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W O R L D H E A L T H O R G A N I Z A T I O N

O R G A N I S A T I O N M O N D I A L E D E L A SANTÉ

V I R / Y F / 7 1 . 8 R e v . l

ORIGINAL: FRENCH EXPERT COMMITTEE ON YELLOW FEVER

E n t e b b e , 9-15 March 1971

I N D C X

FURTHER RESEARCH AND INVESTIGATION by

M, C o r n e t , W. G. Downs, J . Hamon and H. S a e n z

T h i s document enumerates some o f t h e p o i n t s w h i c h would j u s t i f y f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h and i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I t has been c o n c e i v e d as a p r o v i s i o n a l g u i d e and i s e x p e c t e d t o be m o d i f i e d to r e f l e c t the o p i n i o n s o f t h e C o m m i t t e e .

1, EPIDEMIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY 1.1 V e c t o r s

I t i s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t t o c o m p i l e an a c c u r a t e l i s t o f t h e b l o o d - s u c k i n g a r t h r o p o d s l i a b l e t o h a r b o u r y e l l o w f e v e r v i r u s and t r a n s m i t i t by t h e i r b i t e , g i v i n g p r i o r i t y t o s p e c i e s i n n a t u r a l f o c i w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e l o n g e v i t y o r w h i c h r e t a i n a normal rhythm o f a c t i v i t y i n the d r y s e a s o n . In p a r t i c u l a r the v e c t o r r o l e o f t i c k s s h o u l d be r e a s s e s s e d . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d f u r t h e r m o r e t h a t t h e a b i l i t y t o t r a n s m i t p a t h o g e n s seems t o be g e n e t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , most o f t h e o l d e r n e g a t i v e e x p e r i m e n t s s h o u l d be r e p e a t e d and e x t e n d e d , w o r k i n g w i t h a l a r g e r r a n g e o f b o t h v i r u s and v e c t o r s t r a i n s .

In r e g a r d t o a l r e a d y known p o t e n t i a l v e c t o r s , many s t u d i e s and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y .

1.1.1 D i s t r i b u t i o n

The d i s t r i b u t i o n and r e l a t i v e abundance o f Aedes a e g y p t i a r e o n l y v e r y i m p e r f e c t l y known i n some y e l l o w f e v e r endemic a r e a s . They s h o u l d be i n v e s t i g a t e d w h e r e v e r r e c e n t d a t a a r e not a v a i l a b l e . As c o n c e r n s A f r i c a , t h e s e s t u d i e s s h o u l d d e a l i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h t h e c o u n t r i e s of C e n t r a l and E a s t A f r i c a , t h e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g c o u n t r i e s o f West A f r i c a ( e x c l u d i n g N o r t h Ghana) and t e r r i t o r i e s under P o r t u g u e s e r u l e . S i m i l a r s t u d i e s might be e n v i s a g e d i n c o u n t r i e s where y e l l o w f e v e r c o u l d be i n t r o d u c e d a c c i d e n t a l l y , s u c h as t h e Comoro I s l a n d s and M a d a g a s c a r ,

As c o n c e r n s t h e A m e r i c a s , the s i t u a t i o n as r e g a r d s e r a d i c a t i a n o p e r a t i o n s and r e c e n t r e - i n f e s t a t i o n s s h o u l d be f o l l o w e d up.

The d i s t r i b u t i o n and r e l e v a n t abundance o f o t h e r y e l l o w f e v e r v e c t o r m o s q u i t o s a r e g e n e r a l l y e x t r e m e l y l i t t l e known, e x c e p t i n a few l i m i t e d a r e a s . I t would be a d v i s a b l e , both i n A f r i c a and t h e A m e r i c a s , t o o b t a i n a d d i t i o n a l d a t a on d i s t r i b u t i o n and t o o r g a n i z e s t u d i e s on r e l e v a n t abundance i n t h e d i f f e r e n t b i o c l i m a t i c z o n e s . P r i o r i t y c o u l d be g i v e n to s p e c i e s l i a b l e t o c a u s e e p i d e m i c s .

The issue of this document does not constitute formal publication. It should not be reviewed, abstracted or quoted without the agreement of the World Health Organization. Authors alone are responsible for views expressed in signed articles.

Ce document ne constitue pas une publication.

Il no doit faire l't>bjet d'aucun compte rendu ou résumé ni d'aucun; citation sans l'autorisation de l'Organisation Mordiaie de la Santé. Les opinions exprimées dans l;s articles signés n'engagent que leurs auteurs

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V I R / Y F / 7 1 , 8 R e v . l page 2

1 . 1 . 2 E c o l o g y

So f a r , l i t t l e i s known c o n c e r n i n g t h e e c o l o g y o f the v e c t o r s , e v e n o f Ae. a e g y p t i . R e s e a r c h s h o u l d c o v e r a l l p o i n t s b e a r i n g a r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the e p i d e m i o l o g y and c o n t r o l o f y e l l o w f e v e r . v.

The l o c a l i z a t i o n o f r e s t i n g p l a c e s , a v e r a g e l o n g e v i t y and t h e s p r e a d i n g powers o f a d u l t s from t h e i r p r e - i m a g i n a l b r e e d i n g p l a c e s and from s i t e s where t h e y f e e d s h o u l d be known i n o r d e r t o o r g a n i z e e f f e c t i v e i m a g o c i d a l campaigns i n the e v e n t o f an e p i d e m i c . M o r e o v e r , f l i g h t r a n g e s h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e u s u a l l y a c c e p t e d might e x p l a i n t h e r a p i d d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f y e l l o w f e v e r v i r u s from one s e p a r a t e wooded a r e a t o a n o t h e r .

The n a t u r e and p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y o f t h e d i f f e r e n t l a r v a l b r e e d i n g p l a c e s , t h e l e n g t h o f t h e p r e - i m a g i n a l l i f e - c y c l e and the e x t e n t o f s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n d e n s i t y a r e i m p o r t a n t d a t a i n any p r e v e n t i v e campaign whose aim i s t o e r a d i c a t e o r g r e a t l y r e d u c e t h e numbers o f p o t e n t i a l v e c t o r s ,

A good knowledge o f maximum l o n g e v i t y , p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f s u r v i v a l i n t h e d r y s e a s o n and f e e d i n g p r e f e r e n c e s c o n s t i t u t e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h the f a c t o r s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , an e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t i n any e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h programme.

D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a b s o l u t e d e n s i t i e s would be d e s i r a b l e , b o t h f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e e p i d e m i o - l o g y and w i t h a view t o b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l .

1 . 2 V e r t e b r a t e h o s t s o t h e r t h a n man

Though t h e r o l e o f monkeys as d i s s e m i n a t o r s and a m p l i f i e r s i s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d , i t w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y t o f o l l o w up f r e q u e n t l y t h e i r i m m u n o l o g i c a l s t a t u s i n o r d e r t o d e t e c t c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e v i r u s i n w i l d l i f e . I s o l a t i o n o f t h e v i r u s would be more s i g n i f i c a n t , and s h o u l d be t r i e d , a l t h o u g h i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o a c h i e v e , as the v i r a e m i a l a s t s o n l y f o r a s h o r t p e r i o d . The use o f s e n t i n e l a n i m a l s i n s t u d i e s s h o u l d be e x t e n d e d .

A l a r g e v a r i e t y o f v e r t e b r a t e s o t h e r t h a n p r i m a t e s have been f o u n d t o g i v e p o s i t i v e s e r o l o g i c a l t e s t s f o r y e l l o w f e v e r . A l i m i t e d number o f w i l d and d o m e s t i c v e r t e b r a t e s h a v e been e x p e r i m e n t a l l y i n f e c t e d . Whereas t h e p r i m a t e s a r e a l m o s t a l l r e c e p t i v e , t h e r e s p o n s e of o t h e r v e r t e b r a t e s v a r i e s from s p e c i e s t o s p e c i e s . Such s t u d i e s s h o u l d be i n t e n s i f i e d b y l o o k i n g f o r v e r t e b r a t e h o s t s w i t h a l o n g e r p e r i o d o f v i r a e m i a , o r a t r a n s i e n t i m m u n i t y , o r a b l e t o s p r e a d t h e v i r u s o v e r l o n g d i s t a n c e s . S u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o y e l l o w f e v e r i n f e c t i o n must a l w a y s be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n ; v e r t e b r a t e s w h i c h d i e from y e l l o w f e v e r may be good

" a m p l i f i e r s " o f t h e d i s e a s e , but t h e y have l i t t l e c h a n c e o f p l a y i n g a p a r t i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e v i r u s i n c i r c u l a t i o n i n n a t u r a l f o c i . The p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f v e r y s l i g h t d e g r e e s o f v i r a e m i a m i g h t be r e a s s e s s e d .

1.2.1 D i s t r i b u t i o n and abundance

The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v e r t e b r a t e h o s t s i s s t i l l o f t e n o n l y v e r y p a r t i a l l y known, p a r t i c u - l a r l y i n t h e c a s e o f s m a l l s p e c i e s . S t u d i e s on t h i s p o i n t s h o u l d be e x t e n d e d . G e n e r a l l y , e v e n l e s s i s known r e g a r d i n g t h e abundancy o f i n d i v i d u a l s a l t h o u g h , t o g e t h e r w i t h p o p u l a t i o n d y n a m i c s , i t g o v e r n s t h e r e a l e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s o f

v e r t e b r a t e h o s t .

In an i n i t i a l s t a g e , p r i o r i t y c o u l d be g i v e n t o v e r t e b r a t e s w h i c h a m p l i f y t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e v i r u s d u r i n g e n z o o t i c s and i n t h e p r e - e p i d e m i c p h a s e .

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V I R / Y F / 7 1 . 8 R e v . l page 3

1 . 2 . 2 E c o l o g y

I n f e c t i o n o f v e r t e b r a t e s and s p r e a d o f t h e v i r u s by them d e p e n d on t h e i r e c o l o g y . The c h i e f a s p e c t s t o be c o n s i d e r e d a r e t h e r e s t i n g p l a c e s , f e e d i n g p l a c e s , u s u a l r a n g e o f a c t i v i t y a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l o n g d i s t a n c e d i s p e r s i o n o r m i g r a t i o n .

1.3 T r a n s m i s s i o n c y c l e s

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t the c y c l e s a t p r e s e n t known a r e o n l y a m p l i f y i n g c y c l e s w h i c h e x i s t m e r e l y d u r i n g t h e e p i z o o t i c and p r e - e p i d e m i c p h a s e s and t h a t t h e permanent c y c l e i n n a t u r a l

f o c i i s o f a d i f f e r e n t t y p e , i n v o l v i n g n e i t h e r p r i m a t e s n o r m o s q u i t o s .

R e s e a r c h a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s can o n l y be s u c c e s s f u l l y u n d e r t a k e n i f permanent y e l l o w f e v e r f o c i a r e a c c u r a t e l y l o c a t e d . A m a j o r e f f o r t s h o u l d be p l a c e d on t h e d e t e c t i o n and f u l l s t u d y o f s u c h f o c i and a l s o on t h e way i n w h i c h the v i r u s s p r e a d s o u t o f t h o s e a r e a s .

2 , VIROLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY

The m i n i m a l a n t i g e n i c d i f f e r e n c e s o b s e r v e d between t h e s t r a i n s seem t o have no p r a c t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s and so f a r no s p e c i a l a d a p t a t i o n has been r e p o r t e d o f a g i v e n s t r a i n t o a g i v e n v e c t o r , but t h i s a s p e c t m i g h t be s t u d i e d .

S t u d y o f c r o s s i m m u n i t y w i t h o t h e r g r o u p B a r b o v i r u s e s has been commenced i n monkeys.

The i m p o r t a n c e o f i m m u n i t y i n v o l v e d by i n f e c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r g r o u p B a r b o v i r u s e s i n e i t h e r b l o c k i n g t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e v i r u s i n p o p u l a t i o n s o r i n a m e l i o r a t i n g t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e d i s e a s e i n i n d i v i d u a l s r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r s t u d y . These i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s h o u l d be c o n t i n u e d i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t o f t h e p r o t e c t i o n a f f o r d e d i n d i v i d u a l s and c o m m u n i t i e s by p r e v i o u s i n f e c t i o n w i t h t h e s e a r b o v i r u s e s .

A l l r e s e a r c h w h i c h can l e a d t o i n c r e a s e d a c c u r a c y o f t h e i m m u n o l o g i c a l methods employed f o r i d e n t i f y i n g v i r u s s t r a i n s and f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g and a s s a y i n g s p e c i f i c a n t i b o d i e s s h o u l d be s t r o n g l y e n c o u r a g e d s i n c e i t c o u l d g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s .

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f i m m u n o d e p r e s s a n t s t o w i l d a n i m a l s c a p t u r e d i n n a t u r a l f o c i w o u l d p e r h a p s make i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e c t y e l l o w f e v e r v i r u s i n s p e c i e s whose v i r a e m i a l e v e l i s t o o l o w f o r d e t e c t i o n by t h e u s u a l methods.

3 . VACCINATION

The use o f 1 7 D y e l l o w f e v e r v a c c i n e i n mass campaigns i n t r o p i c a l a r e a s d i r e c t s t h e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e n e e d f o r improvement o f i t s t h e r m o s t a b i l i t y . T h e r e a r e a l r e a d y i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t y e l l o w f e v e r may be u s e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h o t h e r v a c c i n e s and r e s e a r c h on t h e s e l i n e s s h o u l d be c o n t i n u e d . Ways o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e v a c c i n e o t h e r t h a n s u b c u t a n e o u s i n o c u l a - t i o n s h o u l d be e x p l o r e d .

The p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t y e l l o w f e v e r v a c c i n e (and n a t u r a l i n f e c t i o n w i t h y e l l o w f e v e r ) r e s u l t s i n p r o t r a c t e d p e r s i s t e n c e o f t h e v i r u s i n a masked o r t h u s f a r u n d e t e c t e d form o r f o c u s i n t h e h o s t c a l l s f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y . As a c o r o l l a r y o f t h i s , t h e d u r a t i o n o f i m m u n i t y i n v o k e d by v a c c i n a t i o n r e q u i r e s c o n t i n u i n g s t u d y .

4. VECTOR CONTROL

R e s e a r c h s h o u l d be c a r r i e d o u t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n f i v e d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s :

- s e l e c t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n o f i n s e c t i c i d e s o t h e r t h a n A b a t e w h i c h can be added w i t h o u t r i s k t o d r i n k i n g - w a t e r .

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V I R / Y F / 7 1 . 8 R e v . l page 4

- s e l e c t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n o f i n s e c t i c i d e s w h i c h can be a p p l i e d by f o g g i n g a g a i n s t l a r v a e and a d u l t v e c t o r s ,

- improvement and e v a l u a t i o n o f equipment and methods f o r a p p l i c a t i o n o f i n s e c t i c i d e s i n a v e r y s m a l l volume i n t h e d i f f e r e n t b i o c l i m a t i c and p l a n t r e g i o n s o f y e l l o w f e v e r endemic a r e a s , b o t h from t h e g r o u n d and from t h e a i r ,

- d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n s e c t i c i d e - r e s i s t a n t v e c t o r p o p u l a t i o n s ,

- d e v e l o p m e n t and e v a l u a t i o n o f b i o l o g i c a l o r g e n e t i c v e c t o r c o n t r o l m e t h o d s , 5, SURVEILLANCE METHODS

The improvement o f s u r v e i l l a n c e methods as c o n c e r n s v e r t e b r a t e h o s t s depends f i r s t l y on t h e r e s u l t s o f i m m u n o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . P r o g r e s s c o u l d a l s o d e f i n i t e l y be made i n r e g a r d t o t h e s a m p l i n g o f w i l d v e r t e b r a t e p o p u l a t i o n s .

W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s u r v e i l l a n c e o f v e c t o r s , one o f t h e b i g g e s t a d v a n c e s w o u l d be t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s i m p l e and e f f e c t i v e t r a p s g i v i n g r e p r o d u c i b l e r e s u l t s .

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