Accessibility

Energy access in Cuba is a public service for all citizens, which should be ensured at a minimum level of quality and safety. The accessibility of energy services varies depending on the population’s rural or urban location.

Modern energy services include commercial forms of energy such as electricity, city gas, LPG, gasoline, diesel and kerosene and exclude traditional energy fuels such as fuelwood and charcoal which were used in the past in an unsustainable manner.

The evolution of energy use in the household sector from 1970 to 2002 is presented in Fig. 7.1. Increasing trends in the use of gas, electricity, kerosene and alcohol (to preheat stoves) were observed up to around 1990. During the years of the crisis a dramatic reduction in the use of kerosene and alcohol was

observed, while electricity and gas use experienced a period of stabilization followed by a resumption of increasing use, particularly after 1995. The decreasing trends in the use of fuelwood observed before the crisis reversed as the population was forced to use this fuel to offset the shortages of kerosene resulting from the drastic reduction in imports of fuel from the former Soviet Union. Fuelwood use grew abruptly, reaching its maximum level in 1993. At that point, a sustained decrease began, mainly in the industrial sector, although to a lesser extent the greater supply of other fuels for households contributed as well.

Kerosene and alcohol for preheating cooking stoves were the main fuels used in the residential sector between 1970 and 1994, although by 1985 their shares had begun to decline [7.1–7.3]. These fuels have always been rationed in Cuba and the crisis forced the Government to reduce even further the quantities distributed. Even at these reduced levels, in many areas, mainly in rural parts of the country, not even 50% of the established rationed amount could be distributed because of a lack of affordability and difficulties in supplying these fuels to rural areas and especially to remote mountainous areas.

In 2002, residential energy use represented 12% of Cuba’s total energy consumption. The main form of energy used was electricity (52%), primarily for lighting, air conditioning and household appliances, although a small

0 10 20 30 40

1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002

Gas, kerosene, electricity (PJ)

0 1 2 3 4

Alcohol, harcoal, uelwood (PJ)

Gas Kerosene Electricity Alcohol Charcoal Fuelwood

cf

FIG. 7.1. Household energy use. Source: Refs [7.1–7.10].

amount was also used for cooking (for which there are no reliable data).³⁰ Other important forms of energy were kerosene (15.9% of the total residential energy use), LPG and gas (22.8%). Alcohol accounted for another 3.8%, charcoal for 1.2% and fuelwood for 0.6% in 2002 [7.8].

The share of kerosene has continued to decline (except for a slight increase in 2000³¹) as a result of the city gas fuel substitution process initiated in Havana and Santiago de Cuba. This process will benefit three million inhabitants in its first stage and, in later stages, will be extended to other provinces.

Cuba has created a modern infrastructure for LPG production and distri-bution. The LPG is bottled in 19 kg gas cylinders (each containing 9 kg of gas) and is distributed by truck to the population. The fuel is rationed according to the number of persons inhabiting a dwelling. Each cylinder costs 7 pesos; for a family of four, the acquisition cycle is one cylinder every 19 days. LPG use could be increased with increased availability and the elimination of rationed distribution. As part of a Government programme to increase access to LPG by the population, gas cookers and LPG cylinders subsidized by the Government were delivered to the population, especially those in the country’s capital. The low income segment of the population has access to this service.

In 2005, the production and distribution of city gas was increased and modernized. Currently, the associated gas is used to produce a mix of methane–

air with higher calorific content at lower cost.

Currently, a system of rationed and subsidized distribution exists which is aimed at guaranteeing the accessibility of modern fuels to the whole population throughout the country. Nevertheless, it is estimated that only about 50% of the perceived needs of the overall rural population for fuels is currently satisfied.

As the supply of modern fuels has not met Cuba’s growing energy demand due to the growth of population and higher standards of living, electricity use in households has risen owing to its convenience and cleanliness.

However, this increase has been restricted due to limitations imposed on the acquisition of household appliances that are not considered essential goods.

30 Estimates by PAEC regarding the energy use patterns of the 5.4 million inhab-itants of Cuba’s main cities show that around 20% of all energy is used for cooking and water heating.

31 The increase in kerosene in 2000 resulted from increased supply after a period of restrictions and from delays in the fuel substitution programme.

7.1.1.1. Access to electricity

Until the mid-20th century, Cuba’s main economic activities were agriculture and livestock production, for which large areas of forest were cut down, resulting in widespread deforestation.

Agricultural production has historically been centred on sugarcane, and by the 19th century Cuba was one of the most important producers of sugar in the world. The sugar industry was vigorously developed, using the most modern technologies available at that time. Improvements in the island’s sugar technology led to increases in production. This in turn prompted improvements in the island’s transport infrastructure and, with the opening of the Bejucal–

Havana line in 1837, Cuba became one of the first countries in the world to transport its sugarcane by rail. Investment in rail transport continued and in 1900–1902 the first two electric tramways were introduced; the first connected the towns of Regla and Guanabacoa and the second was in Havana [7.11].

In the past, the main resources used to satisfy primary energy needs (cooking and lighting) were fuelwood and natural gas. In the cities, lighting by means of natural gas or carbide lamps was introduced around 1820, followed later by the use of arc lamps and electric bulbs. In 1889, public lighting was introduced in Cárdenas, followed, one year later, by public lighting in three cities

— Havana, Matanzas and Camagüey — as well as at ten sugar mills [7.12].

In 1902, the Cuban Electric Company (a North American company) began installing a system to provide lighting to a sector of Havana. That power plant, which generated alternating current, began operation in 1905. In 1906, an electric railroad was installed, the first of its type in Latin America, connecting the neighbouring villages of Güines and Guanajay with their generating plant, located in Rincón de Melones, by Havana Bay. This installation also provided service to the settlements near the transmission lines, located 40–45 km from Havana [7.13].

It was not until well into the 20th century that electric power was used for other purposes. In 1911, an electric power plant was installed in a sugar mill with enough capacity to provide lighting, to power the mill’s electric motors and to meet the electricity needs of the surrounding community, as well as those of neighbouring towns. Between 1917 and 1920, three small and mini-hydropower plants were installed (Guaso, 1.7 MW; San Blas, 1 MW; and Piloto, 0.295 MW) to provide electricity to those settlements [7.13].

In 1958, electric services were provided by more than 60 isolated systems.

The western system (from San Cristóbal, Pinar del Río province, up to Nuevitas, in Camagüey) and the eastern system (south of the former Oriente province, from Guantánamo up to Manzanillo) were the most important. They were operated by the Cuban Electric Company (with private capital). This

company had an installed capacity in thermal plants of 397.1 MW (almost 84%

of Cuba’s total installed capacity, including 5 MW from independent power producers) and 13 098 km of electric lines of all voltages. Only 56% of the country’s population had access to electricity at that time [7.14].

Low access to electricity in 1959 was due to physical constraints as well as a lack of financial resources by a large part of the population in places where the electricity was available. In 1960, the electric utilities were nationalized.

Since then, the electrification process has been aimed at supporting social and economic objectives.

In 1973, the country’s two isolated electric systems (the western and the eastern) were interconnected and the NES was created. By 1985, 71.6% of the total population was living in urban areas.³² This figure increased only slowly thereafter, reaching 75.8% by 2003.

By 2004, almost 95.5% of the population had access to electricity, although this figure was 87% in the Sierra Maestra mountainous areas. The extreme difficulty of bringing electricity to mountainous areas is one of the current challenges to the Government’s bid to provide electricity to 100% of the population. The high costs of expanding the national grid to those places has led to the application of new technologies — such as photovoltaic panels;

micro-, mini- and small hydropower plants; and wind and hybrid systems — to supply electricity to schools and other social and community centres.

Concerning that part of the rural population scattered in isolated areas, the task of electrification has been very complicated from both the technical and economic points of view. Thus, since the 1980s the focus has generally been on providing electricity to settlements, not only for strictly economic reasons, but also to promote a community network that facilitates access to the social benefits that the rest of the population enjoys, in particular free education and medical services.

In recent years, the solution for over 220 small communities, largely located in areas of limited access, has been the installation of solar panels. Such photovoltaic systems have enough capacity to light the community doctor’s office and residence and to provide electricity for a refrigerator to keep drugs

32 According to the definition used in the population and housing censuses in Cuba, an area is considered to be urban if it has the following characteristics: (a) a resident population of 2000 inhabitants or more; (b) a resident population of between 500 and 2000 inhabitants, street lighting and three or more of the following: an aqueduct, paved streets, a sewer system or septic tanks, medical services, and/or an educational centre (schools); or (c) a resident population ranging between 200 and 500 inhabitants and all six of the following characteristics: street lighting, an aqueduct, paved streets, a sewer system or septic tanks, medical services and an educational centre.

and medical equipment cool, as well as to power a radiocommunication device and a television [7.15].

Electrification in support of social goals has been a priority, with electricity being provided in 2001–2002 for a number of important end uses, for example: 350 family doctor’s offices, 5 hospitals, 2364 primary schools, 1864 television rooms, 150 social clubs, dozens of houses, rural boarding schools, camping facilities, television relay stations, telephone exchanges, fishing collection centres and cooperatives [7.16]. Special attention was given to electrification within the programmes aimed at disseminating cultural and other information to the population in rural areas.

These actions have contributed considerably to improving the quality of life of a great number of people. They have also contributed to the economic development of the region, as well as to stemming the flow of migrants to urban areas from the mountainous and rural areas in general.

With increased access to the national electricity grid in rural areas, electri-fication of the rural population grew from 56% in 1958 to 79.4% in 1992 [7.3].

Efforts continue to be aimed at bringing electricity to the rest of the rural population by means of micro- and mini-hydropower plants, photovoltaic panels (many contributed by individuals and non-governmental organizations from Germany, Italy, Norway and Spain, among others) and, more recently, wind and hybrid systems.

The overall social impact of the Government’s programmes to electrify rural areas has not been fully quantified. However, opinion surveys show high support for the programmes in those communities that have cooperated signif-icantly in the implementation and care and maintenance of these programmes.

In terms of per capita use, electricity increased rapidly, reaching 1120.8 kW·h per capita in 1990, which was 2.4 times higher than in 1970.

Between 1990 and 1995, primary energy and electricity use per capita fell dramatically as a result of the crisis (Fig. 7.2). After 1994, electricity use per capita increased and was slightly higher in 2002 than in 1990, but primary energy use per capita decreased in later years. This is due to the fact that decreases in biomass use per capita are larger than increases in crude oil and gas use per capita.

It is important to note that the share of population with access to electricity in Cuba is about 20% higher than the average share for the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean³³ [7.8, 7.17]. However, even with the social developments of the second half of the 20th century, some 174 105 dwellings in

33 The average electrification rate for the Latin American and Caribbean region was estimated to be around 74% in 2002 [7.17].

Cuba are still considered to be without electricity. This constitutes a social problem for the country, which aims at eliminating all barriers hindering the social welfare of its inhabitants, regardless of class, race or geographical location³⁴ [7.8].