Twenty-year tracking of lighting savings and power density in the residential sector

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ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect

Energy

and

Buildings

jo u r n al h om ep a g e :w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / e n b u i l d

Review

Twenty-year

tracking

of

lighting

savings

and

power

density

in

the

residential

sector

Shady

Attia

a,∗

_,

_Mohamed

_Hamdy

b,c

_,

_Sherif

_Ezzeldin

d

a_Sustainable_Buildings_Design_Lab,_Dept._UEE,_Faculty_of_Applied_Sciences,_Univeristé_de_Liège,_Belgium

b_NTNU_Norwegian_University_of_Science_and_Technology,_Department_of_Civil_and_Transport_Engineering,_Trondheim,_Norway c_Department_of_Mechanical_Power_Engineering,_Helwan_University,_P.O._Box_11718,_Cairo,_Egypt

d_Department_of_{Architectural}_Engineering_&_{Environmental}_Design,_Arab_Academy_for_Science_and_Technology_and_Maritime_Transport,_AASTMT_(Cairo

Campus),Egypt

a

r

t

i

c

l

e

i

n

f

o

Articlehistory:

Received10December2016

Receivedinrevisedform15August2017 Accepted16August2017

Availableonline24August2017 Keywords:

LEDlamps Buildings

Compactﬂuorescentlamp Incandescentlamp Energyefﬁciency MENAregion

a

b

s

t

r

a

c

t

Lightingenergyconsumptionrepresentsasignificantpercentageoftotalenergyconsumptionin resi-dentialbuildingsector.Duringthelast20years,advancedenergy-efficientlightingfixtureshavebeen introducedworldwidetoconservetheenergyconsumptioninresidences.IntheMiddleEastandNorth Africa(MENA)region,veryfewstudieshavebeenconductedtoevaluatetheassociationbetweenthe introducedlightingfixturesandtheresultedenergysavingsusingvalidmeasurementsandverification techniques.Thisstudyevaluatesthetechno-economicimpactofreplacingnewenergyefficient light-inginresidencesinEgypt(arepresentativeMENAregioncountry).Aquantitativeanalysisisappliedby trackingtheutilitybillsof150residentialapartmentsinCairo.Theaveragemeasuredpower consump-tionbefore(1993–1998)andafter(2009–2014)installationenergyefficientlightingfixturesisanalyzed. Abuildingperformancesimulationmodelisdevelopedtobackthefindings.Thefindingsindicatea sig-nificantdisparitybetweentheestimatedsavingsbasedonsimulationandtherealmeasuredsavings duetopenetration,reboundeffectandlowqualitylamps.Moreover,thefindingspresentanexampleof quantifiedbenefitsofenergyefficientlighting,whichisveryimportanttoinformthedecisionmakingof publicpolicymakers,investorsandbuildingoccupants.

Contents

1. Introduction...114

2. Stateoftheart...115

2.1. Advancesinlightingenergysavingsandtechnologies ... 115

2.2. Egyptianenergyefﬁcientlightingpolicies...117

2.3. Towardsclosingthegap...118

3. Methodology ... 118

3.1. Dataacquisitionandenergyaudit...119

3.2. Baselinecharacterization...119

Abbreviations:ASHRAE,AmericanSocietyofHeating,Refrigerating,andAir-ConditioningEngineers;AC,airconditioning;ANSI,AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute; CAPMAS,CentralAgencyforPublicMobilizationandStatistics;CRI,colorrenderingindex;CFLs,compactlluorescentlamps;DHW,domestichotwater;EEHC,Egyptian ElectricityHoldingCompany;EEUCPRA,EgyptianElectricUtilityandConsumerProtectionRegulatoryAgency;HBRC,EgyptianHousingandBuildingResearchCentre;EOSQ, EgyptianOrganizationforStandardizationandQuality;EU,EuropeanUnion;GEF,GlobalEnvironmentFacility;GHG,greenhousegases;IES,IlluminatingEngineeringSociety; IEA,InternationalEnergyAgency;kWh,kilowatt-hour;LED,lightemittingdiode;LPD,lightingpowerdensity;MED-ENEC,energyefﬁciencyintheconstructionsectorinthe Mediterranean;OECD,OrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment;MENA,MiddleEastandNorthAfrica;MOEE,MinistryofElectricityandEnergy;UNDP, UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme;UNEP,UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme;UNIDO,UnitedNationsIndustrialDevelopmentOrganization;WWR,windowto wallratio.

∗ Correspondingauthorat:UniveristédeLiège,SustainableBuildingsDesignLab,Ofﬁce+0/542,QuartierPolytech1,AlléedelaDécouverte13A,4000Liège,Belgium. E-mailaddress:shady.attia@ulg.ac.be(S.Attia).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.08.041

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114 S.Attiaetal./EnergyandBuildings154(2017)113–126

3.3. Buildingperformancesimulation ... 121

4. Results...121

5. Discussion...122

5.1. Summaryofmainﬁndings ... 122

5.2. Strengthsandlimitationsofthestudy...123

5.3. Implicationsforpracticeandfutureresearch...124

6. Conclusion...124

Acknowledgements...124

References...125

1. Introduction

Lightingenergyaccountsforapproximately19%(2900TWH)of

theglobalelectricenergyconsumption.Projectionsbythe

Inter-nationalEnergyAgency(IEA)showthatifgovernmentsonlyrely

oncurrentpolicies,globalelectricityuseforlightingwillgrowto

around4250TWhby2030,anincreaseofmorethan40%[1].The

energysectorplaysakeyroleintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica’s

(MENA)economicprogress.TheEgyptiangovernmentfaces

seri-ouschallengessecuringenergyforalleconomicactivities.During

thelast15yearstheannualgrowthrateexceeded8%,where85%of

theelectricityoriginatesfromfossilsourcesprimarilynaturalgas.

Theresidentialbuildingsectorissuppliedmainlybyelectricityto

meetthecooling,lightingand plugloaddemands. Accordingto

thelastgovernmentalstatistics,in2014,43%ofthetotalelectricity

consumptionwasattributedtothebuildingsector[2,3].The

resi-dentialbuildingsectorisfacinganumberofchallenges,aboveallis

thelowconstructionqualityandbuildingenergyefﬁciency.Similar

tomostMENAcountries,thehighestenergyconsumptionsubsidy

iscurrentlywithintheresidentialsector,thatiswhytheenergy

savingsinthissectorshouldgeneratethehighestreturnstothe

statebudget.Facedwiththeneedtosecurereliableandaffordable

energysourcesforthecomingdecadeswhilemaintaininggrowth,

thereisanationalincentivetomovetowardalessgreenhousegas

(GHG)intensivedevelopmentpath,bybecomingmoreenergy

efﬁ-cientandmakinggreateruseofthecountry’spotentialrenewable

energy.

Energy efﬁciency standards and labels are developed for

appliancessuchasrefrigerators,freezers,washingmachines,air

conditioners,electricwaterheaters,electronicballasts,and

com-pactﬂuorescent lamps[4].Inrecent years,severalmeasuresto

promote efﬁcient lighting use were adopted by the Egyptian

government.Since2014,theelectricitysectorwitnessedserious

fundamentalreforms,reducingtheenergysubsidy,allowingthe

privatesectortogenerateelectricity,distributing10millionLED

lamps and aiming to replace incandescent lighting ﬁxtures by

2020[5,6].AccordingtoGEFEvaluationOfﬁceanenergyefﬁciency

marketsupportwasachievedbyconducting193auditsand

imple-mentingtherecommendationsof20audits,replicatingacompact

ﬂuorescentlamp leasingprogram atCairoand CanalElectricity

DistributionCompanies,bypromotinganddiffusingcompact

ﬂu-orescentlampswiththeactiveparticipationoftheprivatesector

[4].

InEgypt,residentialbuildingscomprise26.881.533households

andelectricallightingaccountsfor20–35%oftheresidential

elec-tricity consumption [2]. Between 2012 and 2015, the average

lamps’saleswas70millionlamps,representingﬁvemajortypes

oflightinglampsthatareusedinEgypt(Incandescent,

Fluores-cent,CompactFluorescent,Halogen,LEDlamps)[7].Onthebasis

oftheenergyefﬁciencyoflightingprojectoftheUnitedNations

DevelopmentProgram(UNDP)itisestimatedthatEgyptsold260

millionlampsin2010(excludingstreetlighting)[8,9].Theproject

strategytoacceleratemarkettransformationintheresidential

sec-toristosellhigh-qualityCFLsatsubsidizedpricesforwhichthe

remainingpartcanbepaidbackininstallmentsthroughregular

electricitybills.Among260millionsoldlampsabout35million

(13%)unitswereﬂuorescenttubesand17million(7%)CFLs.The

remainderisprimarilyincandescentlightbulbs(GLS)[7].Fig.1

illustratesanestimationoftheevolutionoflampsmarketinEgypt

duringthe periodfrom 2010to2016.The Egyptian authorities

and industry couldnotprovide uswith actualsalesof lighting

equipmentduringthatperiod,duetothelackofcentraltracking

oflocallyproducedandimported lampssales.Therehasbeena

fastgrowthofﬂuorescentlamps,particularlycompactﬂuorescent

lamps(CFL)andthegovernmentintroducedalargeamountofLED

lamps[10].

Inthepasttwodecades,manystudieshavereportedthe

corre-lationbetweenthedecreaseofenergyconsumptionbyimproving

theenergyefﬁciencyoflightingappliances[11–16].Moststudies

investigatedtheimpactofefﬁcientlightingappliancesbyusing

estimationmethodssuchasregressionanalysismodelsor

simula-tionmodels[17].However,thereisnopublisheddataorknowledge

onthemeasuredeffectofinstallingefﬁcientlightingtechnologies

onsavingsofaveragemiddleclasshouseholdsinEgypt.Of

partic-ularrelevancearethelightingpowerdensityandtheeffectofCFL

onlong-termsavings.Itisdifﬁculttoquantifytheactualsavings

fromenergyefﬁciencymeasures,whichcandeterconsumerand

investors.

Therefore,thisstudywasconductedwiththeobjectiveof

quan-tifyingtheeffectofreplacingincandescentlightbulbswithCFLover

aperiodof20years.Theoverallaimistopromoteeffectiveenergy

efﬁciencyof indoorlighting. Theresearch objectivesinclude:i)

identiﬁcationanddeterminationoflightingenergy-savingsofthe

residentialEgyptian buildingsectorthat have been madefrom

1994to2014andii)reductiontheuncertaintyofindoorlighting

energysavingbyapplying evidencebasedmeasuringapproach.

The methodology is based on data acquisition, modeling

tech-niquesand a structured survey.Thus the methodologyfocused

ontrackingenergyefﬁcientlightingsavingsandpowerdensityof

150representativeCaireneapartments.Inthisstudy,wetracked

andanalyzedbuilding’senergyperformancemonthlybillsof150

apartmentsforastudyspanof20years.

Theobjectiveofthestudyisnottoproofthatﬂorescentand

CFLwould resultinreductions inenergy consumption.Instead,

thestudyaimstoidentifytherealconsumptionpatterns,andthe

lightefﬁciencyintheEgyptianresidentialsectorasanexample

ofaMENAcountry.Byquantifyingthebeneﬁtsofactualsavings

ofenergyefﬁcientlightingthestudyresultsprovideinsightsand

anovelcontributiontothepublicauthorities,investors,lighting

industry and even citizens in the MENA region.This is a very

importantsteptoenabletheassessmentofthesuccessofenergy

efﬁciencyimplementationpoliciesandidentifyempiricallythe

bar-riersin theregion.Moreover,thestudyreportsthebreakdown

ofhousehold’senergyconsumptionusagepatternandtheshare

oflightingenergyconsumption.Therefore, thestudyresultsare

transferableandcanstrengthentheregulatoryand institutional

framework,improvethedecisionmakingofpublicauthoritiesand

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Fig.1.EstimatedsalesoflampsintheEgyptianmarketbetween2010and2016(ElSewedy[51],Yassin[7]).

plansfordistributing10millionLEDlampsandreplacing

incan-descentlightingﬁxturesby2020inEgypt[5].

Thispaperisorganizedintosixsections.Theﬁrstsection

iden-tiﬁestheresearchproblemwithintheEgyptianenergyefﬁciency

community.Thesecondsectionprovidesaresearch

contextualiza-tionbypresentingareviewonthestateoftheartofenergyefﬁcient

lightingworldwideandenergyefﬁcientlightingpoliciesinEgypt.

Thethirdsectionexplainstheresearchmethodology,processand

toolstogeneratetheresultsandsupporttheﬁndings.Theenergy

dataacquisitionresultsandanalysisarediscussedinsectionfour.

Theﬁnaltwosectionsarediscussingtheﬁndingsandproviding

feedbacktolightingexperts,testinglaboratories,policymakersand

thelightingindustry.

2. Stateoftheart

Replacingolderlighting withadvanced lighting systemscan

lead tosubstantialenergy savings for electriclighting. Lighting

qualityandusersatisfactioncanalsobeimprovedtoachievein

thesametimebettervisualcomfortinresidentialspaces.Togetan

overviewofadvancesinlightingenergysavingsandtechnologies

thatareavailableonthemarketwepresentareviewofexisting

advancedlightingsystems.Forthisreview,weinvestigatedgroups

ofproductsthatarerelevanttothestateoftheartoflightingenergy

savingsandtechnologies.Theproductsareselectedwiththeintent

ofcapturingthecurrentstateofthemarketat agivenpoint in

time,representingabroadrange ofperformancecharacteristics.

However,theselectiondoesnotrepresentastatisticalsampleofall

availableproductsintheidentiﬁedgroup.Atthetimeof

investiga-tion(2014),allselectedproductswerecomparedbasedonavailable

manufacturer’swebpages(2014).Then,wepresentinSection2.2a

reviewofEnergyEfﬁcientLightingPoliciesinEgypt.Bothreviews

areaimedtopositiontheresearchstudyworldwideandinthelocal

context.

2.1. Advancesinlightingenergysavingsandtechnologies

Humancentriclightingrepresentsthenextevolutioninlighting

design. Human centric lighting is deﬁned as the dayand

elec-triclightingdesignedandappliedtoimprovecircadianrhythms

for alertness, sleep, mood, visual acuity and productivity. Its

effective application can increase lighting performance, energy

savingsandsustainabledesign.TheIlluminatingEngineering

Soci-ety(IES)publishedin2013theTM-24-13[18],which describes

howlightspectrumaffectsvisualacuityininteriorlightedspaces,

andillustrateshowspectrallyenhancedlightingmaybefactored

into lighting calculationsfor interior lighting applications. Asa

consequence, there is rapidly growing variety of products and

changingperformancecharacteristicsinconjunctionwiththeiruse

toachieveoptimumhumancentriclighting,includingprimarily

thelatestgenerationofdimmingandwarm-to-coolwhiteKelvin

changingLEDtroffers,trofferkits,drums,andtasklights.

Thirty ﬁve years ago theincandescent lampswere thebest

availableoptioninthemarketintheOrganizationforEconomic

Co-operationandDevelopmentOECDcountries.Ithadaperfectcolor

renderingindexof100withacheapluminaire.Itwasthebeginning

oftheninetieswhendischargelampsbecamethebasisofmany

lightingtechnologies,includingneonlights,low-pressuresodium

lamps(thetypeusedinoutdoorlightingsuchasstreetlamps)and

ﬂuorescent lights.Today, theUnited NationsEnvironment

Pro-gramme(UNEP)andGlobalEnvironmentFacility(GEF)workwith

developingandemergingcountriestoimplementstandardsforthe

lightingenergyefﬁciencytophase-outincandescentlightbulbs.

Fig.2showsthestatus ofphaseoutofincandescentlightbulbs

aroundtheworld.

Five years later in 1995 the spiral ﬂuorescent tube or the

compactﬂuorescentlight(CFL)becamethemainstreaminOECD

countries.EarlyCFLswereintroducedinthemid-1980sinthe

mar-ketatretailpricesof$25–35[19].Forexamples,intheUSprices

variedsharplydependingondifferentpromotionscarriedoutby

energycompanies.CFLswereexpensive,bigandbulky,theydid

notﬁtwellintoﬁxtures,andtheyhadlowlightoutputand

incon-sistentperformance[19].Sincethemid-1990s,CFLperformance,

price,efﬁciency(75%lessenergyusethanincandescentlamp)and

lifetime(lastingabout10timeslonger)improvedandhavemade

themaviableoptionforresidents.Nearly30yearsafterCFLswere

ﬁrstintroducedonthemarket,anENERGYSTAR®CFLcostsaslittle

as$1.74perbulbwhenpurchasedinafour-pack[19].

Todayoneofthefastestdevelopinglightingtechnologiesand

mostefﬁcientlightsisthelight-emittingdiode(LED).AsLEDshave

evolvedinthearchitecturallightingmarket,integral LEDlamps

havebecomeobviousoptionsforreplacinglow-efﬁcacy

ﬂuores-centandhalogenlampsintherecentyears.LinearLEDlamps(also

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Fig.2.Phaseoutofincandescentlightbulbsworldwidein2016adaptedfrom(UNDP[53])andoverviewoflamptype’sfamilytree.

Table1

Typesofdomesticappliancesandtheiraveragepowerandoperationhours.

Performance

Description Incandescent Candle Incandescent

Halogen Fluorescent TL8

Compact Fluorescent

LEDGLS LEDspotlight FlorescentT5 LEDDT8

CodeinPlan InC CnL Hal FluT8 CfL LeD LeDPin FluT5 LeDT8 ColorTemp.(Kelvin) 2700K 2700K 3000K 3000K–6500K 2700K–6500K 2700K–5000K 2700K–6500 2700K–6500 2700K–6500 LifeSpanh 1000 1000 5000 20,000 10,00 45,000 45,000 50,000 50,000

EnergyUse 60W 25W 60W 30–40W 20W 10W 8W 22W 15W

SalesinOECD Limited Limited Low Limited Medium High Medium High Low SalesinEgypt&MENA Medium High Medium High Medium Limited Limited Limited Limited

compulsorytechnologythatisfamiliar,efficient,interchangeable, andcost-effective.LinearLEDlampsareincreasinglyconsidered byelectricians andfacilitymanagersasobviousenergy-efficient replacementsforthelinear fluorescentlamp. LinearLEDlamps areoftenpromotedbymanufacturersandsalesagentsasaneasy retrofitoption,withonlyminorretrofitlaborneeded,equivalent lightingperformancetofluorescent,dramaticenergysavingsand resultingreturnoninvestment,and/oralmostnegligiblerelamping costsbecauseoflonglife. Itshouldbenoted thatmany manu-facturersare targetingT8fluorescent(FL)lamps,whichintheir premium form already boast efficacyof greater than 90lm/W, excellentlumenmaintenance,andlonglifeofupto80,000hwhen

pairedwithwell-engineeredelectronicballasts.Fig.2andTable1

providesanoverviewofthemainlamptype’sfamilytreeandtheir

characteristicsthatevolvedduringthelast50years.

Paralleltotheadvancesinlightingenergy savingsand

tech-nologies,veryfewstudiesthatmeasuredandmodeledthelighting

energysavingsareshowingaverylargerangeofvariationinthe

OECDcountries.ThisincludestheworkofStokesetal.[20]and

Del-touretal.[21].However,almostnostudymeasuredtheimpactof

thoseadvancesonenergyconsumptioninemergingand

develop-ingcountries.Therefore,inthispaperweinvestigateandmeasure

theimpactofadvancesinlightingenergysavingsandtechnologies

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2.2. Egyptianenergyefﬁcientlightingpolicies

Egypt,similar tomany MENA regioncountries, did jointhe

worldenergy efﬁciency movementrecently.The 1973Arab Oil

Embargowasnotareasontoconsiderenergyefﬁciencyinthe

coun-try.Ontheopposite,theheavyenergypricesubsidyconstrainedan

investmentintheenergysectorandthepotentialofGHGreduction

wasnotproperlyexploited.Itwasuntiltheestablishmentofthe

GlobalEnvironmentFacility(GEF)in1991asapilotprograminthe

WorldBankinpartnershipwithUnitedNationsDevelopment

Pro-gram(UNDP)andUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramthatEgypt

startedtoaddressenergyefﬁciencyandenvironmentalissues.

From1991until2010,theEnergyEfﬁciencyImprovementand

GreenhouseGasReductionProjectwasexecutedbytheEgyptian

ElectricityHolding Company (EEHC),Ministryof Electricityand

Energy(MOEE)andsupportedwithagrantfromtheGlobal

Envi-ronmentFacility(GEF)oftheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram

(UNDP).Thedevelopmentobjectivewastomeetsuppressedand

stillgrowingpowerandenergydemandsthroughreliable,efﬁcient

andrationalconsumptionpatterns,therebyreducinggreenhouse

gasemissions[22].The project’smainachievements havebeen

theencouragementofEgyptianmanufacturerstomanufactureCFL

locally(6factories),publicawareness programand cooperation

withNGOsandpowerdistributioncompanies.TheEgyptian

Orga-nizationforStandardizationandQualityhasissuedspeciﬁcation

numberofoperationandsafetyaspectsand12millionCFLs(20W)

havebeensoldthroughtheelectricitydistributioncompaniesfor

halfoftheirpricebetween2006and2010[9,6].Alsotheproject

succeededtoprovidesupportgiventotechnicaltestinglabsofCFLs

andaMinisterialDecreeonspeciﬁcationsofenergylabelsforCFLs

butwithoutaclearenforcementmechanism.

In2002,aministerialdecreewasissuedfortheenforcement

ofthestandardsandlabelingprogramfortherefrigerators,

freez-ers,washingmachines,andairconditioners.In2006,theEnergy

CodeforResidentialBuildingswasdevelopedandin2008a

stan-dardforCFLsandelectronicballastswasissued.Lightingsystem

andairconditionertestinglabsareplayingamajorroleinpractice.

In2007,anewlystructuredNationalCommitteeonClimateChange

hasbeencreated.Thefollowingpublicationsreviewand

summa-rizechronologicallythekeypublicationenergyefﬁcientlighting

savingsandpowerdensityintheEgyptianbuildingsector.Asa

con-sequence,severalstudieshavebeenpublishedaddressinglighting

energyefﬁciencyinEgyptbetween2006and2016andwillbelisted

below:

In 2006,theHousingand BuildingNational ResearchCenter

(HBRC)supportedbytheUNDPpublishedtheresidential

build-ingenergystandardforEgypt[23].Severalprototypicalresidential

buildingshavebeendevelopedthatareusedbythecodeworking

grouptoevaluatetheenergysavingsfromacomprehensivesetof

envelopeandHVACsystemmeasuresAttiaetal.[29,34].Chapter

7oftheresidentialbuildingenergystandardsetsminimum

efﬁ-ciencyrequirementsontheelectriclightingsystem,includingthe

lightingpowerdensity,lightingintensityrequirements,lifespan

andpropertiesoflightingﬁxtures[23].Themainproblemwiththis

codeisthatitisnotenforcedbythestate.Inpractice,thereisno

compliancewithitsrequirementsfornewpublicorprivatehousing

projects[24].

ElMohimenetal.analyzedthedaylightbeneﬁtsforofﬁce

build-ings [17]. A parametric study compared the impact of various

daylightingcontrolstrategiesandWWRvaluesonthetotal

build-ing electricity use for cleardouble-pane reﬂective glazing. The

studynotedtheimportanceofreducingtheWWRto0.2to

guaran-teemaximumdaylightautonomywhilereducingthepeakcooling

loadsandelectricitydemand.However,thestudyfocusedmainly

onofﬁcebuildingsanddidnotquantifytheimpactofdaylighting

onelectriclightingandtheaverageelectricityuseforlighting.

Khalil [25] presented in 2006the resultsof one of theﬁrst

residentialenergysurveysconductedinCairo.Thesurveywas

con-ductedin1998withasamplesizewas2634householdsdistributed

among16areasinCairo.Thedegreeofsaturationofdifferent

elec-tricalappliancewasreported,however,lightingﬁxtureswerenot

included.Thestudypresentedspeciﬁcenergyconsumption and

averagedemandinresidentialbuildings.

In2009,Attiaetal.[26]conductedaﬁeldsurveytoestimate

thetypicalelectricconsumptionratefortypicalapartmentblocks

inCairoaimingtoinvestigatethepotentialsandimpactofenergy

efﬁcientretroﬁts.Thestudyfocusedonoverallenergyuseintensity.

Thestudypresentedaqualitativedescriptionofoccupancypattern

andoperationschedulesofelectricalappliances.Theﬁeldsurvey

resultsclassiﬁedthemajorappliancesineachhousehold.

Light-ingﬁxtureswereconventionalincandescentlamps.Othertypical

appliancesincludedceilingandstandingfans,personalcomputers,

microwaveoven,television,andstereo.Unfortunately,thestudy

didnotquantifyormentiontheelectriclightingshareintheenergy

breakdown.

In 2009,theGEF launchedtheUNEPen.lighten initiative, in

collaborationwith privatesector partners toprovide industrial

knowledge (Philips and Osram), as wellas the participationof

UNDP,UNIDO,theWorldBankandtheChineseNationalLighting

TestCenter(NLTC).Themainobjectiveoftheinitiativeistohasten

theglobaltransitiontowardsmoreefﬁcientlighting,onthebasisof

itsbeneﬁtsforclimatechangemitigation,energysavingsand

ﬁnan-cialsavings[27].Inthiscontext,en.lighten,inconjunctionwiththe

UNEPlaunchedin2011aplatformonEnergyEfﬁciencyforLighting

&AppliancesinEgypt[28].

OneoftheimportantpublicationsofthisreviewistheUNDP

projectdocumententitled‘Improvingtheenergyefﬁciencyof

light-ingandotherappliances’releasedin2011.Thedocumentreports

thatlightingaccountsforover20%ofEgypt’stotalelectricity

con-sumptionwhereincandescentlampsaccountfor94%ofalllamps

sales[8].Thedocumentidentiﬁedthesalesvolumeof lampsin

Egyptandproposedanannualgrowthrateof5%.Thedocument

highlightsthebarrierstoincreasethemarketpenetrationofenergy

efﬁcientlightinginEgyptandthemarkettransformationtargets

oftheproject.Thedocumentaddressestheperformancequality

ofCFLlampsandtheirstandardsincludinglimitingthemercury

contentto5mgofmercuryperlampandcreatingawaste

man-agementandrecyclingplan.Thedocumentforeseesenergysavings

potentialofenergyefﬁcientlightingupto13%ofprojectednational

electricitydemandby2020and17%by2030[8].However,the

base-linescenariofortheelectricitydemand,includinglighting,didnot

reportannuallightingpowerdensityorelectricityuseforlighting

inthebuildingsector.Inthereport,mostpresentedinformation

and assumptionsonenergysavingpotentialwerenot reported.

Withthesimplifyingassumptionsreportedinthisdocumentwe

couldnotﬁndrealperformancevalues,whichsettheUNDPproject

documentatlowaccuracyandreliability.

In 2012,Attia et al. reported theresults of surveying 1500

apartmentsin Alexandria,Cairoand Asyut[29].The study

pro-videddetailedlightingpowerdensityvaluesand schedules.The

dominanttypesoflampsusedwereincandescentlampsand

ﬂuo-rescenttubes.Accordingtothestudyﬁndings,theaveragelighting

powerintensityforlivingroomandbedroomswas17and13W/m2_,

respectively.Theotherspacesoftheinvestigatedapartmentshad

anintensityof9W/m2_._However_the_study_did_not_provide_a

break-down of energy consumption and operationmodes of electric

lighting.Moreimportantly,thestudydidnotinvestigatetheenergy

savingpotentialofelectriclighting.Thestudyfocusedmorethe

developmentofabenchmarkforresidentialbuildingsandoverall

averageenergyuseintensityperapartment.

In2014,Nassief[30]evaluatedthetotalelectricityconsumption

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investi-118 S.Attiaetal./EnergyandBuildings154(2017)113–126

Fig.3.ComparisonoflightingtechnologyadaptioninMENAandOCEDcountries.

gatingtheeffectofvaryingHVACsystemsandenvelope.Similarly

in2015,Banhardtreportedtheresultsofamonitoringstudyon

airconditionedapartmentsinElGouna[31].However,both

stud-iesdidnotprovidesufﬁcientdetailsontheenergyconsumption

breakdownandtheshareorinﬂuenceofartiﬁciallightingonthe

overallconsumption.

Thisreviewgenerallyshowsthatenergyefﬁcientlighting

sav-ingswereneverquantiﬁedormonitoredforEgyptianhouseholds.

Many studies addressedimproving theelectric lighting system

i.e.byreplacingorplanningtheelectriclightinginstallationwith

energy-efﬁcientﬂuorescentlamps-luminairesandCFL(orevenLED

lamps).InEgypt,energysavingconceptsispopularoverthelast

decadewithinthegovernment.TheEgyptianMinistryof

Electric-ityhasbeenpromotingtheuseofenergysavinglamps,including

theLFLandtheCFL[6].However,therealeffectorimpactofenergy

efﬁciencylightingisnotpresentedinanystudy.Moreover,nostudy

reportedthebreakdownofhousehold’senergyconsumptionand

theshareoflightingenergyconsumption.

2.3. Towardsclosingthegap

Finally,thisreviewprovidedasnapshotonthelatestadvances

inenergysavingsandtechnologiesinlightinginOECDcountries

versusthecurrenthistoryandsituationofenergyefﬁcientlighting

policiesinEgypt.Ourreviewestimatesa10–15yearsgapbetween

theOECDandMENAcountries.AsshowninFig.3,ittook7years

untilCFLsgotusedbyone-quarterofhouseholdsinOECDcountries

and18yearsuntilCFLsgotusedbyone-quarterofhouseholdsin

theMENAregion.Then,ittook4yearsuntilLEDlampsgotused

byone-quarterofhouseholdsinOECDcountriesand13yearsuntil

LEDlampsgot usedbyone-quarterofhouseholdsintheMENA

region.We thinkthat thecauseof thecurrent gapis explained

byheavysubsidyprogram thatpeakedacrosstheMENAregion

startingtheindependenceyears.Weobserveduringthelastyears

atrend towardsclosing thegapduetofastdeveloping pace of

efﬁcientlightingtechnologiestoday,thelight-emittingdiode(or

LED).

Inthiscontextwearelookingtoquantifythebeneﬁtsofenergy

efﬁciencymeasuresinresidentialbuildingsandprovidereliable

dataontheactualsavings.Theresearchoutcomeswillinﬂuence

policies that ensure closing the energy efﬁciency lighting gap.

According tothe literature review, theefﬁciency and

penetra-tionofhouseholds’electriclightinginstallationinEgyptremains

unknown,especiallywith,withthestateintentiontospreadthe

useofLEDtechnologyin2014.In2015,atenderhasbeenissued

bytheMinistryofElectricityforprocurementof10millionLED

lampstobedistributedtoresidentialcustomersbyelectricity

dis-tributioncompaniesthroughinstallmentsaddedtotheelectricity

bill[6].Therefore,itisessentialtotrackenergyperformanceand

tocheckwhethertheGHGemissionreductiontargetsarebeing

met.Accuratedatacaninformtimelydecisionmakersregarding

theimpactofpastandfutureenergyefﬁcientlighting.

3. Methodology

We aimedtoﬁnda representative sample of Egyptian

mid-dleclasshouseholds.Forthis studywecollectedand compared

data about the effect of installing ﬂuorescent lamps and

com-pactﬂuorescentlamps(CFL)ontheenergysavingsofmiddleclass

residentialhouseholdsinCairo.Theapartmentshadtorepresent

middleclassfamilieswith3–5children,connectedtothenatural

gasgridforcookinganddomestichotwater,representingtypical

Egyptianmiddleclasshouseholds,alllocatedinAl-Bassatiynsouth

eastofCairo(ASHRAEZone2A).Thespeciﬁctargetgroupwasupper

middle-incomefamiliesthatareabletoinvestinCFLsduetotheir

stillrelativelyhighcosts,whencomparedtotheincomelevelofthe

familiesandtheircurrentelectricitytariff.Accordingtothe2012

census,thenumberofcustomersinthisgroupis12million,which

representsover55%ofallresidentialcustomersinthecountry

(esti-matedat21.2million).Thiswasbased2012surveycollecteddata

from12,083households.Thespeciﬁcselectionwasbasedon

exam-iningtheenergybillsofmorethan4500apartmentsprovidedto

usbySouthCairoElectricityDistributionCompany.Theﬁnal

sam-pleforanalysiswas180rentedapartmentslocatedinmultistory

buildingblocksinSouth-EastCairo.

Fourmajorstepsidentifytheresearchmethodology.Firstly,the

dataacquisitionofmonthlyelectricenergyconsumptionof 180

(7)

2014.Secondly,anauditandsurveyforlightingﬁxturesand

appli-ances,includingtheirwattages,wereconductedforeachapartment

fortheyears2014.Thirdly,thebaselinewasdeterminedby

calcu-latingtheaverageelectricenergyconsumptionforlightingfrom

1993to1998.Based ontheauditstheaverageplug loads

con-sumptionwasdeterminedandextractedfromthemonthlyenergy

valuesallowingustoapproximateaccuratelytheinstalledbaseline

lightingenergy.Theﬁnalstepofthemethodologywastobuilda

simulationmodeltoestimatethelightingpowerdensityand

vali-datestepthree.Thefollowingsectionexplainseachstepindetail.

3.1. Dataacquisitionandenergyaudit

In Egypt, electric energy consumption is commonly tracked

onamonthlybasisandisaccessibleonthestateownedelectric

utilitycompanies.Forthisstudy,totalenergyconsumptionbills

weretrackedforeveryapartmentfrom1993to1998

represent-ing Dataset Iand 2009–2014representing Dataset II.To verify

thatthedatasetiscompleteandthatityieldscredibleresultswe

investigatedeverymonthlyreading.Forsomeapartmentsmonthly

readinghadbeenmissing.However,wediscoveredthatthe

follow-ingmonthwouldincludethetotalconsumptionofbothmonths.In

suchcaseswehadtoreconcilethemissingdatabyestimatingthe

missingmonthreadingvaluetoavoidgaps.

Inthesametime,wecollectedandcalculatedthedataforeach

apartmentmanually,throughadetailedauditoflightingﬁxtures,to

improveourforecastsofenergyconsumptions.Theﬁnalsamplefor

analysisfocusedonapartmentblocks.180rentedapartmentswere

eligibleforthisstudywithanaccesstotheirelectricityenergybills

andoccupants.Allblockswerebuiltbetween1985and1990,and

madeofconcretestructuralskeletonandbrickwallswithatypical

3mhighceiling.Allinvestigatedapartmentshadnoinsulation,AC

unitsorelectricheaters(nocoolingorheatingconsumption).All

typesoffanswereincludedintheplugloadsforeachapartment

andapumpisusedcollectivelyforeachbuildingblockwitha

sep-arateelectricmeter.Allinvestigatedapartmentswererentedand

occupiedbyusersbetween1993and2014.Allexamined

apart-mentshadtohaveanelectricitymeteraccessiblefrominsideor

outsidetheapartment andassumed thatlighting retroﬁtswere

madebytheapartmenttenants.Onlythen,each apartmentwas

examinedthroughawalkthroughvisitwiththeuseofan

inter-viewquestionnairedesignedforthestudy.Respondentscompleted

3questionnairesthatassessedvariablesthatcouldinﬂuenceenergy

consumption(e.g.,appliances,acclimatizationsystems,fansand

lightappliances).Afterﬁllinginthequestionnairetodescribethe

householdin1994,2004and2014interviewswereconductedfor

eachhousehold’sresidentstocompleteandvalidateanydetails.

OccupantswereaskedaboutthefuelusedforcookingandDHW

andiftherewasanyheatingorACequipmentusedintheirhomes.

Table2

Benchmarkmodelandenergyefﬁciencycharacteristics.

Properties Benchmarkcharacteristics 1 Orientation 0◦

2 Shape Rectangular(12mx10m) 3 FloorHeight 3mheight

4 RoofU-value U=1W/m2_K

5 WallU-value U=2W/m2_K_(no_radiant_barrier)

6 WWR 35%

7 Windowsystem U=5.8W/m2_K,_SHGC:_0.6–Single_Pane

inaluminiumframe,Tv=0.86 8 OperableShading operablewindowwithoutexterior

shading

9 Overhang None

10 Nightinsulation Notconsidered 11 PeopleDensity 0.033people/m2

12 Inﬁltration: 1.5ACH

13 Internalheatgaina ₁₉_W/m2_from_lighting,₁₂_W/m2_from

appliances 14 LightingPowerDensity 10kWh/m2_a–100_m2

a_Constant_internal_gains_were_obtained_from_annual_equipment_and_lighting

energyuse,usingconventionalvs.energy-efﬁcientappliances,0.8W/m2

(incan-descent)vs.0.17W/m2_(CFL)_Installed_lighting_wattage_and_identical_usage_proﬁles

forthebase-caseandmaximumefﬁciencyoption.

Lightingﬁxturestypesofeachapartmentwereinvestigated

includ-ingtheirpowerdensity (inwatt)and intensity(inlux)tohelp

determinethetypicallightinglevelsandon/offperiods.The

walk-throughvisitswereconductedfor180apartmentsonJuly2014and

madeanaccuratecountofeachlightﬁxturewitheachspaceofthe

apartments.Tasklightingalsowasaccuratelycountedand

docu-mentedforeachroom.Buildingdrawingsandarchitecturalplans

helpedtodeterminetheplannedlightingpowerdensity(LPD)for

eachapartment.

3.2. Baselinecharacterization

Step three focused oncreating a representative baseline by

translatingtheauditandquestionnaireresultsintoacalculated

baselinemodel.Fig.4illustratesabaselineapartmentthat

repre-sentsthe180investigatedapartments.Theapartmentsarelocated

inbuildingblocksandclustersallplannedbyMaadiCompanyfor

DevelopmentandReconstruction andfallbetweenonbothside

ofastreetnamedStreetAlGazaer.For thisstudyweselecteda

benchmarkbasedonarecentresearch[29],todevelopabenchmark

modelfortheEgyptianresidentialbuildingssector.Thebenchmark

wasdevelopedtodescribetheelectricityuseproﬁlesforlighting,

domestichotwaterandappliancesinrespecttobuildingslayout

andconstruction(seeTable4).AsshowninFig.4,differentlighting

technologiesaretracedanddrawnduringthe1994and2014audits.

Thereferencedwelling’slightingsolutionscomparisonisdescribed

inTables2and3.Inordertodeterminethebaselinewecalculated

Table3

Comparativelightingtype’scharacterizationfor150apartmentsin1994and2014.

LightingType Averageunitsperapartment-100m2 _Capacity_lumens _Average_Power_Watt _Daily_Operation_Hours

1994

Incandescent 9.5 n/a 75 7

Fluorescent(120cm) 2.5 n/a 45 5

Fluorescent(60cm) – – – –

CompactFluorescent 0.4 n/a 100 0.1

Halogen 2014 Incandescent 3 960 60 7 Fluorescent(120cm) 1.8 45 11 Fluorescent(60cm) 2 22 5 CompactFluorescent 7 1300 18 3 Halogen 0.6 1400 100 0.1 LED 0.2 8 8

(8)

Fig.4.Representationofthereferencecaseofthesimulatedapartmentbefore(left:1993–1998)andafter(right:2009–2014)theinstallationoftheenergyefﬁcientlighting ﬁxtures.

theaverage(meanvalue)electricenergyconsumption for light-ingfrom1993to1998.Thenweestimatedtheaveragemonthly plugloadsbasedonthe1994questionnaire.Wesubtractedthe averagecalculatedelectricconsumptionforthebaselinefromthe averageannualenergyconsumptionprovidedfromtheenergybills. Withthehelpofthequestionnaireresults(listedinTable4)the

averageplug loadsconsumption wasdeterminedand extracted

fromthemonthlyenergyvaluesfromDatasetI.Thisallowedusto

approximatetheinstalledbaselinelightingenergy.The

question-naireincludedanextensivestudyofavailablelampsandluminaires

andilluminancevaluesintheworkingplanes,kitchen,restroom,

livingroomandbedrooms.Forthelamps,thestudied

character-isticswerestart-uptime,thecolorandcolorrendering,theshape

(9)

Table4

Typesofdomesticappliancesandtheiraveragepowerandoperationhours.

Appliance Watt DailyOperatingHours 1994

Exhaustfan – –

Satellitedecoder – – CellPhonecharger – –

Phonecharger 3 3 ElectricIron 1100 0.1 Vacuumcleaner 630 0.1 Fans(2) 100 3 Television 180 5 Washingmachine 600 0.2 Refrigerator 380 24 Kettle – – PC/Laptop(1) 300/− 2 Mixer 127 0.05 Stereo 100 0.1 2014 Exhaustfan 150 3 CableBox 20 7

CellPhonecharger 5 8

Phonecharger 3 24 ElectricIron 1100 0.1 Vacuumcleaner 630 0.1 Fans(6) 100 3 Freezer 450 24 Television 100 6 Washingmachine 550 0.2 Refrigerator 300 24 Kettle 1800 0.1 PC/Laptop(1/2) 300/90 1/3 Mixer 127 0.05 Toaster 750 0.1

loadsofDatasetIIbasedontheauditof2014.Thenwecompared theaveragemonthlykWhconsumptionofdatasetIandII. Con-sumptionchangewastreatedasacontinuousvariable,calculated asdifferencebetweenmeasurements.Theapproximateinstalled baselinelighting energywasdeterminedbased onthemonthly consumptioncomparison.

3.3. Buildingperformancesimulation

Inordertoextendthedatasetanalysisandvalidatethe aver-agelightingpowerdensityasimulationcasestudywasconducted. Eachofthequestionnairesandtheself-reportauditprovided esti-matesofoccupancyratesandactivityschedulesovertheyear1994 and2014.Areferencedwellingwasselectedtovalidatethelighting powerdensityfortheyear1994and2014.Cairoweatherﬁlewas selectedforthiscasestudy[32].Cairoispartofthemid-latitude

globaldesertzoneanditsclimateisconsideredextremelyhotand

dryaccordingtotheKöppenClassiﬁcation(GroupB)[33].

Accord-ingtoASHRAEclimateclassiﬁcationCairoishothumid(2A).The

selectedbaselinerepresentsoneoftheinvestigatedﬂatapartments

inSouth-EastCairo(see Section3.2).Table2and Fig.4 listthe

baseline(1994)characteristicsinadditiontomeasuresfor

estimat-inglighting energy.ZEBO andEnergyPlus buildingperformance

simulation (BPS) programs were used to perform the analysis

[34,35].EachreleasedversionofEnergyPlusundergoestwomajor

types of validation tests: analytical tests, according toASHRAE

ResearchProjects865and1052,andcomparativetests,according

toANSI/ASHRAE140[36]andIEASHCTask34/Annex43BESTest

method[37].WithinthecapabilityofEnergyPlus,thebuilding

mod-elsweresetupwithaprioritytoreproducequitein detailthe

geometricalfeaturesofthebuildingandthephysicalphenomena

thatdeterminetheelectricenergyconsumptionofthebuilding.

Thetasksperformedforsimulationincluded:simulationofa

benchmarkapartment,energybreakdownforplugloadsand

light-ing.Thesimulationstartedwithdeterminingtheannualaverage

energyuseexcludingspaceheatingandcoolingtodetermineuser’s

electric consumption patterns and spikes.By this, the research

acquiredastartingpointforcomparingtheelectricenergy

con-sumptionmonthlyproﬁleswiththecollecteddata.Thebaseline

modelwascalibratedtocomparethemonthlyenergyconsumption

ﬁgures in1994 and 2014.Then, themonthlyenergy

consump-tionvalueswerenormalized.Thedetailedmodelingoftheelectric

energyuses allowedus toeffectively generatea monthly

light-ingconsumptionproﬁleandlightingpowerdensityfortheyear

1994and2014.Typicaldensitiesandschedulesdatacollectedfrom

theaudits were usedtomodel occupancy,lighting, and

equip-ment.Forthe1994baseline,incandescentluminaireswereused

to representstandard residentialinstallations. Typical Egyptian

residentialbuildingoccupancyschedules areusedtodeﬁnethe

operationpatternsfortheelectricallightingsystem.Monthly

light-ingenergyconsumptionwascalibratedtoaveragevaluesextracted

fromDatasetIand II.Thisresultedin estimatedvaluesof

elec-triclightingconsumptionoftheothermonths.Thefollowingstep

wastocreatethe2014proposedmodelwithﬂuorescentandCFL

luminairestorepresentthechangeinﬁxtureusageforresidential

buildings.Thesimulationresultswerecalibrateduntilthemore

energyefﬁcientconsumptionmonthlyproﬁlewasgenerated.

4. Results

Theresultsofenergydataacquisitionindicatethattheaverage

electricconsumptionforDatasetI(1993–1998)was26kWh/m2_/a

and24kWh/m2_/a_Dataset_II_{(2009–2014)}_(see_Fig.₅_)._The_energy

auditincludedaninventoryofelectricalappliancesasshownin

Table1.Thesaturationratesandpenetrationratesoflighting

ﬁx-tures weredetermined based onthe1994and 2014 auditand

walkthroughof180apartments.Betweenthe1994and2014audits,

majorchangesinthestructureofhouseholdsappearedevensome

families have moved out. All apartment tenants made lighting

retroﬁts.Oureligibilitycriteriaexcludedfamilieswhowitnessed

asharpchangeinoccupancyrateorpurchasedACunitsor

elec-tricheatersoverthe20yearsperiod.Thisresultedinthedecreased

ofstudyapartmentsfrom180to150.Thesurveyresultsindicate

anaverageoccupancyof3.1,4.4,3.6peopleperapartment

respec-tivelyfortheyear1994,2004and2014,whichwasconsideredas

consistent.Thecharacteristicsoffamiliesaremainlynuclear

fami-lieswhereanadultwouldbeathomeduringdaytime,whileother

familymemberswouldbeatworkoratschool.Bynuclear

fam-ilywemeanafamilygroupconsistingofapairofadultsandtheir

children.

Data generated by theaudit shows that thelighting power

densityandﬁxturestypesinstalledin1994comparedto2014

var-iedsigniﬁcantly.Thedominanttypesoflampsusedin1994were

mainlyincandescentlampswithﬂuorescenttubes (120cm).On

theotherside,the2014auditresultsindicatethatCFLlampswere

themostdominantlampswhileincandescentunitsstillexistedin

additionaltohalogenlamps.Table3,showsabreakdownof

aver-agelightingﬁxturestypesfoundintheapartments.Inaverage,an

apartmentwouldhave12.4lampsper100m2_of_apartment_in₁₉₉₄

and14.6lampsper100m2_of_apartment_in_2014._The_increase_was

mainlyduetotheproliferationoftasklightingsandindividual

light-ingunits.AlsooccupantsindicatedthemainreasontoswitchtoCFL

andﬂorescentlampsistheincreaseofenergypricesinthelast20

years.Fig.6showsdailyproﬁlesoflightinguseforatypicalliving

anddiningroomandtypicalbedroombasedonthetimeof

pres-enceofindividualhouseholdsmembersreportedinthesurvey.The

differencebetweentheweekdaysandweekendsinthelivingroom

isduetomale’sabsence.

Inordertodeterminethebaselineweestimatedtheplugload

(10)

elec-122 S.Attiaetal./EnergyandBuildings154(2017)113–126

Fig.5. AverageelectricconsumptionforDatasetI(1993–1998)andDatasetII(2009–2014)includingelectricalappliances.

Fig.6. Proﬁlesoflightinguseforatypicallivinganddiningroomandtypicalbedroom.

tricalapplianceswereincludedintheﬁeldsurvey.Thesaturation

ratesandpenetrationweredeterminedbasedontheauditﬁndings.

Theaverageplugloadpowerintensityin1994was9–11W/m2_and

in2014was13–15W/m2_._The_result_indicates_a_serious_increase_of

residentialplugloadsduetotheincreaseofelectricalappliances

ownershipperhousehold.Table3summarizesonlythosetypes

ofdomesticappliancesthathaveasaturationratehigherthan50%

fromthesurveyedsample.

Afterdeterminingtheaverageplugloadpowerdensitywe

sub-tractedthesevaluesfromtheaverageelectricconsumptionvalues

ofDatasetIandII.Atbaseline,DatasetIwasanalyzedwithrespect

tolightingﬁxturestypesandmonthlyconsumption.Thesimulation

modelallowedustovalidatethecalculationresultsand

exam-inethemonthlyandannuallyconsumptionproﬁles.Theaverage

consumptionforelectriclightingin1994was14kWh/m2_/a_and

8kWh/m2_/a_in_2014._Fig.₇_presents_the_average_monthly_values

forlightingconsumptionper100m2_after_calculating_the_mean

dif-ferences.Thesimulationresultwasusedtoassessthepresented

proﬁlesinFig.5.Thesimulatedmonthlyelectriclightingproﬁles

didnotidenticallymatchthecalculatedvaluesinFig.6.Thereis

a20–30%variationbetweenelectriclightingconsumptioninthe

summerand winterseasons. Thisismainlydue tosolaraccess

(angles)and daylightingautonomyvariationsbetweensummer

andwinter.

5. Discussion

5.1. Summaryofmainﬁndings

Keyresultsofthedataacquisitionindicatethattheefﬁciency

oflightingandassociatedfossilfuelandGHGreductionarelower

thanexpected.Installationofﬂuorescentandcompactﬂuorescent

lampsledtoonly35–40%reductioninlightingpowerconsumption

between 1994and 2014. Furthercomparisons of annual

light-ingpowerdensityreporttherealmeasuresconsumptionchange

inaveragefrom14kWh/m2_to₈_kWh/m2_._More_importantly,_the

studyproofsthatthequalityofﬂuorescentballastandlampssold

inEgyptarerespectivelylessenergyefﬁcientthantheminimum

requirementsspeciﬁedintheEUDirective[8].Basedonthestudy

ﬁndings,werecommendqualitycontrolandmarketsupervision

(11)

Fig.7.Comparisonresultsofaverageelectricmonthlylightingenergyconsumptionoftheyears1994and2014.

Wequantiﬁedtheimprovement oflightingenergyefﬁciency

inEgyptianmiddle classhouseholdsover thelast 20years.The

increaseof energyefﬁciency,associated withtheinstallationof

CFLandﬂuorescentlampswasexpected.Therewasmissingdata

on the real improvements. According to the Energy Efﬁciency

ImprovementandGreenhouseGasReductionProjectprogramthe

energysavingpotentialofreplacingincandescentlampsin

Egyp-tianhouseholdswasestimatedtoexceed50%[8].However,average

lightingconsumptiondeclinedovertimebyonly35–40%,with

sig-niﬁcantdecreasesbetweenexaminationyears1993–1998(Dataset

I)and2009–2014(DatasetII).Replacingincandescentlampswith

CFLandﬂuorescentlampswaspositivelyassociatedforall

exam-inedapartmentswithenergysavings.Acrosstheyear2014,electric

energyconsumptionforlightinghassigniﬁcantlylower

consump-tionvalues.Thefullsamplehadanaverageenergyconsumption

of 8kWh/m2_/a _for _electric _lighting. _Over _a _period _of ₂₀ _years

allapartment occupantsphased outtheirincandescent lighting

lamps.Theaverageconsumptionforelectriclightingin1994was

14kWh/m2_/a._As_shown_in_Table₃_,_the_number_of_CFLs_per

house-holdin2014is substantially high(50%).On theotherside,the

2014auditresultsindicatedthatoccupantsstillprefer

incandes-centlighting,since20%oflampsareincandescent.Thisisduetoits

slightlylowercolortemperature(ColorRenderingIndex(CRI))in

livingrooms,guestandstudyareas.Surprisingly,thestudyrevealed

thattheaverageplugloadpowerintensityincreasedby40%

mov-ingfrom12kW/m2_/a_for_Dataset_I_to₁₆_kW/m2_/a_in_Dataset_II._The

applianceinventoryconﬁrmstheincrease(penetrationand

satu-ration)ofappliancesacrossallapartments(seeTable4).

5.2. Strengthsandlimitationsofthestudy

Forthisstudy,wedevelopedamethodologythatcouldbeused

byotherresearchers.On-siteaudits,collectedmonthlybills,

simu-lationandelectricplugloadscalculationenabledustoreportthe

realelectriclightingperformanceof150apartments.Weprovided

accuratedatatoinformtimelydecisionmakers.Thisstudybuilds

onearlierstudiesthathavedocumentedtheenergyconsumption

inresidentialbuildingsinEgypt[29,38,25,39–43].Noneofthese

studies,however,provided detailedlighting energy

characteris-ticsofresidentialapartments.Therefore,thepresentedoutcome

can be very helpful for energy modelers and decision makers

tobetterunderstandthebuildingperformanceanalysisthrough

benchmarkingandcanhelpinestimatingtherealimpactofenergy

efﬁciency measures in theEgyptian residential building sector.

Thestrengthofthisstudyincludestheuseofcomplete,detailed,

longitudinalmonthlyconsumptiondataover 20-yeartimespan

andstandardizedmeasuresofelectricenergyconsumptionusing

energymeters,includingestimatesofappliancesandlighting

ﬁx-turestypes,power,andproﬁlesmadewithdataacquisitionand

modelingtechniqueswithknownreliabilityandvalidity.Theaimof

thestudywastoquantifyandtrackthechangesandimprovements

oflightingenergyefﬁciencyusingrealmeasureddata.Thusinthis

study,wewereexplicitly notinterested inthedaylighting

har-vestingstrategies[44,45].Nonetheless,usingaspeciﬁcsampleand

combiningevidencebasedapproachwithsimulationweidentiﬁed

theenergysavings accuratelyandcreateda monthly

consump-tionprofile.Ourfindingscontributetoliteratureonenergyefficient

lightingandthequantiﬁcationofenergysavingsintheresidential

buildingsector[46],inparticularweconsiderthisresearchresults

beneﬁcialandtransferabletootherMiddleEastandNorthAfrica

(MENA)regioncountriesthroughbodiessuchastheEnergy

efﬁ-ciencyintheconstructionSectorintheMediterranean(MED-ENEC)

[47].Themaintwostrategiesreportedinourauditforreducing

energyuseforelectriclightingweretheCFLandﬂuorescentlamps.

Wefoundthattheefﬁciencyoflightingandassociatedfossilfuel

andGHGreductionarelowerthanexpected.Ourﬁndingsshowed

thattheinstallationofﬂuorescentandcompactﬂuorescentlamps

ledtoa35–40%reductioninlightingpowerconsumptionovera

periodof20years.Ourﬁndingsarenotinlinewithliteraturereview

andresearchthatassumesanexpectedsavingor50–70%ofthe

originallightinginput[8,13].Despitethatthereasonofthis

mis-matchisoutofourstudyscope,weassumethatthemismatchcould

beduetothequalityofﬂuorescentballastandlampssoldinEgypt.

AccordingtoUNDPProject,onaverageﬂuorescentlampsand

bal-lastsarerespectively10%and30%lessenergyefﬁcientthanthe

minimumrequirementsspeciﬁedintheEUDirective[8].For

exam-ple,itisconservativelyassumedthattheCFLslastforanaverageof

4700h(life-spansofupto8000harequitenormalforhigh-quality

CFLs)butforvariousreasonsalowerlifespanisassumedinEgypt

[8].Therefore,itisnecessarytodealwiththeproblemoflamps

imports.Lightingﬁxturesshouldbeimportedfrom

internation-allyrecognizedcompaniesthatcomplywithEuropeanstandards

andspeciﬁcationsafterbeingsubjectedtothoroughtestingand

(12)

Despitethesestrengths,thisstudyhadsomelimitations.The

estimationoftheplugloadspowerdensitydoesnotimply

mea-suring.Weusedtheauditstoestimatetheplugloadsandsubtract

theirvaluesfromthemonthlyelectricbillsassumingaconstant

monthlyplugload.Futurestudiescanbeneﬁtfrommeasuringand

monitoringtoolssuchascurrenttransformermeters,shunt(smart

plugs)andmicrometeringloggerstoidentifytheplugloads.

The study was limited due to its self-reported audits and

changesintheapartmentoccupancyratesandintensity,andwe

couldnot completelycontrol formisreporting,which mayhave

resultedin over orunder reportingof lighting efﬁciency.

Simi-larly,we donot haveanannualauditor monitoringfor the20

yearsperiod.Sotheauditresultsrepresentonlyoneyear

examina-tion(2014)of150apartments.Analysesofconsumptioncouldbe

alsolimitedbyelectricheatingeffectsthatcouldbeoccasionally

happeningdespitenothavinganyheatingdeviceintheselected

apartment’ssample.Itisimportanttomentionthatmanyof

pos-sibleunknownchangeshappenedover thelongstudyperiodof

20years.Thosechangeswerenotmonitoredforthis studyand

couldbeinﬂuential.Thereforeweconsiderelectricﬁxtures,

occu-pantbehavior,andlifestylehabitsasindependentvariableswhich

havenotbeenconsideredinthisresearch.

5.3. Implicationsforpracticeandfutureresearch

Insummary,thisstudyprovidesaquantiﬁedevidenceofenergy

efﬁcientlightingsavingsandpowerdensityintheEgyptian

res-idential sector. Egypt and the EU will enter into a free trade

agreementby2019.TheEgyptiangovernmentplanstodistribute

50millionLEDlampsbefore2017.ThusthecumulativedirectGHG

reduction beneﬁtsenergy-efﬁcient lighting programshad tobe

estimatedinRefs.[48,13].AccordingtoFig.1,theEgyptian

mar-ketispotentiallyreadytoincreasetheannualshareofLEDlamps

upto50millionlampsbefore2019,whentheenergysubsidiesare

expectedtobecomefullylifted.Therefore,lightingenergysavings

fromLEDlampscanbeverysigniﬁcantandofhighvalue.

Over-alltheyrepresent13%ofprojectednationalelectricitydemandby

2020and17%by2030[8].Inthefuture,theestimationofenergy

efﬁciencylightingoverexpectedlifetimeoftheappliancesneedsto

beaccuratelyquantiﬁed.Notethattheexpectationisthatsalesof

incandescentwouldbecompletelyphasedoutby2020.Alreadythe

shareofincandescentlampsdeclinedinthesalesof2016andwas

estimatedaround18%(seeFig.1).Therefore,itisvitaltosourceonly

highqualityCFLsandLEDlamps.Asmoreandmoremanufacturers

entertheEgyptianmarket,consumerswillﬁnditincreasingly

dif-ﬁculttodifferentiatelow-qualitylampsfromhigh-qualitylamps,

andthereputationofCFLscouldsufferasaresult[48].TheMinistry

ofElectricitystatedthat2.4millionLEDbulbsareinconsistentwith

Egypt’snationalelectricitynetworkspeciﬁcations.Thelampswere

importedaspartofatender.ForinstancetheMinistryof

Electric-ityplannedtosupply10millionLEDbulbstothedomesticmarket

[49–52].

Inordertoachieve optimallighting energyefﬁciencyandto

reachitsfullpotentialofGHGreduction,theMENAregionneedsto

closetheentiregapidentiﬁedinFig.3anddiscussedearlierin

Sec-tion2.3.Thisrequiresstipulatingnewpoliciesthatenforcequality

controlthroughtestinglabsandmarketsupervision.Thefollowing

policesshouldbeaddressedassoonaspossibleinEgyptandall

MENAregions:

1.Establishnationalorregionallaboratorytoverifycompliance

withstandard IEC62612for self-ballastedledlampsand IEC

60969 for self-ballasted compact ﬂuorescent lamps.Lighting

monitoring,veriﬁcation andenforcementactivitiesshouldbe

executedbynationalqualitycontrolcenter(s).Thisincludethe

developmentof procurementspeciﬁcationsand testing

stan-dardstoensurethatreliable,highqualityandefﬁcientproducts.

2.Providetechnicaltrainingandsupporttomarketcontrol

author-ities and customs with a focus on imported LED lamps and

components.

3.Developnationalbaseline,impactindicators,datacollection

sys-temtoensurereliabilityofsavingsandefﬁciencyimprovements.

Creatingbaseline typologiesfor dwellings,hotels, ofﬁcesand

educationalbuildingscanhelptocharacterizethebuildingstock

andguidedecisionmakersontheprioritiesforlightingsavings

potential.

4.Implementationandsupportofgovernmentalandprivatesector

demonstrationprojectsfortargeteduseoflightingcontrolsand

highefﬁcacylampscouldincreasethemarketpenetration.

Besidesthe above recommended policies,future research is

neededtocontinuetrackingandanalyzingtheimpactofusinghigh

qualitylightingﬁxtures.Thefutureresearchshouldconsiderthe

reboundeffect,andtheirrealsavingpotential.

6. Conclusion

Seriousefforthasbeenmadeinordertominimizetheenergy

consumption of lighting installations in theMENA region.This

efforthasevolved,alongwiththedevelopmentofﬂorescentlamps,

compactﬂorescentlampsandmorerecentlyLEDlamps.The

objec-tiveofthispaperwastoquantifytheeffectofimplementingenergy

efﬁciency policies and the beneﬁtsof actualenergy savings of

energyefﬁcientlightingmeasures.Acasestudyof150apartments

inCairowasusedtomeasureandverifythelightingenergysavings.

Thestudyﬁndingspresentanovelquantiﬁcationoftherealeffectof

replacingincandescentlightbulbswithCFLoveraperiodof20year

periodandidentifytheperformancegap.Themajorresearch

ﬁnd-ingswereasfollows:

(1)Installation of ﬂuorescent and compact ﬂuorescent lamps

resultedonlyina35–40%reductioninlightingpower

consump-tionbetween1994and2014insteadoftheestimated50–70%

reduction.

(2)Comparisonsofannuallightingpowerdensitybetween1994

and 2014 revealed a consumption increase due to rebound

effect.

(3)Egyptianmiddle-incomehouseholds(withACs)havein

aver-age15lightbulbs.Thebulbs‘energyconsumptionaccountfor

approximately15%ofannualhouseholdelectricitybills.

(4)Variousenergy-savingbehaviorsofthehouseholdoccupants

wereidentiﬁed.

(5)ThereisalimitedpenetrationofLEDlampsinEgyptian

house-holds,asnewenergyefﬁcientlightingﬁxturestypes.

Failing to address the previously mentioned study ﬁndings

canjeopardizetheUNobjectives(i.e.,climatechangeandenergy

savings goals) that need to be met by 2020. The introduction

ofhigh-qualityLEDlampsintheMENAregioncansigniﬁcantly

attenuatethe lightingenergy consumption that occurs inmost

households.

Acknowledgements

ThisworkwassupportedbytheUNDPproject:Improvingthe

energy efﬁciencyoflighting and otherbuildingappliances.The

authorssincerely appreciatethecooperationoftheSouthCairo

ElectricityCompany, Maadi District and residentsof the

moni-toredapartments,andtheothercollaboratorsandresearcherswho

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