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HAL Id: inria-00101500

https://hal.inria.fr/inria-00101500v2

Submitted on 28 Sep 2006

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A Short Report about Motion Safety

Thierry Fraichard

To cite this version:

Thierry Fraichard. A Short Report about Motion Safety. [Research Report] RR-5987, INRIA. 2006,

19 p. �inria-00101500v2�

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a p p o r t

d e r e c h e r c h e

ISRN INRIA/RR--5987--FR+ENG

Thème NUM

INSTITUT NATIONAL DE RECHERCHE EN INFORMATIQUE ET EN AUTOMATIQUE

A Short Report about Motion Safety

Thierry Fraichard

N° 5987

September 27, 2006

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ebU‰< \b‡"i/\bR;TjJ=sUcJCLN\=OPwJRwTV=sLV9;=>TN\br$\^LNUci|JHKJLV=O<>J-JVe^‡ˆ=LMH,— #f\!Œ"=/”,=/TCeŠiOe^TN=‡ˆR;‹(e^Pweb‹‰HKJVUcJ®\b‡[LV9;=-J=

i/\b‹c‹‰UXJVU‰\,Pše4”,\bUXh;e^Pti=JVij9w=/<>=OJJV9;\!ŒfJLN9we!L-v(U‰P˜<>\,JLsiOebJV=OJebPwhš=OJVgt=-iUXe^‹c‹‰HU‰PªhKHIPwe^<>UXi=/PI”IU‰TN\bP;_

<>=OP,LjJ/v

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ލU‰PŠLN9;=œJV=/PwJV=LN9we!LAU‰LAUXJQTN=/‹Xe!LVUc”b=O‹‰H=Oe,JH€LV\>™wPwhaJVU‰LVRwe^LVUc\bPwJ

ŒQ9w=/TN=®i/\b‹c‹‰UXJUc\bPtJŒQUc‹‰‹=O”b=OP,LNRwe^‹c‹cH|\KiOiR;T–•–—28²\|JV\b<>=®= ILV=OP,L-vILV9;UXJUXJ"h;R;=®LV\sLV9;=®‡¨ebiL›LN9we!LfJNe!‡ˆ=/LMHUcJ

e|i\,Pwi=OgKLLV9we^LQUcJ"Lje^’b=OP‡ˆ\,T"},TNebPYLV=Oh°—²­§P“\^LN9;=/TŒ"\bTjh;J/vYLN9;=<|=-e^P;UcP;}|\^‡(JVe^‡ˆ=LMHUXJP;=/”,=/T"‡ˆ\bTN<e^‹c‹‰H

(8)

JLNe^LV=-h¹e^Pthv›ebrt\!”,=“eb‹‰‹*v[LN9;=Š\bg$=/Tje!LVUc\bPte^‹i\bPthKU«LNU‰\,PwJ|\^‡JRwij9 i\,‹‰‹cUcJVUc\bPªe4”,\bUXh;e^Pti=JNij9;=O<|=-J>e^TN=

JV=/‹XhK\,<EŽˆU‰‡Pw=/”b=OTj•"JVgt=O‹‰‹c=Oh“\,RKLO—

89;UXJ|gwe^g$=/T>UXJ>e^Pªe^LLN=/<>gKL>LV\šij9we^Pw}b=LN9;UXJ|JLNe^LV=“\^‡Ce^¾¯ebU‰T-— 8²\r$=/},U‰PªŒQU«LN9°v[LN9;TV=O= -„À ‚ Á

…bƒˆ‚ À ƒ¨„ e^TN=g;TN\bg$\,JV=Oh°—²89;=-J="iTNU«LN=/TNUceA9;=/‹cgwJU‰PsR;PwhK=OTNJLNebPwhKUcP;}efPIR;<œr$=/T(\b‡w’b=OHe,Jg$=OiLNJTN=/‹Xe!LV=-h

LN\|LV9;=JNe!‡ˆ=/LMHUcJNJVR;=ŽLju,•–—[89;=OPaesPIR;<srt=OTQ\^‡gt\,g;R;‹Xe^TQ= KUXJMLNU‰Pw}>i/\b‹c‹‰UXJVU‰\,P“e4”,\bUXh;e^Pwi/=CJNij9;=/<>=-JQe^TN=

=O”!e^‹cRwe!LN=Oh“ŒQU«LN9qTN=OJVgt=-i–LfLN\LV9;=-J=sJVe^‡ˆ=LMHi/TVU‰LV=OTVUXe;—89;=œ‡ˆ\b‹c‹‰\!ŒQUcP;}WYR;=OJLVUc\bPŠUXJAe,J’,=Oh /›UcJCi\b‹c‹cUcJVU‰\,P

e4”,\bUXh;e^Pti=}bRte^Tje^PYLV=O=Ohv=OJVgt=-iUXe^‹c‹‰HšŒQ9;=OP˜LV9w=/H e^TN=RwJV=Oh U‰P hKHIPwe^<>UXi=/PI”IUcTV\,P;<>=/PYLNJ

­`LsLVR;TNPwJ

\,RKLLN9we!Lœ<>\YJMLލU«‡fPw\^Lseb‹‰‹¦•i\,‹‰‹cUXJUc\bP˜e4”b\,Uchwe^Pwi/=>JNij9;=O<|=-Je^TN=P;\bLsJVe^‡ˆ=ŒQ9;=OP˜RwJ=-hšU‰P h;HYPte^<>Uci

=OPI”YUcTN\bP;<>=/PYLjJŽ L b•–—f89;=si\bPti=/g;LA\^‡ À43

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UcPYLVTN\Ih;Rwi=-hUcP Hu J²UXJQLN9;=/P

iOe^‹c‹‰=-h˜R;g$\bP ebJ|e^P e^PwJVŒ›=OTœLN\¬LN9;=ŠJVe^‡ˆ=LMHšUcJNJVR;=b— ©APª­§P;=O”IU«Lje^r;‹c= 0›\,‹‰‹cUXJUc\bPªFILNe!LN=OJŠŽˆ­0Fw•‡ˆ\,T|e

TN\br$\^LNUciœJHKJLV=/< UXJCe€JMLje!LV=œ‡ˆ\bT®ŒQ9;UXij9°vtPw\€<e!LVLV=/T®ŒQ9we^LALV9w=‡ˆRKLNR;TV=sLVTje!]M=-i–LN\bTNH€\^‡2LN9;=sJVHKJMLN=/< UXJ/v

e“i\,‹‰‹cUXJUc\bP=/”,=/PYLVRweb‹‰‹cHa\Ki/i/R;TNJO—œ­`LUXJJ9w\!ŒQP9;\!Œ LV9;=>­0Fi\,Pwi=OgKL®=O<œr$\KhKU‰=-J®LV9;=>LN9;TN=/=e^r$\!”b=/_

<>=OP,LNU‰\,P;=Oh“iTNU‰LV=/TNUXe|ebPwh9;\!Œ U‰Lf\^¾¯=/TjJQesLV9;=O\bTN=LVUXi/eb‹e^PwJVŒ›=OTLV\|LV9w=JVe^‡ˆ=LMHUXJVJVR;=Ž L Y•—

>œ !"t# j

#C=Oi/Uch;U‰P;}\,P;=?-J‡ˆRKLVRwTV=fi/\bR;TjJ="\^‡¯ebiLVUc\bP|UcJ2e®g;TN\Ki=OJNJ²LV9we^L[U‰<>g;‹cUc=OJ2ei=OTLje^UcP|eb<|\,R;PYL2\^‡tTN=Oe,J\,P;UcP;}

ebrt\,RKL[LN9;=f‡ˆRKLNR;TN= /Hb\bRh;=OiUXhK=fPw\!ŒªŒQ9we^L›H,\bR>ŒQU‰‹c‹¯hK\P;=4YL-—2±;\bT›eTV\,rt\bLVUXifJVHIJLV=O<Šv^LV9w=ChK=-iUXJUc\bPK_

<eb’YUcP;}ªg;TV\Ki/=OJNJ€UXJŠRwJVRwe^‹c‹‰H rwe,J=-h1\,P eª<|\KhK=O‹\^‡œLN9;=TV\,rt\bLVUXiJVHKJMLN=/< U‰LNJV=/‹‰‡“ŽˆRtJRweb‹‰‹cH }bUc”b=OP

eqg;TVUc\bTNU¦•–v2e^Pwh¹ea<>\Ih;=/‹"\^‡fU‰LNJs=/PI”IU‰TN\bP;<>=OP,L-—¬89;==/PI”IU‰TN\bP;<>=OP,Ls<|\KhK=O‹"iOe^P i/\b<œrwU‰P;=“eag;TNU‰\,TVU

UcPK‡ˆ\,TV<e!LNU‰\,P ŽN *)><e^gwJj•–v JV=/PtJ\,T®<>=-ebJVR;TV=O<>=/PYLNJOv°\bTi/\b<>g;RKLje!LNU‰\,PTN=OJVR;‹‰LNJŽV *)>gwTV=-hKUciLVUc\bP\^‡"LV9;=

‡ˆR;LVR;TN=-•— ›=-JUXhK=-J®LV9;=gwebTLNUci/R;‹Xe^TjJC\b‡LN9;=hK=Oi/UcJVUc\bPK_`<e^’IU‰Pw}g;TN\Ki=-JVJ®U‰LNJV=/‹‰‡Mv LN9;=<>\Ih;=/‹XJ®LV9we^Lœe^TN=

i/\bPwJVUXhK=/TN=Oh€9we4”b=e>hKUcTV=-i–LQU‰<>gwe,i–Lf\,P€LN9;=hK=Oi/UcJVUc\bP“ŒQ9;Ucij9ŠUXJ"LNeb’b=/P —

89;UXJ[JV=OiLVUc\bP>= ;e^<>UcP;=OJLN9;TN=/=fi\,<><|\,P|JV=/PtJ=fi/TVU‰LV=OTVUXe®ŒQ9;Ucij9 v^U«‡”IUc\b‹Xe!LV=-hv^<e4HœgwRKL2LV9;=Cebi–LNRwe^‹

TN\br$\^LNUcisJHKJLV=O< U‰PYLV\Šh;ebP;}b=OT®ebPwhqHIUc=/‹Xh¬e“i\b‹c‹cUcJVU‰\,P¬e!LJV\b<>=œg$\bUcPYL®UcPLV9;=|‡ˆRKLNR;TV=,—œ89;=-J=>JVe^‡ˆ=LMH

i/TVU‰LV=OTVUXeebTV=TN=OJVg$=Oi–LNU‰”,=/‹cHTN=/‹Xe!LN=OhŠLN\LN9;=œ<>\KhK=/‹\^‡LV9;=sTV\,rt\bLVUXiœJVHIJLV=O<ŠvwLN9;=s<>\KhK=O‹²\b‡2LV9;=|=/PI”IU«_

TN\bPw<|=OPYL"e^Pth>LV9;=hK=-iUXJUc\bP;_*<e^’IUcP;}g;TN\Ki=-JVJO—²­§Pe^‹c‹¯iOebJV=OJOv,U‰LUcJebJNJVR;<>=Oh>LN9we!LQeœi/\b<>g;‹c=LV=®<>\KhK=/‹

\b‡QLV9;=“=/PI”IUcTV\,P;<>=/PYLœUXJse4”!e^Uc‹Xe^r;‹c=bv2i\,<>g;‹‰=/LV=€LV\qLN9;=“gt\,U‰PYLœLN9we!L>U‰L>eb‹cJV\¬i\,<>g;TVUXJV=OJUcPK‡ˆ\,TV<e!LNU‰\,P

ebrt\,RKL|LV9;=‡ˆRKLVRwTV=Š<>\^LNU‰\,P¹\^‡ALV9;=Š<>\!”IU‰P;}\brK]M=-i–LjJ/— 89;=“Tje!LVUc\bPte^‹c=€r$=/9;UcPwh¹LV9;UXJ|UcJsLV9te!LU«‡CLV9;=

JNe!‡ˆ=/LMH¬iTNU‰LV=/TNUXe“ebg;g;‹cU‰=-JŒQU‰LV9šgt=OT‡ˆ=-i–LœUcPK‡ˆ\,TV<e!LNU‰\,P°v°U‰LœUXJ= Kg$=Oi–LN=OhLV9w=/< LV\ar$=e^‹XJ\ŠTN=/‹c=/”!e^PYLUcP

LN9;=UcPwi\,<|gw‹‰=/LV=U‰P;‡ˆ\bTN<>e^LVUc\bPŠi/e,J=,—

89;=®JVe^‡ˆ=LMHiTNU‰LV=/TNUXee^TN=Ae^‹c‹tUc‹c‹‰RwJLVTje!LN=Oh>RwJVUcP;}LN9;=A=4Keb<>g;‹‰=C\^‡ e\,P;=_§hKUc<>=/PwJVU‰\,Pwe^‹tgt\,U‰PYL"TV\,rt\bL

A

ŒQU‰LV9hK\,R;r;‹c="UcPYLV=O}bTje!LV\,T2hKHIPwe^<>UXi/JQލJVR;rK]M=-i–L2LV\”,=/‹c\KiU‰LMHe^Pwh>ebiOi=O‹‰=OTNe^LVUc\bPœr$\bRwPwh;Jj•–v,ebPwhsŒQ9;Ucij9 UXJ(<>\!”IU‰P;}e^‹c\bPw}®e®‹cU‰P;=-e^T2gwe^LV9°—

A

UXJ[ij9webTNe,i–LN=/TNUcJV=OhrIHU‰LNJ(g$\,JVU‰LVUc\bP

p

eb‹‰\,P;}CLV9;=Qgwe^LV9°vbU«LjJ2”b=O‹‰\KiU‰LMH

|v| ≤ v max

v;e^Pwh“U‰LNJfe,i/i/=/‹c=/Tje!LVUc\bP

|a| ≤ a max

—

1 8@"F#G "F?9 #G

0›\,PwJVUchK=OTs±Uc}w—czŒQ9;=/TN=eqgt\,U‰PYLs\,rK]M=OiL

B

UXJse^Lsg$\,JVU«LNU‰\,P

p b

e^‹c\bP;}

A

-Jsgwe^LV9°—

A

J9;\,R;‹Xh˜P;=/”,=/T h;=OiUXhK=®LV\\KiOiR;gIHg$\,JVU«LNU‰\,P

p b

JVU‰Pwi/=U«LfŒ"\bR;‹Xhrt=UcPai\b‹c‹cUcJVU‰\,PŒQU‰LV9

B

—

(9)

A B

(p, v) p b

d(v) d(v, v b )

±Uc}bR;TN=>z / CP;=/_`hKUc<>=/PwJVUc\bPweb‹gt\,U‰PYLQTV\,rt\bLQ= ;e^<>g;‹c=b—

A B

t

p v/a max

d(v) p b

±Uc}bR;TN=uF/89;=>Z(\,JVU«LNU‰\,P

×

8U‰<>=>Jgtebi=|\^‡"LV9w=|\,P;=_§hKUc<>=/PwJVU‰\,Pwe^‹(g$\bUcPYLTN\br$\^L

A

ŒQ9;=/PU«LrwTNeb’b=OJ h;\!ŒQPe^Pth¬JLV\bgtJsލr;‹‰Rw=>i/R;TN”b=œ\,PqLN9;=>‹‰=/‡¦Lj•–—|89;=|}bTN=/=/PiR;TN”b=s\bP¬LV9;=>TNU‰},9,Li\,TVTN=OJVgt\,Pwh;JfLV\“LV9;=

™ I=-h€\,rK]M=OiL

B

—

(10)

"=OiOe^RwJV=Q\^‡U‰LNJ›hKHIPwe^<>UXi/JOvbU‰L[LNeb’b=OJ

A

e<>UcP;Uc<œR;< LVUc<>=

v/a max

LV\sJ‹c\!Œ h;\!ŒQP>ebPwhJLV\bg —89;=

h;UcJLNebPwi=®LVTje4”b=O‹‰‹c=Oh€UcJ /

d(v) = v 2 /2a max .

ŽMz-•

­`‡

A

hKUcJVTN=/},ebTNhwJU‰LNJ\!ŒQP“hKHIPwe^<>Uciij9webTNe,i–LN=/TNUcJLVUXi/JOv,U‰Lfi\,R;‹ch“hK=-iUXhK=®LV\>\Ki/iRwgYHeœg$\,JVU«LNU‰\,PŒQU‰LV9wU‰P LN9;=

[p b − d(v), p b [

TNebP;}b=AJVUcPwi=JRtij9gt\YJU‰LVUc\bPtJ›ebTV=®i\b‹c‹cUcJVU‰\,PK_*‡ˆTV=O=b—2FI9;\bRw‹chLV9;UXJ"9we^g;g$=/P v

A

Œ›\,R;‹ch

r$=U‰PsLVTN\bRwr;‹‰="r$=Oi/ebRwJV=›U‰L2Œ›\,R;‹chœ=/”,=/PYLVRweb‹‰‹cHiTjebJV9UcPYLV\

B

ŽˆP;\®<e!LVLV=/T2ŒQ9te!L(U«L[hK\I=OJUcPœLN9;="‡ˆRKLVRwTV=4•–—

8e^’IUcP;}|U‰PYLV\e,i/i/\bR;PYL"LV9;=hKHIPweb<>UciOJ\^‡

A

vKLV9;=Tje^Pw}b=

[p b − d(v), p b ]

r$=Oi/\b<>=OJQ‡ˆ\bTNr;UchwhK=/P°—

89;="JVeb<>=[i\bPti‹cRwJUc\bPiOe^Pr$=›hKTje4ŒQPrIHC‹c\I\b’IU‰Pw}fe!L°LN9;=g$\,JVU«LNU‰\,P

×

LVUc<>=Jgtebi=\^‡

A

ebJ²hK=/gwUciLV=Oh UcP¬±Uc}w—uI—Q­`LCUXJCe,JVJVR;<>=OhLN9we!L-v¯e^LfLVUc<>=sxwv

A

UXJCe^LAgt\YJU‰LVUc\bPqxŒQU«LN9q”b=O‹‰\KiU‰LMH

v

— . 9w=/P

A

rwTNeb’b=OJ h;\!ŒQP e^Pwh˜JLV\,gwJœe^Ls<e KUc<œR;< hK=Oi/=/‹c=/Tje!LNU‰\,P°v²U‰LœLNTNe,i=-JœeagwebTNebrt\,‹‰UXie^Tji>UcP˜LV9;=gt\YJU‰LVUc\bP

×

LNU‰<>=

JVgwe,i=b—CPti=U‰L®9tebJAJLV\,g;g$=Ohv$U«LCLVTjebi/=OJAe”b=/TVLVUXi/eb‹ ‹cU‰Pw=ަLN9;=œrw‹‰R;=|iR;TN”b=œU‰P¬±Uc}w—u^•–—C89;=œ”,=/TVLVUXi/e^‹

},TV=O=/P‹‰UcP;=i\,TVTN=OJVgt\,Pwh;JALV\“LV9w=s™ I=-h¬\,rK]M=OiL

B

— . 9;=/PLN9;=hKUcJLNebPwi=>r$=LMŒ"=/=OP

A

e^Pwh

B

UXJC‹c=OJNJ LN9we^P

d(v)

v;LV9;=Cr;‹‰Rw=®ebPwh},TV=O=/PiRwTV”,=AUcP,LN=/TjJ=-i–L"=Oebij9\bLV9;=OT›<>=-e^P;UcP;}LN9we!LQeœi/\b‹c‹‰UXJVU‰\,PŒQU‰‹c‹¯\Ki/iRwTO—

89;UXJ=4Keb<>g;‹‰=aUc‹c‹‰RwJLVTje!LN=OJ|LN9;=Ї¨ebiLLV9we^LOvŒQ9;=/Pw=/”b=OTešTV\,rt\bLVUXiŠJHKJLV=/< hKUXJTN=/}Ye^Tjh;JœU‰LNJ€\!ŒQP

h;HYPte^<>Uci|ij9webTNe,i–LV=OTVUXJLVUXi/JOvwU‰L<e4HqhK=-iUXhK=|\bPe‡ˆRKLVRwTV=i\,R;TjJ=s\^‡›e,i–LVUc\bP¬‡ˆ\bT®ŒQ9;UXij9JNe!‡ˆ=LMHaUXJ®P;\^L

},Rwe^Tje^PYLN=/=Ohe^Pwh“i\,‹‰‹cUXJUc\bP“<e4H>LNe^’,=g;‹ce,i==/”,=/PYLVRte^‹c‹‰H,vK9;=/Pwi/=LV9;=™tTNJLfJVe^‡ˆ=LMH€i/TVU‰LV=OTVUc\bPA/

„À ‚ Á ƒˆ‚ À ƒÄ ¡`º 'b j£/¥'b >¥¦¡6Ÿ K¡K¤V >º^¡6¥¨º^´ž¤Vº,¶jº!¡*¥¨£sj¢4–¡§  ;º K·'a£jº!´wj¥', ¤s¥¦¡¨

1 21 5$9#%5 ?5" B 8 ? " 9 "9? ? $9#%

e,ij’¹LN\ª±U‰}t—‰z¬r;RKLaebJNJR;<>UcP;} P;\!Œ LN9we!L

B

UcJ<>\!”YUcP;}˜LN\ LN9;=¬‹c=‡¦LŠŒQU«LN9 eªi\bPtJMLje^PYL€”b=O‹‰\Ki/U«LMH

v b ≤ v max

—|­§PLV9wUcJJVU«LNRwe!LNU‰\,P°v°U‰LLNeb’b=OJ®<>\bTN=sLV9webPšJLNe4HIUcP;}“\bRKL\^‡›LV9;=

[p b − d(v), p b ]

g$\,JVU«LNU‰\,P Tje^Pw}b=LN\},Rwe^Tje^PYLN=/=LN9;=ŠJVe^‡ˆ=LMH˜\^‡

A

— ­§PwhK=O=Ohv›R;P;‹c=OJNJ

A

JV9;U‰‡¦LNJ>UcPªTN=/”,=/TjJ=RwP,LNU‰‹QU‰LTV=-ebij9;=-Jœe

”,=/‹c\KiU‰LMHe!Lf‹c=OebJLQ=OWYRweb‹¯LV\

v b

vwe>i\b‹c‹cUcJVU‰\,PŒQU‰LV9

B

ŒQUc‹c‹°\Ki/iRwTO—

© JLVTje^Uc}b9YL‡ˆ\,TVŒe^Tjh>e^Pweb‹‰HKJVUcJ"i/ebTVTNU‰=-h\bR;LUcPLN9;=Z(\,JVU«LNU‰\,P

×

8U‰<>=Jgtebi=C\^‡

A

e^‹c‹‰\!ŒfJLV\hK=/LV=OT_

<>UcP;=sLV9;=|TNebP;}b=œ\^‡[‡ˆ\,TVr;UXh;hK=OP¬g$\,JVU«LNU‰\,PwJCU‰P¬LV9;UXJi/ebJV=b—±Uc}w—€hK=Og;UciLNJCLV9w=sZ(\,JVU‰LVUc\bP

×

8Uc<>=sJVgwebi/=

\b‡

A

—­`L|UXJ>ebJNJRw<|=-hLV9we^LOve^LsLNU‰<>=Šx;v

A

UXJ|e!L>gt\YJU‰LVUc\bP¹x¬ŒQU«LN9¹”,=/‹c\Ii/U«LMH

v

—˜89;=€r;‹cR;=ŠiR;TN”b=

TN=/gwTV=-J=OP,LjJQLN9;=|LVTje!]M=OiLV\,TVH“‡ˆ\b‹c‹c\!Œ›=-harIH

A

ŒQ9;=/PU‰LJV‹‰\!ŒfJ®hK\!ŒQP°v°JLV\,gwJe^PwhJ9wU«‡¦LjJCUcPTV=O”b=/TjJV=œe!L

<e IUc<œRw< e,i/i/=/‹c=/Tje!LVUc\bP>R;PYLNU‰‹$U«LTN=Oebij9w=OJ2”,=/‹c\Ii/U«LMH

v b

ŽˆU‰L"UXJ›<>e,hK=fR;g\^‡LMŒ"\gwebTNebrt\,‹‰UXife^Tji/Je^Pwhe

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(11)

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A

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v b

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(12)

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(13)

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A

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s = f (s, u)

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s ∈ S

UXJ2LN9;=CJLNe^LV=f\b‡

A

v

s ˙

U«LjJ[LNU‰<>=AhK=OTVUc”!e!LNU‰”,=Ae^Pwh

u ∈ U

ei\,PYLVTN\b‹*—

S

ebPwh

U

TN=OJVgt=-i–LVUc”b=O‹‰H|hK=/Pw\^LV=fLV9;=œj¡§ž!¡§ A;ž,£N ®ebPwh|LV9;=|£Nº^´w¡*¤Vº!·t;ž,£j A\b‡

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A

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t

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A

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A

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(20)

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A

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A

UXJCi/R;TNTV=OP,LN‹‰HLVTje4”b=O‹‰‹cU‰Pw}e!L

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A

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A

U‰PYLV=O}bTje!LN=OJ›LV9;=­0F“i\,Pwi=OgKLfe^PwhTN=OJLVTNUciLNJU‰LNJ

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A

rt=C}bRwebTNebPYLV=/=-h

89;=Ae^PtJŒ"=/T

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LN9;=JVe^‡ˆ=LMH>\^‡

A

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A

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=O”b=OP,LNRwe^‹c‹cHU‰P;=O”IU«Lje^r;‹c=b—

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34 EG 6#%

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JVUc‘/=qe^PthªhKHIPweb<>UciOJ<e^’b=“LN9;=/< gt\bLV=OP,LNUceb‹‰‹cH¹9te^TN<s‡ˆRw‹Q‡ˆ\bT>LN9;=/<JV=/‹c”b=OJ\bT>LV9w=/UcT=/PI”IU‰TN\bPw<|=OPYLj•–—

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LN9;=g;TNUc<>ebTVHi\bPYLNTVUcr;RKLNU‰\,Pa\^‡LV9;UXJfgwebgt=OTA9we,JQr$=/=/PŠLN\g;TN\bg$\,JV=®LV9;TN=/=/žŸ ¡*¢£/¤–¥¦¡` /¤–¥¨ž€LV9we^LA9;=/‹cgwJ

UcP R;PthK=/TjJMLje^Pwh;U‰P;}eqPIR;<srt=OTs\b‡f’b=/H˜e,Jg$=OiLNJsTV=O‹ce^LV=OhLN\qLN9;=<>\bLVUc\bP¹JNe!‡ˆ=/LMHUXJNJR;=,—© PIR;<œr$=/T

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h;Uchš”IUc\b‹Xe!LV=\,P;=\,TœJ=O”b=OTNeb‹2\^‡LV9;=O<Š—q©Qi/i\,TNh;U‰P;},‹‰H,v <>\^LNU‰\,P JVe^‡ˆ=LMH,v²=-Jg$=Oi/Uceb‹‰‹cH¬UcPšLV9;=g;TN=OJV=/Pwi/=

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(21)

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Unité de recherche INRIA Rhône-Alpes

655, avenue de l’Europe - 38334 Montbonnot Saint-Ismier (France)

Unité de recherche INRIA Futurs : Parc Club Orsay Université - ZAC des Vignes 4, rue Jacques Monod - 91893 ORSAY Cedex (France)

Unité de recherche INRIA Lorraine : LORIA, Technopôle de Nancy-Brabois - Campus scientifique 615, rue du Jardin Botanique - BP 101 - 54602 Villers-lès-Nancy Cedex (France)

Unité de recherche INRIA Rennes : IRISA, Campus universitaire de Beaulieu - 35042 Rennes Cedex (France) Unité de recherche INRIA Rocquencourt : Domaine de Voluceau - Rocquencourt - BP 105 - 78153 Le Chesnay Cedex (France)

Unité de recherche INRIA Sophia Antipolis : 2004, route des Lucioles - BP 93 - 06902 Sophia Antipolis Cedex (France)

Éditeur

INRIA - Domaine de Voluceau - Rocquencourt, BP 105 - 78153 Le Chesnay Cedex (France)

ISSN 0249-6399

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