 Number of participants per number of foreign languages spoken ... 156

Table 3.30 Number of participants per number of languages studied at the moment ... 157

Table 4.1 Number of responses for the items on foreign language proficiency and learning ... 182

Table 4.2 Participants per mother tongue and number of foreign languages spoken ... 183

Table 4.3 Number of participants per foreign language combination... 183

Table 4.4 Number of responses per level... 186

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Table 4.6 Average L2 levels at the four faculties. 0-7, all students. Mean, number of responses and standard

deviation ... 191

Table 4.7 Descriptive statistics for overall language use, all speakers. ... 191

Table 4.8 Language use in different contexts ... 193

Table 4.9 Frequency of language use per language, context and place of secondary education ... 195

Table 4.10 T-test results for significant differences based on gender ... 200

Table 4.11 T-test results for significant differences based on place of secondary education ... 201

Table 4.12 Residuals based on foreign language skills and place of secondary education... 205

Table 4.13 Residuals based on language use and place of secondary education ... 205

Table 4.14 Frequency values for each item in the questionnaire, number and percentage of answers ... 209

Table 4.15 Number of responses in each category, items with the highest rate of indifference ... 214

Table 4.16 Motivated learning behavior, descriptive statistics ... 215

Table 4.17 Ideal L2 self, descriptive statistics ... 218

Table 4.18 Ought-to L2 self, descriptive statistics ... 220

Table 4.19 Results on the ought-to L2 self scale per faculty. Full sample. ... 224

Table 4.20 Attitudes to learning English, descriptive statistics ... 225

Table 4.21 Ideal L2 self, descriptive statistics ... 228

Table 4.22 Differences in the perception of native speaker target groups ... 229

Table 4.23 Attitudes toward traditional target groups, distribution of responses across option categories, per item ... 231

Table 4.24 international posture, descriptive statistics ... 236

Table 4.25 international posture, descriptive statistics ... 239

Table 4.26 Global village, descriptive statistics ... 242

Table 4.27 Willingness to communicate, descriptive statistics... 245

Table 4.28 Perceived importance of contact, descriptive statistics ... 249

Table 4.29 Direct contact, descriptive statistics ... 253

Table 4.30 Descriptive statistics compared between English learners and students not currently studying the language ... 263

Table 4.31 Descriptive statistics compared among the different faculties ... 265

Table 4.32 Attitudinal scales, descriptive statistics ... 266

Table 4.33 Correlations among the attitudinal scales, Pearson’s coefficients ... 268

Table 4.34 Pearson’s correlational coefficients for direct contact and the key variables ... 282

Table 4.35 Pearson’s coefficients for motivated learning behavior and the key variables ... 285

Table 4.36 Pearson’s coefficients for learning attitudes and international aspects of English ... 286

Table 4.37 Pearson’s coefficients between motivated learning behavior and the other variables at the four faculties ... 289

Table 4.38 Pearson’s coefficients between the ought-to L2 self and the other variables at the four faculties .... 290

Table 4.39 Pearson’s coefficients between the ideal L2 self and the other variables at the four faculties ... 291

Table 4.40 Pearson’s coefficients between learning attitudes and the other variables at the four faculties ... 292

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Table 4.42 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the criterion measure of motivated learning behavior. Full sample. ... 299 Table 4.43 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the criterion measure of motivated

learning behavior, Place of secondary education. ... 300 Table 4.44 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the dependent variable of learning

attitudes. Full sample. ... 301 Table 4.45 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the dependent variable of learning

attitudes, Place of secondary education. ... 302 Table 4.46 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the dependent variables of the ideal and

ought-to L2 selves. Full sample. ... 303 Table 4.47 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the dependent variable of the ideal L2 self.

Place of secondary education. ... 304 Table 4.48 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the dependent variable of the ought-to L2

self. Place of secondary education. ... 305 Table 4.49 Regression figures showing the alternative model for the dependent variable of the ought-to L2 self

Swiss subsample. ... 307 Table 4.50 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the dependent variable of willingness to

communicate. Full sample. ... 308 Table 4.51 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the dependent variable of willingness to

communicate. Place of secondary education. ... 309 Table 4.52 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the dependent variable of attitudes to

target groups. Full sample. ... 311 Table 4.53 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the dependent variable of international

posture. Full sample. ... 312 Table 4.54 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the dependent variable of world

citizenship. Full sample. ... 313 Table 4.55 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the dependent variable of direct contact.

Full sample. ... 313 Table 4.56 Regression figures showing the model with the best fit for the dependent variable of perceived

importance of contact. Full sample. ... 314 Table 5.1 Language use if different contexts. Number of responses per language per category. ... 338

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Figure 2.1 Projected numbers of English learners (millions, graphic reproduced from Graddol, 2006, pp. 98-99)

... 32

Figure 2.2 A schematic representation of the interaction between L2 WTC, International Posture and English Proficiency (Yashima, 2009) ... 63

Figure 2.3 Geographical distribution of national languages in the Swiss municipalities (published in Lüdi and Werlen, 2005) ... 70

Figure 2.4 Distribution of speakers of English as a main language in the Swiss municipalities (published in Lüdi and Werlen, 2005) ... 72

Figure 2.5 First foreign languages first taught at Swiss schools (published in La Suisse : la répartition des langues) ... 76

Figure 2.6 Board used for the cue sort task (Csillagh and Waltermann, to be published) ... 79

Figure 2.7 Schematic representation of economic efficiency, based on Grin (2003) ... 83

Figure 2.8 Schematic representation of internal and external efficiency in an economic system and in language education (MLB stands for motivated learning behavior) ... 87

Figure 3.1 Excerpt from the online questionnaire. Screenshot of the first six items on direct contact ... 136

Figure 3.2 Number of participants according to age ... 140

Figure 3.3 Number of UNIGE students according to age ... 140

Figure 3.4 Number of participants per gender and faculty ... 141

Figure 3.5 Programs offered at the University of Geneva (translated from www.unige.ch) ... 143

Figure 3.6 The population of UNIGE students as compared to the sample: distribution through faculties and levels of instruction ... 144

Figure 3.7 Participants per place of secondary education and level of instruction ... 145

Figure 3.8 Students at UNIGE per place of secondary education and level of instruction ... 146

Figure 3.9 Participants per place of secondary education and faculty ... 147

Figure 3.10 Students at UNIGE per place of secondary education and faculty or institute ... 147

Figure 3.11 Swiss participants by place of upper secondary education, distribution per canton ... 149

Figure 3.12 Distribution of Swiss students across language regions ... 149

Figure 3.13 Proportions of students per language region per faculty ... 150

Figure 3.14 Male and female participants by place of upper secondary education, distribution per canton ... 151

Figure 3.15 Proportions of participants per professional activity and faculty ... 153

Figure 3.16 Number of responses per mother tongue ... 155

Figure 3.17 Proportions of participants per number of languages in the different categories ... 158

Figure 4.1 Number of mother tongues reported by speakers of different L1s ... 176

Figure 4.2 Responses per combination of mother tongues ... 177

Figure 4.3 Responses per mother tongue, compared by gender ... 178

Figure 4.4 Responses per mother tongue, compared by place of secondary education ... 179

Figure 4.5 Responses per mother tongue, compared by faculty ... 180

Figure 4.6 Number of responses per foreign language, grouped by mother tongue ... 180

Figure 4.7 Number of responses per mother tongues, grouped by L2 proficiency ... 181

Figure 4.8 Participants per foreign language, compared by place of secondary education ... 184

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Figure 4.11 Foreign language levels. Number of responses per level. Full sample ... 186

Figure 4.12 German as a foreign language levels per place of secondary education. Number of responses per level... 187

Figure 4.13 Italian as a foreign language levels per place of secondary education. Number of responses per level ... 189

Figure 4.14 French as a foreign language levels per place of secondary education. Number of responses per level... 189

Figure 4.15 English as a foreign language levels per place of secondary education. Number of responses per level... 189

Figure 4.16 Frequency of language use in different contexts ... 192

Figure 4.17 Frequency of language use at different faculties ... 194

Figure 4.18 Frequency of language use per language, context and place of secondary education ... 197

Figure 4.19 French L2 levels at the four faculties ... 207

Figure 4.20 Motivated learning behavior, number of responses per option, per item ... 216

Figure 4.21 Ideal L2 self, number of responses per option, per item ... 218

Figure 4.22 Ought-to L2 self, number of responses per option, per item ... 221

Figure 4.23 Attitudes to learning English, number of responses per option, per item ... 225

Figure 4.24Attitudes toward traditional target groups, number of responses per option, per item ... 230

Figure 4.25 Attitudes toward traditional target groups, mean values per item and subscale ... 232

Figure 4.26 Attitudes toward traditional target groups, number of responses per option, per item ... 237

Figure 4.27 Ethnocentrism, number of responses per option, per item ... 240

Figure 4.28 Global village, number of responses per option, per item ... 243

Figure 4.29 Global village, number of responses per option, per item ... 246

Figure 4.30 Perceived importance of contact, number of responses per option, per item ... 250

Figure 4.31 Direct contact, items arranged by means and color coded by subscale ... 256

Figure 4.32 Direct contact, number of responses per option, per item ... 257

Figure 4.33 Subscale on social networks, film and TV, number of responses per option, per item ... 258

Figure 4.34 Subscale on reading, writing and studying, number of responses per option, per item ... 259

Figure 4.35 Subscale on traveling and talking to foreigners, number of responses per option, per item ... 260

Figure 4.36 Subscale on English as a conversation topic, number of responses per option, per item ... 261

Figure 4.37 Schematic representation of the final regression model. Full sample. Key relationships. Dotted line shows negative influence. ... 316

Figure 4.38 Simplified structure of the three levels of motivational influences. Full sample. ... 319

Figure 4.39 Schematic representation of the final regression model. Full sample. Complete with interrelationships. Dotted lines indicate negative influence. ... 320

Figure 4.40 Simplified structure of the three levels of motivational influences. Swiss subsample ... 321

Figure 4.41 Schematic representation of the final regression model. Swiss sample. Key relationships. Dotted lines indicate negative influence. ... 322

Figure 4.42 Simplified structure of the three levels of motivational influences. Foreign subsample. ... 324

Figure 4.43 Schematic representation of the final regression model. Foreign sample. Key relationships. Dotted lines indicate negative influence. ... 325

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Figure 5.1 Direct predictors of the self-guides. Swiss sample. ... 394 Figure 5.2 Types of economic value (adapted from Grin, 2003) ... 410

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ANOVA: One-way analysis of varience B: Unstandardized regression coefficient β: Standardized regression coefficient

CEFR: Common European Framework of Reference DC: Direct contact

DST: Dynamic Systems Theory EFL: English as a foreign language ELT: English language teaching FL: Foreign language L2: Foreign/second language

M: Means

MAS: Specialized Master’s MLB: Motivated learning behavior

n: Number of participants included in the analysis n.s. Statistically non-significant

p: Level of significance PCA: Principal component analysis r: Pearson’s correlation coefficient SD: Standard deviation

SES: Structural equation modeling

SES: Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences SLA: Second language acquisition

SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences UK: United Kingdom

UNIGE: University of Geneva US: United States

WTC: Willingness to communicate

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1

Introduction

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“Let us say therefore that, given motivation, it is inevitable that a human being will learn a second language if he is exposed to the language data.”

(Corder, 1981) While the above quote requires some clarification, foreign language teachers and learners, researchers and experts agree that motivation is an important part of learning a foreign language. However, they often find it difficult to explain why it is so exactly, how motivation can influence the learning process or, simply, what the term of language learning motivation refers to. Even more frequently, I hear teachers and learners remark on the futility of trying to access this hidden treasure, this mystical gem, this abstract ingredient that can turn their journey into a story of success. In this dissertation, I prove that language learning motivation is real, it is powerful, and it is closer and more accessible than it is often considered to be.

“[Y]ou are as many men as many languages you speak.”

(Csizér & Kormos, 2009) This Hungarian proverb highlights an interesting aspect of language learning motivation.

Dörnyei (2005, 2009) proposes that the concept is linked to learners’ language related self- concept, which is constructed and enriched throughout the learning process. In the chapters to follow, I report on a survey study investigating university students’ foreign language selves and motivation in the plurilingual and multicultural context of Geneva, Switzerland. In environments like the Geneva one, where linguistic and cultural diversity are a part of daily life, the question of selves and identity is an especially pertinent one.

“Indeed, it is the tension between the conditions that produced the semiotic resources of “identity,” “language,” and “culture”

and those that make them available to be put into play as commodities that is most characteristic of our times.”

(Heller and Duchêne, 2016) It is understandable that in such a diverse linguistic environment as the Swiss one, the value of a given language is a frequently debated issue. Therefore, it is important to consider the role English plays in the social and economic systems of Swiss society. Its place in education policy has undergone considerable changes in the past few decades, and several studies examined the

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profitability of English instruction, both at a societal and at an individual level. Nevertheless, the question arises as to the influence of these phenomena on foreign language learners’ and speakers’¹ attitudes and motivation toward English. Therefore, the study presented in this work pays special attention to these contextual factors, examining language learning motivation not as a standalone characteristic but as part of a greater framework of language attitudes, L2² selves and contextual influences.

1.1 The UNIGE project

When I moved to Switzerland at the conclusion of my MA studies, I was astonished by the cultural and linguistic diversity present in Geneva. Later, I learned that this is not only a superficial characteristic of a city with many visitors and international organizations but a fundamental aspect of the everyday reality of the region. I discovered, through numerous discussions with language learners and educators, that this plurilingualism, a term and phenomenon I had previously not encountered, was an important element of their lives and emblematic of Swiss society.

Coming from Hungary, where, at the time, monolingual values were the norm, I found the Geneva context intriguing for a number of reasons. As a language learner and English teacher in Hungary, the learning environment to which I was accustomed was composed of Hungarians of monolingual heritage studying different languages, but mostly English, in an essentially monolingual setting. They did so for a variety of reasons, but, on the whole, their profile corresponded to the EFL (English as a foreign language) learners described by Canagarajah, (1999b) and Dörnyei (2009), for whom native speaker ideals seemed unrealistic and distant and the global community only a few clicks away. Moreover, in this predominantly monolingual space, language learning was not considered as a priority at the social level. In light of this, it is not surprising that most learners I met and surveyed (Csillagh, 2010) considered studying English a personal endeavor that might open new vistas toward future

1 Since the present study confirmed that these categories can be subjective and difficult to define, this dissertation focuses on foreign language learners, speakers and users and is not limited to individuals currently studying the language in question.

2 In this dissertation, the abbreviation FL refers to foreign languages, while SL denotes a second language.

Typically, while the former are often learned to communicate outside of one’s own country or community, the latter are languages that possess “social functions within the community where [they are] learned” (Littlewood, 1984). Often, however, such distinctions are redundant and therefore the term L2 is used for both foreign and second languages. Therefore, L2 and FL are used interchangeably in this text to refer to these languages.

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adventures abroad or toward better possibilities of self-expression in a globalized world.

Certainly, some faced requirements that ensured their presence at classes, but that was not the main reason why their heart was in learning the language.

Therefore, when I became familiar with the Swiss context and understood the role and extent of its linguistic diversity, I knew I wanted to investigate the question of Swiss language learners’ motivation further. I was confident that I was in possession of the right tools to do so.

In addition to my experience in learning and teaching foreign languages in a monolingual setting, I arrived in Geneva equipped with years of training in quantitative research as well as a flexible theoretical model of L2 motivation. Applying these tools to my impressions of my new environment, I set out to formulate my interest in more scientific ways, which resulted in the questions that formed the basis of this PhD study.

1.1.1 Questions asked

Based on my knowledge of language learning and motivation, I presumed that the distinct characteristics of the Geneva setting can be expected to leave a mark on English learners’

motivation. Consequently, my first question was in what ways their attitudes to English differ from those of learners in other contexts and how they can reflect the particular learning environment of Geneva. I must admit that some of the answers I found were unexpected and surpassed all my anticipation.

Secondly, as I mentioned above, through my experience in language teaching and research, I had developed an understanding of L2 motivation that I was interested in putting to the test in this special environment. Thus, my second question centered on Dörnyei’s (2005, 2009) theoretical model of the L2 Motivational Self System (or Self System for short), as my goal was to investigate how well it performs in this setting and whether it is as versatile and adaptable as earlier research claimed. A dynamic model of L2 motivation, built around learners’ self-concept, the Self System appeared to be both a logical choice and an intriguing theoretical framework of great potential. Earlier research in this area also offered a number of standardized tools that presented distinct methodological advantages. Once more, the results of my investigation took me by surprise, revealing a side of the Geneva context – as well as of the Self System – that I had not seen before.

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1.1.2 Tools of investigation

Using these standardized tools, I conducted a quantitative survey study at the University of Geneva (UNIGE), in which 375 students from four faculties participated. The questionnaire yielded a vast dataset, which I submitted to a series of mainstream statistical tests, in order to pinpoint the main trends and connections. This analysis was especially rich, not only because it uncovered surprising details about UNIGE students’ attitudes to English but also because it showcased the challenges of applying clear-cut models and methodologies to complex phenomena such as language learning.

These findings led to a slight shift in perspective that became one of the central themes of the study. In order to mitigate the challenges and to seek further answers, I decided to complement the quantitative research with a more qualitative element. I explored the role of the contextual spheres, both local and global, that contributed to participants’ experiences learning English.

Applying this “shifting lens” (Ushioda, 2015), which had a double focus tuned to the internal mechanics of study participants’ language attitudes as well as to the broader framework of contextual dynamics, provided intriguing clues and important conclusions that became instrumental in forming my understanding of language learning motivation and that can have considerable implications for researching, conceptualizing and teaching foreign languages in context.

1.1.3 Complex answers

In the chapters that follow, I demonstrate the complete process of this investigation, which was, on the one hand, a powerful personal and professional experience and, at the same time, the source of a number of intriguing and revelatory trends. These showed, first of all, that the issue of language attitudes and L2 motivation is an especially interesting one in the Geneva context.

Moreover, they shed light on the composition and mechanics of study participants’ English- related self-concept, as well as its role in their motivation to learn the language. The contextuality of these selves indicated that taking into account the influence of the social and economic spheres with which language learners interact might greatly contribute to our understanding of learning phenomena.

Secondly, and as a result of this contextual link, the answers to the initial questions were revealed to be more complex, and more intriguing, than expected. This complexity and this

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contextuality are among the main themes that this dissertation aims to uncover, analyze and, to the extent allowed by the tools available, explain. The concept of motivation they portray points beyond simplified models and streamlined statistics, challenging but also complementing traditional approaches to language learning motivation.

1.2 This dissertation

The present dissertation gives a detailed account of the process and findings of the research project described above, discussing its relevance to both the Geneva context and the theoretical and methodological traditions in the field of L2 motivation studies. Thus, it explains how notions of selves, identity and learners as individuals have traveled with me, from a predominantly monolingual learning environment to a highly plurilingual one. This journey also testifies to the maturation of my own ideas, in addition to reflecting more general shifts in L2 motivation theory.

1.2.1 Aims

The aims of this dissertation are manifold. First of all, as a work of this genre, its main goal is to report on the findings of the UNIGE study and to offer answers to the initial questions that it was designed to investigate. As I argued above, and do so repeatedly throughout the text, the findings of the research were, to some extent, unexpected. Moreover, the answers they provided were far from clear cut or simple, and tended to raise further, interesting, questions. Therefore, it became an important objective of this work to add context to the results, explore their evident and covert significance and pinpoint the issues they represent.

In order to meet this goal, in this dissertation, I enumerate and analyze the main findings of the research, examining them in light of the particular setting of the study. Furthermore, I discuss their implications and relevance to researching and teaching English as a foreign language in this environment. My conclusions confirm that language learning is a complex process that involves similarly complex subsystems of attitudes, motivation and self-identification, which are all related, in different non-linear ways, to the learning context(s).

Secondly, from a methodological point of view, this dissertation showcases the techniques used to investigate Swiss university students’ motivation to learn English and how they were adapted to the Geneva context. As a researcher, I believe this aspect of this work is especially relevant

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since it allows comparability with other studies and helps identify the advantages and shortcomings of these methods, when applied to the task in question. In addition, this approach ensures that the UNIGE study remains reproducible, providing future research the opportunity to repeat or adapt its procedures.

Finally, I strongly believe that a project and text of this type has a responsibility to further research in the field by opening new horizons. Consequently, I frequently highlight issues that point beyond the scope of this dissertation but that constitute interesting areas for future projects to explore. I return to these possibilities in Chapter 6.

1.2.2 Organization

Following this brief introduction, I move on to illustrating, through a series of chapters, the main phases of the UNIGE study. As I explain below, the organization of these chapters corresponds to the logic and design of the empirical survey study, from its conception to the potential implications of its findings and the questions they raise. Thus, the next chapters relate a story, all the while ensuring the transparency and adaptability of the research.

This journey begins with Chapter 2, in which I present the theoretical background of the study and describe the Swiss learning context. I start by addressing a few challenges that SLA (second language acquisition) research faces today, before reviewing the theoretical developments in L2 motivation and language economics that inspired this work. I also discuss earlier findings in these fields as relevant to the project. This overview explains the development of my research questions and demonstrates the shift of focus toward a more contextualized view of language learning that the research underwent.

Building on these theoretical foundations, Chapter 3 describes the process of designing, adapting and perfecting the research instrument and the various steps of data collection and analysis. I discuss in detail the different elements of the questionnaire as well as the measures taken to ensure the validity of the scales and the reliability of the results. This chapter also introduces the sample of 375 students who completed the questionnaire. Finally, I explain how the statistical analysis was conducted and what tools were used, followed by an account of the advantages and limitations of this procedure. This detailed description of the research method provides readers with an insight into how the survey data was obtained and processed.

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Chapter 4 is dedicated to the results of these procedures. With special emphasis on the most important findings, it aims to demonstrate the different steps of the statistical analysis and the results they yielded. In line with my goal of providing a reproducible study and a well- documented resource for future research, the organization of this chapter follows the statistical procedures described in the preceding one. Thus, the first figures displayed are of a simpler, descriptive nature, while the chapter ends with a discussion of the final regression model, which depicts the complex structure of participants’ motivational profile. These results showcase the potential and the limitations of mainstream statistical tests when it comes to complex phenomena such as motivates learning behavior and self-construction. They revealed trends of plurilingualism as well as significant social and economic influences, underlining the importance of examining learner selves in context.

Hence, Chapter 5 introduces a slightly altered approach, based on both the quantitative results shown in Chapter 4 and elements of the contextual summary of the Swiss learning environment presented in Chapter 2. In this chapter, I discuss the main themes that emerged from the survey data in light of the contexts involved. Therefore, I focus on not only the findings but also their broader implications. In particular, I address the relevance of the final regression model as regards language learning motivation in the plurilingual setting of Geneva. Thus, in order to reflect this contextually enriched perspective and to address the central questions of the research, this chapter is organized by themes that reflect the final conclusions of the study.

These conclusions are summarized in the final chapter (Conclusion), which also discusses the educational implications of the findings.

1.2.3 To the reader

I am pleased and excited to hand over this report to my future readers. My wish is that it may do justice to the vast project that helped it come to fruition and that it may inspire teachers, students and researchers alike to build upon its conclusions. I believe that these conclusions are relevant to how we think about and conceptualize language learning and motivation. May they continue to travel beyond these pages.

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2

Theory and context

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2.1 Current challenges in (researching) language learning and teaching

The aim of this chapter is to enumerate and examine the different issues and theoretical considerations that led me to investigate in more detail the attitudes and motivation of students at the University of Geneva toward English. One of the questions that arose from my experience working with language learners in the Geneva context was how factors related, on the one hand, to the global status of English and, on the other, to the linguistic diversity of the region interacted to influence learners’ views of learning the language. Numerous studies discuss the implications of the spread of English on language learning and teaching and its impact on multilingual environments. I review these sources below, highlighting their main findings and their relevance to the Geneva context. I also argue that there is a need for further research in order to fully understand the relationships between these two larger trends and to investigate the influence of globalization on plurilingual learning contexts. Moreover, in this section, I explain how these studies have shaped my interest in motivation in such contexts and informed the research project presented in this dissertation.

2.1.1 English as a global language: implications for teaching and learning

Researchers identified the particular characteristics of language learning early on and argued that foreign languages are to be distinguished from other school subjects for a number of reasons (Williams, 1994). The most important of these, from the perspective of the present study, is their strong connection to the social contexts in which they are used and learned (ibid.).

Furthermore, this relationship goes beyond the obvious cultural references that languages contain to the social groups that speak them. In this dissertation, I illustrate how foreign language learning can be embedded and influenced by the social, economic and ideological issues that characterize the environments in which the languages in question are used, learned and represented, explicitly or covertly. It is this special amalgam of contextual features and connotations that language learners are faced with when they engage in the learning process.

Therefore, it is not surprising that learning English, a language with a considerable global spread, is wrought with questions of values and representations, identity and economic benefits.

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As an official language in 118 countries and administrative regions (Eberhard, Simons, &

Fennig, 2019), used on a daily basis and taught all around the world, English touches the lives of an incredibly large number of people. About 330-360 million of them speak it as a first language (Crystal, 2006), while the number of L2 speakers reaches twice (Eberhard, Simons and Fennig, 2018) or three times (Crystal, 2003) that number. These figures also mean that, instead of clearly representing one single culture, the language has gained in socio-cultural, ideological and economic complexity. It has become a symbol of globalization and a medium of Anglo-American as well as multicultural values and products. At the same time, this heavy socio-cultural load and the inequalities it might produce render the phenomenon of English as a global language the topic of much controversy.

Indeed, Crystal’s seminal work (2003), in which he examines some of the issues behind the unique status of English at the turn of the twenty-first century and the consequences of the spread from a linguistic standpoint, generated considerable debate and concern. Most importantly, the discussion evolved around questions of ownership and inclusion, the equal opportunities provided by a denationalized common language as opposed to the dangers of linguistic imperialism (e.g. Pennycook, 1994; Phillipson, 1992, 2013). A concise overview of these texts can be found in Pupavac (2012), while Kachru (2006) discusses the issue from the larger perspective of the “War of Cultures”. Further studies address more concrete examples of these processes in specific local contexts (cf. Heller and Duchêne, 2008). In summary, these sources highlight the magnitude of the cultural and ideological load that English carries, due to its colonial history and its current role in promoting globalized values that maintain the hegemony of developed, essentially Anglo-American economies. They also demonstrate how mainstream discourse on the global spread of English serves to strengthen this status quo and point out that such figures, some of which I mention in this section, are to be treated with caution and critique.

As an example of a somewhat simplistic explanation of the spread of English, Graddol (2006) analyzes some otherwise interesting research findings. He claims that the number of English speakers rose, in part, as a result of shifting educational trends. The project he discusses, led by The English Company, aimed at predicting the number of learners up to the year 2060.

Although the numbers, displayed in Figure 2.1, are speculative and fail to account for the finer nuances inherent to such a large population of learners, they nonetheless tell an impressive story. The phenomenon dubbed as the “The World English Project” (ibid.), which set off at the