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"c .C·30.Pleaseread.th e author l18tionforms which

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, u'qllaiiur dOeerte'

m~ich~

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IelsseriIdesi~er,rsl,lrtout.ilespllgesori·ginale.ontete dae:tyIQll ra p_hl~.:...!\ I'aid ed'U,lYruballusecc stl'l,lnl~er­

~~li~;'I,lS8fail'parvepl'lephot~demeuvaise

4i:.

·...les--.dOCllmeJlU,quifOllt dej6I' ob jetd'ull droit

d'auteur (articles.derevue,e:qmeospublies,etc.loe 50nt.pnmicrofilm8s. ..

' ....,. ,

^{' . '. .'.}

-

.

. l.lIrep roducti o ll,rTM!me.PiIrtielle,du\cemicrofilm est"soum ise~·18,.LolClInlldierme surIe droitd'8uteu t.

..

~o~;u~:?~;.~to~;~i~~~~~~~~~;~~:::e~~:/es

.

,'"

- -T HIS DISSERTATION HAS/'BEENMICROFILMED.-'r---_'_

.EXACTLYASRECEIVED .

LA n.ji:sE AET'e 'MICROFllMEE

rsu.e

QUE·<,

NQUSl'AV ONji1;1ECUE:

~.

... . .

^;-~

AThu i -s s-ubmittedin par tialful,fil l mf!nt of the re quir elllentsfor:t h e degree'of

,Hast er o,r.SCience.,:.

Departmento"r Psy c t;ol OU··

to!ea or l al..Un iY erll l f. yof.Newfoundland . , H", ,19 8 1 ,...

\.

.

;',':

: '

.' -;

"-' .,;' ' "

::.

"

", /'

k~OW:--'-': the'ya r emiss ing

an.ex perlm·ent~l tr~atllleni~ 8~

.s'

ru~~t lon

Of:

. , . I ". " ", "." • . • - .'.

a.S~igruo e.')t to'8.con~ralgrou p,andc9nslderedwh e th e r ~.he se

re.a<;t1ons·could produc e;treat me nt .-efr e c t s. Th e r e cer-e :l hre eeitper.1m~n tsl,con d itions. SUbje'cts In.one'

' pon .i1t lon wer~ Informe~'

^{tha t,they....}

ej.~ '

^a

'c~n tr ~l

^group'a'ne

-u~-l

^{ike.thP.··' ·}

..

. ' .

t~e ,el Pe r l~ elltal g~ou p.wO·l1ld-~.ot eee e rvee

i

eerr

ie

-:Iho ck"s

for poorperformance on expe rteenteI tasks. In.the 'Ui f r a'

~O~~ 1tl0:n SUbJec ~'s w~r e'gl~ en

^no

in fonat iOn .c ~~c~r~ing .th'e '

^....

.- ". ^' . . . . "

. . .

uperimenta l grou p woul dnot.rece i ve extra"ltoneY'f l»" doin g

\I~l.l-

^{on.ex perimental-tasks.}

iUbjec'~: -l n ",

^eeccnc

cond HI'o~"'

^. wer;~^{informedthatthe y}w~r e'ln^aCQntro l grou p.~~q· ^{unl ike} ':"" -,'c_"

. ~ ^.

~\ .

" . .' . '. : "

..

^' _. ." ". .

.exts..~l:!n cei.'~f\~any-.a,t h er.CO~~ l~~o.~.:.:--th! Jlenc:e.m:--;'II.e-a~r ~ ~^;:.

inc l u ded ta s~.performa nceand rea s u ruof.a tt it.-:d e s toward t!le -ex pe,r im ent . .Su'bje c ts"who ceitev

es

the y :We r e:r tsSIn F....8

~

^'.

~S.1

^{ti; e}

~tr·e~t·m~n t. '

^ter.,ded

~

^{·:·tCl b"'e}

-Ie" , ;

^{caref U;!}

~,~k~

^ecr-e

.error-s-:-\nddole'S;

~ ~k'

^than:SUbj'e c ts'

u~~w~~~

^of

'8n Y oth~'r

cond it io n. ·su_twe"ci .s ·'who be liev ed ·the Y were lI',i::l~inll·a neg ativ etreatmen t·te.';Ided·.~O be 'mo ~~ efuI·. :.II ~k~ ie~er

l

_'_'_er ro r s,' and do,m~r e.workthan,individuals unawa re?f,any ot he r c'ond l tl o n..Apparently,'k nowl e d geofmissi ng·either a

. . ' . • 4

positive or nega tiv e' ex:pe rl.~e;J~l, treatuntdo~:!iaffect

•,"i '

'.. ,.:'.: !". -,-'~ ^';.

.~

-'-Th~ '~ tha nk

io[

the ir

a~s1st'anCI'! ~nd

^{,',: .sup port· du rinll.}

. " I". :'

~, ' , ' ~'

p.reparati o n of th.iS docum~.nt. Myc~mmit teememtiers Maicolm 'Gr ant,

C~th Y

·pe.n n'ey ,'and RHa An d e rl!SO'n

' ';''ho-g~v'~' , tliei.r

^time

a~d

.ene r g y . To

- -

"Ab e

Ross"mY"-ad~1s.o;-;·-i-or"":"'l-\s - - ' - t .pa'tfen'ce, -/ -

_sense.o ( humour a~d ~nder ~t a~ di n g',I,gi~ e: spe"c~aJ\t.iTa,nk~,..and

I.'

~pprec1ation.

-.

' : ' "'. ' /'

,''---

,_..:-

could no t havefi n is h ed thi s thesi swithoutth~aid 'of. a.llat'Fl'enPing~.ndAs~ociatesof'"Thunde r B~y Compu t e r se rvic es . They allowedme

to

^{use the ir,ecmput.er-rae'iitvt e s}

- -. ' I . _

_ + -'c-_ _

~~

__

-eh~.e--_"H:ho,u-g--h--c--none"ofthemhad ever met me or

~

.

^'

.

kne w a nyth ing.ab ou t.l1Je. The kind ,o f altr u ~ :S m,,1,e~ perien cep

.' ,

..

fro m'th e s e peo ple'

is

rare: and.Iwi ll always remembe r:

Ian Kir kJ1am·s.suppo~thas alwa.:r:sbe en th e,re'thr o ~.ghout, my'st'llY ll't Memo r i al.

Hi ~ SP~C·ial"f'r i-e·nd,ShiP.i~, grat:efUTly

,acknowl edg ed.

',••f'

~i

..

.,,.~'.'

:

: ' ." .

I'l~

^{.o·t her}

.~e_th· · Ma'cDo~ei':i ha~: ~~'~ Y5

^.

g i;. :n . ..

^{!Die", . -.}

. un'~iaggin;. ~up~~rt' .,.for·~'. ~-l<:'~; . . ^{e .ndavOrS}

^{and des er v esa ··· · .(. •}

t ....

",$,?e~1~ 7'no,t e'asdo:..m!-,~ntirYfalll.i·lY,· ..••.

::

.

.F1n~liy. ^{I want.th8rik}

Lee

,Gr'imrner who Clon'sta nt l y'. ·'

supp6rte~

^ilnd

.enci~u: ag,ed, m.e. :1~

^{so'uny"ways.',I}

w l 11 a,l~ayS

-. -.-.':

".:.;.

.

⁾

..

^'

,,'

!

'-'-'-' 1 l

;1) I' ,

· ' j , \:..

.

The ' lIc l ~nl1ftc'

^{met,llo d}

'ls~u'ed ~y','~~~ent l~-ts

^{as •}

mell~;· . "

, : " . : ;::r:~:,~:,,:~, ,:::~~~;".,~ . . : ff:::'.b;:;·~:::::l::~;;~~~;::

.

de~bnlltr.te ~'etfe.ct .

^{of" en"}

eJ~ r bent.al

var i a bl e.

a~ l,

variab les efepl tile Indepe ndent nrlable are -held

,· con~t8nt

^..rr

I.lnder .th~~e' .con~l tion:5 ' ther~

^;5'a..

d·-i.f're~enc~'· '·

~~~:weeri

^{.tile ,.upe"!"}

lment~l,. :an~ ··con~~'Ql ,.~p~ndl;,t.ion~- 1~ c~n . ~I

·conc luded that,the Qbs er v e d dlf f e re ilc e',13,a function:of'the

· " '. ,/ . I"~

·ex pe"rlmen t al.m'an1 pulat ton. :.~

"

:~.

....

..

:"

re"w

decallf~.sc'ehl scientist s:have the las t

'• • ~ ^{• • . •} ~be;,'

ap p.l.tJJ. ng

'.~1"

,·it

th;,."ien'~flC

·-to th ee.,a l u ati on

~;'hO'

of

^,;,

social

Of"h~~"

progl:ams '-

;r .,;;:

-Th e re

^;"

- :_ .;r~ ; :h~",,,e'r:': ~. D~~_be~':o~ .

^{-pr o·bh. 1}

ene~u.n

^..

te;'~;', · ~ht~: : It~t'

sc).tntl fle llI_et hod;.. is used In·:this ,III Y-, Tbe~e prOb lt~s'

~_. .'revolve arou M tht ~eqUl;ement .tcr random' ;t1~s;'-g nll~n ~· ·of' --.'

pa'r'ticip~~ts

^to

t'reat~en t

^{and:eo'n trol.}condltt'o nS: FQr

·.,

. ' .

^"

.,, '.

:~

. . .

^'

.

·e1l;8111ple,.an y:scc l eL .pro gra• .s· .cur ren tl y being evaluate d.

~rovl~e

seelll; nllY

;bV·10.U~ -'ben'e ~1 t s:"

^tothe.·partlclpantl.

:Treat~Emt.s

^.

~Y CO~'s1s~

^{of 'spt c'hi "}

pr i!lle~es ~' iI~d

.,r:e3po'~ siblli ti esformtnt.aLpat ~'en t8·(F~l r ~ a ther;.:19~1j j',or:. income

5U~PI.e~r.' r~r '~ll ~~'~e r:,~~~Pi e~.ts, .(wa.~~~~,

^{196'9 )..rn}

..•.

,'-.'

1____

',',

Page,2 -.

/ :, ..

^,

, ~

. the,~~;

^the'

pr~~m

^{is that}

adminis~rators

^one,nhav,e

i.qUa1J!l.:"a,b ou,~.a ign /,g~Ubjec t stoa control ,cond i ti o n in

Whl~hthe'pa r c~nts,Jd~not g et,treatment"benef~t:5'~;

, // ' .'

'\ : Al hough the ,ttito' ,of ,pm" " , , , t , , , ecva ro',oo ' om

' ass~:~~m

^{t i s}

probl~matiC'.

^{'i't pose s}

~o

^{"thr e at to the}

..

'/f ~_al ' an~ e~~~rnal,

^.vali'd it·y of th e

' ~xa lu~u~nl

^{Anot her}

'/P: Obl~~ s so'Ciate d:w~thrand.omassignmentwh\Ch does,pose / -.thr e a t s to both .ofthese.tsthe effect,on thepar tic ipants' '. , /,••"

,:b~;" iO"" O f "Vi, .

bo" a s sLgne dtothe ccnt.rcj,

g ;OO , _'"~\.

- thus no t havingga i n ~d,theseeming"benefitsO,fth e program. '.

/ < ^{f~~ '}

inst a nce ,

,tndivi~ualS r,and ~mlY aSSi.g~

^..ed

't~ no-'tre~t~ent

. cQnd itio nl5,te ndto drop,o;ut of studiesmor efr~ q tlentlythan .

.\

" , '

^.

t,nosee se rg ned to t.r-eat ment con d.i t i ons ~.

~~ ,

^'

•

jCam~bell~~'(

^{1971) ha}s'sug8'esteda method of

~~Pl~menti'~~

^,

r:a~d omizati o n, t h a travo1d,~,t h isdiff·icult. y. H,e a r g u ed that problems Of.treatme~t':,a.c~ePtan~~,and 'differ e~ti al att~,iti~~

rate''cb u l dbe minimized·ifsubject:!lwer~inf qrmed'about'tpe' ,

~

^of,t.he

''P,;''m,,' 00'

^{', ,;, o u,} ex per-tme nt.a

"e~~~, ~s

^{befo re}

rando:izatio~ '~OOk PI~c.e . ":1tj~cts

^would

be,t o l d'-th a t if .t he y.agr-e ed

:0:

parttcIpa te they' would be ,r a nd omly ,~ ~ 5 i g n ~d to"an ex pe ri me n t al' or con t ro lgroup.,

. '

Page"3

serve

in

^the

CO~d'i~~on,

^{to'whic h,}

th'e';'h~d -b~en aSSi g ~ed

^{wouldbe'admit te d}

<l'~

; ". . ... .: ' . , ' " I ' , "

to.th e ,ra n d~za-tl o n, po o l. People un i n te re s te d in

':recei~ l~'~'

^.the

~'eat~ent WO~ld:'presU~ablY :~ro~

^{out be rcre}

randomiza tion. Al s o ,'s inc e ~ll-subjectswo~ldmake apri or

, ,

. .

" .,. ' . ' "

commi t ment't o .pa rt i cipa te r-egar-dLes s v.or ul ti mat e gro up assig~ment :,th e·pi-6bl em'of 'di ffe r en tial' attrit i on in t.r eetment.'and

cont'rol group~ WO~);d '-~~~~~eatl Y .~e'duc ed'.

_,: ,1h e r e,~e three~ossi b l e short.:-c 6mi n g sto Campbe ll 's ps-o ceoui-e: Fir.stit introd uc e s ·'a .selection 'problem

A

'r estr i cting the.

·subjec~

^{eampj e}

~~

^{vOl unte}erIJ2 1 . : 1c+ Gid:' thr eat.enrtheexternalval!di t y?f·,t h e 'fi n~in.!~ Seco nd , sub j ec ts wo'ul'd' be 'a war e'? f the rencoat aetron'pr ocess .ane

." mig h t·,re ga r d l essof th e i rownou tc ome,reactnega tiv e lyto

_~'(ia re'tha t; th e y,aremiss in gso~ e,benefit~r sufferi ng 's ome lossmigh~a'-lte!"th~ i~,'~tt,it~ean d be bavro ur.

I ' ;

.Wo rtman , He nd ric ks , ~nd ^{Hi llis {1976l}exam·i~edIt~e

q~~~t,~~nOf

^hO,W

pa(ti~1pa'nt~ ,~n ~ocialr-prOg ~a'~s ~,~,ght.

^{r e ect,}

to thepr-c ces sofrandom.assig~ment-.^andC0!l--:Jde r.edwhether these;ea'ctions alo ne

,

"co uld

pr~duce 'a'ppare'~t ~~ tlllent

'J

,.,.

r

, .

..,...~ ~ "7"o:-_."...- ~. ~~-_.'--'-.

- .- ..

•PageII

.... -. v.

\ ' _~

"

.~:fe~~s.· Their eqierim.ent OShns1b{~ invol v e d .' --eV8 1.uat1 ~~" a secrat"progr~". SUbj~c \".we r e ran d oml y' a.sslgned' ·to' eLtber-c en experreent.aj,gro upwh i dire clev eda

S~~ ei.al-b·~neri

^t.or

~ ^c::'trbi ~ro ~:p ' W~~h··dl: n~l ^{. .; .'} I~ ^orie

Cond itio"n,. the'8ub ject5·wer~·aW8re.thatth~~-e^{wa:sanot h,:,r} ex pe ri me'ntal

,

group; in,a

.

sec on d con d iti o n subj ec t.s'cere un awa r.e of any"other.-gr-oup and-in athird"c~nditl0n·t he'·

. .

subJects bec ame eware. of' the other gr'oup duri ng the -,

e·J Perllle ~t

^{. .Th ese iatter}

'~ UbJ'ec'ts

^{.be cae e}

~war :

^by

"aCClde~~aliy." lea~ nl ng 'thl ~ " fact" ~~~m' an~ther pa~tlc ipan t

^.•

.'{hedepend.e~~measure·sincl:uded5ubje~t1 v~re a c : ion sto.the projec't Bod,wil li ng n essto.part i e 1p a,t e over'ti lu. Ove ra ll.

SUbj;~~S

^whO.

~tcaJII.e kno~l ed"gl!:.bl~ ~Uring 't~~ expe:iaen~

".were ec renegativ etowa rd th e;prpje c t t,han the SUbjects 1n

.t.he ~ther eond iti ons who did not dif'fer rr olll.eachothe r.

·Theres u ltsof the study by lior tlllsn.!! .!!. (197 6) Led"the l"uthO ~s to reeeeeene that rut'u.r.e ~Jperimen'ter suse'th~

.- . ','

',. ; ,

^" ...

lIIethod,of informed IOan doraizs U o n U the eff ! c t of the

'SUb jec t:5

be.cO~ing

^{"a ware'-}see ae d adversely tO,'af f e c t th eir'

:,l

> i.

at tit ude.to'war d the stud y.

'- ~'

".'

,/

Asiderr-oeavoid i ng1;;he ne ga ti ve.effe cts ac ~ id ent Bll y disc overing that :the y are in

e r'pecpje 8 con trol

. "

-- -- - - ^J

""'"

^{' . ", :. Page 5}

"-"...,'

. . '

.studiesha~eto informparticlpanbwhether or

not

"th ey' are

~~Of

^a

Cont~l

^or

e~per~ental .gr~.·

^.

Fo~ ~xalllP~e, ',

the U. s,:Offic eof.Econan icOpportooit)'launc,hedala~ge scale fieldex pe'r~t~test-t he,errec:.tof «g~ar'!.nteed ;.

annual reccee, I~this-instancethe rariUies st udi ed had tobe informed'of~need for eIperll1lcotal'and cont r ol

! ,-

gro ups-before,th e experiment wasst art ed.

An important QUestion which

\a8

not ye~'

been

. . . . _ .,/ _.. • .t"..

constder-edLsthe.effect·on.~tt1tudesorbehaviour or .the

~l~ge,tha tone hasbeen as signed

'to

'8·c~ntroi. ~lt~

" io'hist

involves

.

m1.ss1ng.~,.;bene.~ltor.avol~ing^. apen~lt~. In

othEor: siwations, receiving~.. issinga desir able outcane .::bY

c~e ~

^{been.found.to) ead}

~ Chan~es

^{.t n·}

~tt1tude',

~h.aV1our_.andself view (see , e.g.,Apsl~1912;Aps l er ;&

Fre1<Nn 1975; I~, ^& Levin 1972). I~'^an eV~luat100' .'.ltU3t.iOO:,.0011..

tro~

^.

.su.bJee!!Lkn~iOs.

" "

the~ 8~e

l l I i s s ["g.,

may Cl:XIlpetitivelystriveto work harder and.do bet r.

. ' . - .

CoIlversely,-they lIIay feel demoral i zedo\~cause_of',t h.ir_~~

mbfJwo.e. cent.retsubject.swhoavoid a'

pen~lty 6l11a:l~e

their ~o85particula r l yl.ucklend~here forer-espond more poQtiVelY'andwith greaterniotivation regard less"er

the.'nature,of'.tae:

e~Perimental, tr.ea~t :" .~

^{the oth er>< "}

nand

th~~ pta~ 1"e~l ~cm:f~.tably~JiltY

^{about the-}ineQUit.-ff', .- '.-.

L

There'ar,ethree theor i e s Which maybe relevantto~' S fasue ,

_ , ~e.,rir3

^':t.

R~a.ot.~~~~-.='Y.

^{__.(B.retwn,.:,"66),}

d~"

with the"effec_t:..,-~ _rest r i cting fr.eedan,onb ehavt our.,,,

Accor di ngtothis theory,..the arbitrary ass i gnment.0 ,an i~dividual to 'e par-t.Icuka r-tr eatment'or control'condit1~n

._'.-' ~

.\

,

\_\To daU:'there.appe; s"t oIbeno

experlment~le~ldence

",

..

^{". '"}

thatdeals:with,t his que st i ondirectly.-Certa i nly , if know1edge:of 'One'5

'parti~;pat1~n In'~

^{cont r ol-}gra'up"does .' ff " t

b"''''00'~.:'''''''h~" 'OO,ld'k,o. hof to : ,;;;;j,o";

behaviour-mey be altere d since this

WO~d

un<loubted l y .

~ff~~t

^{the'ext ernalvalidityof any}

st~J"

^The

pr.~~e-"t> "': .

~ape:willfOC~3onthis. particular.question ;.

, - . . . I I

-might be perceivedtJythe individualasathreatto his or he~ rreecon. Placingan indi vi dual withinthe: confin esof a controlgroupwOUld function as'a restriction.of-t J:le

. .

^{' ;.}

rreeocattc.cocose to be inanyofthe experimental gr oups. ThelIecondrel e vant

t~eo?:

^the

~'eorYOf

Ine<juity

~(Adam~',.

1963). eeei e.

with

perce i ved-justice an'd'i tseffecton

be ha~ lour,,·11,1,it·f~ir ;.for'~;ampie,

co~t/?~-v'gro'~p, . Whll ~

^{'othe r s.,r;a'p :.the}

b~n~fit, <' ,;f

exp~rim e n ta l treatm ent? Fin ally;.the Just Wor l d Hypo t hesis

?

.-Re a·ot~nce ~" ... ,' --,--- -

~th~'O~Y' ~

^with

,;~ f~ects " ,

r-e tr iooti.ng

.th~S

^{f.re ed o m.'o n'.}

~\h.aVlou~ .~

^..In

deve Iopdngthi s heo,ry.Breh~ (1956 ) made <~he'.f-ctluwi~g as,:wmpti ons: '.1 ~Peop l e,..have·asubjectLv e e x perfen ceof;

,' , ," ," " , <· f " .

.f.ree~oll",'todo what .t hey,~ ant " inaway,t he y want, and when they 'wa nt in"re g ard' toli~1ted.ano .ese etrr eeaear-e asof"

~e~:a.1I'iour.

^{(2 )}

.B~havi.our ~i' .fr~,~'dom h.e~ps

^"people

Fust,~,~.Y.: ,

-the.!,:" nee~ s a,nd..avP~---haf'm and pain, (3)The/maximum

,.am~u~t

^{ofr.•.•.: tcl.nce (ne,ed}to rest.ore

" fr ee~ Om) ~~J '

^:o,.c.u<r, when'the RlO'st·..at.t r acti v e alter native 11,1 el lm nat.edvor-

l , .' , " '"

: : :: : : : : : :"wi

:: ::im~::::::;i ;::",:::••, . :::;}

^f

, pe::;::. '

,;hav ( .. ,. . ." ernettve.ua

''''1' .,;, ., ' " j :".''' '

':,','. . - ' -

. ...:.-

~_ _

\

I.,:

-_\ Pa ge8

\ .

./

.

.

'~

\

::~::::::"~::';~:~ :::':::::': I::O::::O:::;:~' +-. C .

rrneneaetancehypothesi s.hasgene rated ,s ome:.r ~s ea rc h

. . .

^{- .- .}

.-, ti~t--'suppo~t. ^{ror-i t'has·no t alwa ys} b~".en._~.trong .:,:',On~ ^study tha t

. ~oe's

^{. su p port}

.

^,-

~hypo the sili ^{' .}

^{was'...'repo_,.r ted, :b y .}

worsoh~i

'.;a nd Er e hlll (1971'> . They reas o nedtha t i-e.indi viduals,becollle

. " .

.-teas co-operative when,.fr'~e~ om'.'is ,.res ~ rlo t.ed.· "arid....they elper ienc~ re acta nc e. they sh~uldbe c ome'mor e'co-o p'e r a t lve

when_- 'f~~edom

^is

8ffi ~lIIed::

^{The. .·a ut-hors.Wl!r e. ·c."ab le •to}

,

~.--,

subject was notyet,rea dy .tomakeadecIs.ion•.

;.::; '. ..' . 1 • . \"

. .. , '." . " ' 1

~-:H e ilman· and Garner (1975)', .also repo :rte d evre eeee

. , '. ' . - . '. ' r, .' .

c on s Ls t.ent. withthe Theo ry.o fReactance, sue.j eee e offered

.~·ti6i~e:' a~ t~

^..;

'lIIo~e :

^of.

COIII~l1~~ce w~ re Wi"ll i~g _ t~

. , . , . . ' I .. ..

com ~ l y·with.8r-eque at si g n ifi c a nt ly moreoftenthan.~~en- a . choic e wa's'notof f ere d:

I~ fa ct "t~e1r 'i-ate

^of,

~omPl1an ~e'" ··~-,~·~r

" ,The:studiesbyWo~schel

< lnd

':Breti,;(1971)andH~i,lman

a nd ~~~ner~(197'5) ' 'demQn~~rat~d

^•that-'it"

:1~-

^'pciS5ibf e''to

. ' : :::::::",,:::,::::: r f::::~"::' ^{0 :,} OO'::::::::hO"~:

indiVi dual's·~ight"to exerci,5e fr ee choice'. 'Fur the r supPor t forReactanceTh~oryhas beenre por-ted byBr etvnand Br~, (1'966L_Cblf~n~"^{(1970),:Glbbonll(1976i',.Pall ak} /lelle-r}1971) ,',~,enneb~~r"and'Saund~rs(1976)';and~rschei al'ldAnd'reol1 (1974).,'

,Taken t:egether,these experime,nt s,suppor t the;not ion

-,that'lndi~iduai~'t~;'d^t'ore ass er t'.thei r 'rr'eedan,of"<;h;iC~",-~

,i f"tha~,f~eedcrn is cur-tei Ied.( Ifthi s, is',the.case,

. ..

behavdcur-a],differences wou];-d-bbxpected:tc.:occur'when'

:~ubjectsnave knowledge'ofoth er exper-iment et.con'di~ions "in

,Wn i ch theYarenet,pel"\lli ttedtopartic ipate. In anatternpt

,\. ..

.... .

. .

to,as s er t ;t~e irfre,ed<Xll,of,cho/ice " individualllwhoh~ve,

kn~ledge ~fothertreatme nt'cond'itions 'may'perform'.Ie's s '~el~ 'on assigned tasks ,',show,up 'l a,t e oreven rubs,their

-' ' ,...z ' ' , : ':.. '" ",,---c

^o••

Reactanc e Theory st a\:.es:th.at ,the need to as se rt~i ndiv,i duU .'

~'r,eedo

^{..'h 'd}

lr~~'ilY' ~roportionaJ

^to.the:

'attr~c :t~'~'~n~~~ '::~r"

~he"

^{,den'l ed'}

~ho ice , .t ~e 'lg'reates~;'beh'a';i . . c'ur

^{. . .}

~1-;-'1e~~o'~;e :~ul'fl:'

be'expec t ed,whe n the:lIio st' at tr a c ti ve

.'~

..

'..,",

. ., .

~e~or~

^.:'

~

^:'.'

d~,f~~It~:~.:.' ~~5,~n.~qUl~:~,. 1~:.~ iv~~; J WO t~r~IIS'

^.

!'sed,'by'Adallls(1't63"',sl)ou'ld".be:lntr!"duc ed', "Pe rson":anq R'Other~ . ~erson'^-i'~ny': ,·:'i~d1v id~'aI"':f~~^'..'~h~ID'^,inequity,'

exist s . ,_~~!!"·

^.is.'

.a,~~

^'.

indhid'Ja~ ! ^{li n' . '} '~~~h~n8~

rela ti o n.s:-ip with-.

~er s~n

.,o r. with'wholll

_P~o~ co~pa:~s'

^{whe:n.. -.}

~~~---'; ~~ ot ;;· h~. ::: re-"~in -;n" ~~Ch9\'l8e

,'-Hati on s hi'p

'Wi t ~

^{a"t hi}r /:,.par ty.. .Inequi t y exi~t's' r~r Per son "',he n he.:or:she.pe rcetvee.th a t

" .' .' _:::,:~::o :: _o~:::::.: t:n::::t:,:":,:::~~::~yO~:::~: i

~e ,i t he rwhe nPer"on~~d"Ot he r":are ln a,~lr ect ex cha'~g e.

.'

're~at( Cm"hlP, :",~~:

^.

Whe~" b~th ~r'~' ,~~~,

^.an

,e'~'~:~ ~n ~e: ,rei,~'tlon~~lP

^.'

with a ,thi rd partyand

.pe.r s~n: :· ~o~pare~,

^With'

Oth~r : '

^'

bet we en"the

r·.t~~"·

'..~._I I ...-' ..._ '_, .__

I J"

··.. .. ,.,.,c _ . .. · ,: , ., . .,. ·... -. ·,,·.1· :·

.i I

',. '!"

Others ' fnputs outputswi ll.be, ·zero, and equfty".w$.11"

ex ist ""

e~

^"

:~wo .- ·k~um~~'~nc.e'~:~,:.' F~'r'~t ,

^the

~at'los 'W l,~J be .

..equal when

'Per'son\'~ a~her '

⁵

i~P~~~ ~ re :~~ual,'~nd' t~eir

ootoo.', • :, qU", tnie would.

b' 'h''';' ,

'0'

"'.~l'. ·

.',' " .. ", .,: , '" '. .' i

when Personper-ce.i.v edtha t Ot her ' s wages, jo b,.a nd .wo ~kin g

::;:~:;:':,p:::'" '::,:r' ,::L ::::, ^b:::

^{o : ::: ,}

^{:q::: ,} 7 ,::::, . .

ex pellded, phys i c al'

,'fitnre~s

,etc.Secondly",t he

ratio'~

^{·wi ll.}

. .

be. "e~,~a,~ ~h~n ' p~rM~·:.· J.e~c·e.·ive5"

^{'t h a,t,}

.:6·~he~}S,-'. ,in'~uf ~, : 'a,r~'

.

h1ghe~

_...--(OJ:,lower)_. '

,~han ^,his'

^{or-v.her·0 1011)}_.

~

_.

d

^,ot'n_'.'^e;.s_{'. I}

4u'tco~es :~"'"

_..

arecorre~POildingl.y :',~igher.<{:tl~we r: )^{',' A} !U: O~d i~'~ t e^{, who} compa r es

'.

'wit h

" : :" .'

a,supe

- :

r-visor'

' . ....,',, "

does~oi.,^feel''llnjustl,~

, r

^treatedthe"

by the..company,:t h~ t emPlo.ys·.t h e m,tloth·.i," b ec;u~e auper-viscrss greatermoneta ryccmpens atdcn, better working cone i t'ions"

~~ci :

riiore:

inter'e's~:[ng

and',

va~ i~d ' j~b '~r~

matched

" :

,",.:., ' ",. , ' " ','" , ',

en."the 'inp ut,s i d ~of theratiobymQre'ed ucation,a'·,wi d,e ~ , range, 'Of,

s~ i lls">~ reateF-re·S·PonSib i1 'i'ty' ~ri~':·pe~'sonai

^..risk,.

, -

I ,

eli

pe·r·lenc.'e·-.~~-eq~~.t:y: ~

^f'

~-hey' kn~~'

^;that;.

o'th~:rs

^"wer(:being

paid:'m~r~^'or"~es'~'f~~d O ingth'e·~ame w~r'k; In"gen~rBl^'"th~:

;Th'eOry'

_~f ,In:e~uit~" :Ugge5t5_t~< in~Ii~ ~dU~l S W~'~' per:c'·e1Ve~.:~--~-~>

the mselve s to b'ein'a nLn e quft. e b Lepositio n wil l'-atteni ptto,; '

, .. . ^{" .}-. ... ' ,- ' .' '

.. . -.

"r e s toteeqtii.tybyc"hang i.ng,either,'

t·h,e1r .:' ?ehavi:ti.~r

^{or' their,}

'ci~~nition~. "ThUS '~

^{'t o}

r'est~'re

^the-

i~b.al'ai'ice :"SUbj,,:ct~ WOUl.~o

b~,'ex.p·e.~ted,'to·empi oy one-of,two,' ,5.~r.ateg-':i.e; "

"o,t h'ers, were pai d more 'for the.same" wo"rk subjec ts.could

". .-', ' ,' .., .: ' ~' " , ':, - .

, .

"de cr e ase their inp u t"tomat ch their.ou tcomes,i.e . , per f orm

.'less'.well.

secO~dl~·,.SUb~~ctS. c6~id Change -:'th<e"i r -_ COg~1:t 1on

.

;f th' ·i" ,,,o~t,~t

^{r at tc}

i'~'d"

^to

,l,o"" ,. , - b~"''' .

.For::';ex~m ple, 1ndiv1duals'.employing~"the;·'.se c;o ndst~a t'eg y'

··fn:i.~ht' , see :,th ~'. ex~e.r i~·en~a\ta5~ ' a~ m;r~

:rno~e',worth~hile,t~an^{t:h ey} fir5t-".sUPPos~d-~·

". ..

^....

the.,'_uri 8~_~d^lng..:--pr,~sp~~ t/th at t~~J',~ 'too-..

co uld

sutre r

.-·cinj~Stl:y~ . ^:.. · ··i.8~ .::: ~: ;. co~_~e.q~~~~e · . ^or:'

^{th i s'}

p~r~.~i\~d' ^{. , " .:,}

· :~ :t:~:··t!::::d::::::~n~:~':~t:~;:·:: :::~~,t ' ,;: ):~,i';{~ '~

.:,". ",-."

··~ ~1l 1

^{belIothated_to r-e st.cr.e}.-j uSt i ce_.oe e

_~al

^{to':do..:thi s'}

. ·. . ··~!i::~:;~~~::;:~~:;;~~.s~f':r

"/ :- ·:,.,..

o.~ _ j~.ng8~i~g ~in "·bad, ;act~~< .: Th~3?·,.g'OOd ~peop)e a~!i~:~ ,ca~~Je ' a

^<.':

·,

^,'"

. \":'.: '::b a d.(.il,h},if

,~~e

^t.r:.

actl~n~,ti:e ' ~8:r.el!,s~_ 'or. f~~l1sIi:;

^{.._.,..,,; " ,":'}

~~.

:"'" .'.

.:..:. :~.:.:-:

.:

.. .

^'

"".,:'

;,"..,..

.'(

,t.e nd enc y,:o!^{.'..-i', .} peopl e.. :to^",'

biam~'v:ic till~"of"lIl1srortu~es'-for'thel~~own'.fate s'.:.CO'fhr; a~" '

."h

963),foreum·ple~.hasrelllill:'"keclthat.·i t""ts.:

c 'ommon·

for' .to' vie·w·...Uie';

Phys.~~11 .c1·1·~~~·liit~~·~··:: o f-~'tk.er~ 'a'~

:':I''>. " ".~:' ,: ' .•"='

. ...,' f; : . . ... .': '': , ; '· ;:'\ ) 1

':';, ;'.' ...< 'F '; -.

: ' .f .~~:> ... : ^»: ';'~:>.'". _ .

.:.,::~'.~.:, ..:~. ~. . : t.-~'.'.- , ...-'. -: . .;,"-,..

I, ' ,

- ---

---'---~-'---

Page 16

(

th e vict i m'and we reinf o rme d that t.beti c ti m' s SUffering

WOUl~ · co~tlnue .'

^{.-iWh enthe}

st.ibje~'ts

^{'wer e}

~sked ' ~o

^e'v'aluate

.th:e vic't'1m-'at

thi~ , J)Oint~ - Sig~~ificant '

diff erences

.aPP~'are~

'be t ween co nd it io n-s. Sub jectstn.th~'viC,t i m"c ompensat i o n

"'c o nd i t i o n' rated ' the

Victi~

^{mer-e favourabl/ than .d'i d'I}

. , I .. .

subjects in the uncospen eat.ed,condition in whi~h. the ihj ust ice presuma bl y greate r. .This renc enc y-.to

d~ rogate

^{t\'l_e victim}

'~5"

^es pe cia ll y pr-onounced in. a.th).'l"d condition in whi c h subjectswere,j.ed to believe .t\1a t't he

~'iCti~ h~d '

^allowed

fJS~l~>O

^'be

.tal~~?

^into.

bein~

^{.sho c k ed}

for' th e obse r ve rs ' .sa ke and forO,th e sak e "o f ,t he eltperl me n ter,'

- i'

It seems_that_.;;the e fght, of an Inn o c e n t(~lpe r s o n ,suffe r ing

wi

thoutene:-~oss i bbi^tyof'~ewa rd ^or'co'mpen s a t ~ on mot1~atespeopl etoderoga teth~vic timin,ord-;r"to'br'ing

a~o~ta'

_M' ^{bett er-}_, ^fl t b e twe e n_{. . '}

h~r

_{, '}^{fate'and her}_.-

c~-arac~er

_{" •}

.

Thi lO'g e n er a l findingh~~be e n r-epft c e t.ed a number ofJtimes wit h erv er -s e popula tions (e . g" Simm(lns &"Pllvan, 1972;

"

Sor ren to'& Hard y,197&;.Jo hns o n & Dickfnson, .1971 ) .

Resea rch-nes.also be e n carr ie d out. conoer-n tng".the

i L' - ., . :

rea c ti o n s"of Ind i v i d ual s towritten ~ dverb al.repor t ~of"

.•. ~ ._ _.__.'d

the SUfferl~g'Ofother5.·Ma"'Cd on al d (197;2,),::,c o nf r o'nted..i11-5 3ubject~ -+ t h t he.,.,report ·»t a ~tai:rbing _{n\ /;"hich'th~

, , : ' -' . . - ' ",.

mnceene eof .tne victimwa s_varied.' Th e results revealed

~tha. t

^{.t he}

.~ ~~~

^.r:-es·po.n Si b l.e the

Vict, l~S

,we,r e for thei r,

i~te.; ·

·t helo we r W83 their,rete"dat t.r-act.tvenes s. Apparently,.,-th"e

'

. .j

:-'\

", "

- .

mor ;e 'r,espo nsib l e't h e:victi ms',we r e ,"' ,t h~ less_was 't h e pe r.c e i v ed in'j U5.l i c e.a n d the.veaker the,n ee.d to. oer-ogat,e the vic't l~: Th i s re sult has.also been found to occur,"with .wr,it,'ten r eport ejo r.j-epe s (Jones .s AronS,on,.1973;,: Sm1t h, Keatirig ,Hesle r ,,"' Mi t c hel, 197Y).

To summar ize ,_it app eara that",.i t '15 po a sfb Leit.o

.

.

threaten'a per eontabe l1 e f'in.a'j ust'wor l din a vari ety of"

oontextl~ with pred i ct a bl ; resul\s. Evenver bal.portraya l of.ii',victi lll'5'suff er ing

may'

be slJ,frici ently arolJsing to·

thr e at e n an. cbs er vervs. belie f-inajus t wor, ld. "Howe ver, not all"victimswill'be deroga te d. "If,th~.~ict1'ms can' be

:on,'pensat ed,

'~r

^{.i f'the vi o t im s are}

per~eived

^as

'~'e l ng

re apons abLe for t.heirown.re ee, ,theymaynOt ,be. derogated .

) ~f an attr ~o tiv,e

^{pe rso n}

-~r lln~

^{of high}

sOC ial at~tu~

^is

v'lctimized, observ e r s appe ar to res t or e th e een se of

. ' " ~ ., . '

. .

Justi ce"no t bY,'derog ating,~he'..,Vic t lin~utby,eug g e rat i n g the~erson'.iIre sponsibil i t yfo r hi sor her'.fa t e . Vic ti m derogation will" not,occur ifobserve rs''expect tobe in th e

- - - - . , - - , -. r-r-..

we n like l y be t ter their.

,I,",'

fo r'

i

.- "': ' .

\-

~ ^{"" . '}

,Alth~.~g h.l1ttY~, 'exp erill/;n.tal:wo r k ha.s bee~;:d on~~n,t~.e.

of' sel

. .

f~erOgatton

i"· " ': -

,

"

^801l\e

_ ,'-

^r-ej

"

^{event data}

. :

<',^{has been}·1., .... . Rubin,and Pep lau(1973)ro und that -i ndi vi du als .receiv e d.,

.~' ,~umbe~'~

^'fn

'_t~e

--"9'10."

d~a~t ' l~~t'ter y:; " a~d

unl i kelytobe dr af't e~, experi en ee d .an Ln c rease in 'Onthe,'other

( . ' ,

^.., .,',

, , ".

^"

_s:~gge.~_t_,s,b.lamln~- ^{o.n,ese l}~,~ay^__b&,ru nc,t to na L,The~" ",ag e~

;atr:~l egill ViC~ims O~, '-a c,C'id en;~, '-:' 'ex't:~n S1've l~ter:'\( iewS

.

d ~~~'i'~ned ~OllSie:HI- Wa'~5 ·;:J.·~ - -;'~bi~ h .j,:l C t~~.5 ma~ ~ sen,~~:_~f

th.ei r'·:f~ t'e .

They

f~'un d tha t-.the:-m ore'/~ he,_viet-1ft--blamed"

f1n~ in~

^5lnc.

i,c~tirig

^th!!,)'

~nd

^1v

ldtl~l s' ·-o·r.~en·-: ~hoo~e,

^to,..

~iif~'er. ·

as,a.,,jICl nse,q uence ,.Of havi ng.expec tedbo .s~f ~er: (.~a l s ter,.

.'.':.~r,on~~ n(&Brown,! 1966). For.examPl~• _w~~n ·,~~b.jeo ts were ass.ign eq an unple as;antt a sk,sUC: h~ as e at1n g a"

. ' , "

,

~:o.'be':dr aCt ed ,~endedtd.expede n·ce,de c r.e·ase d sel'r.-estee~

their .fat e wa s,det ermi ned.ilY

', '

, i

. {

. '-/

.

-

.

.

instead, Come r an d Lai rd spe~ulet!,d.thata P01l81bl~'reason

for't h i s wasthat:'thetnd lv ld~alshed conv inc ed" thel'ls~lve8

..: -C .

wou l d expeet tha t

". -', ', ,-

In an'experiment wher e'

findings",

,.'''" .

co n t ro l'g r oup..r

cat.erpl11'af'(F(; Xllan·&.·Radtke ,19 70)an~~ei-elivena.sho r t

.'

- .

. ' -' . ' ".' . :

. .

".

thi·~. to.watt,"appro.i.Btely801 thencho's e.th18unplea sant: :_{task when}. - ' ._{-s iv e n}.- _the.op port u nl ~t£""p er forwl

. .'

^...,8^..nl!utral^{",- - , "}task

, .

SUbj ect~_believedthe ywo"ul dha v.l'!·topata dudworm, Come r and Laird

round '

'that a sub·s tanti al. nueber

o f

these

"ln d l vlduah"ortereel lower

~val~at-tons

^of

t heJiselve:,,"~~

-~el r.::ev. al·uatiOn:·

^ques tion naire than did subjec ts in I

~.

. \

c

"

.

In d1'tl duals 1n a ~ontro l-group.who wer e aware t?atot h e rs'

~erep~tfOrJl1n,gt;h e slt.e tal!l ks.e e the y" but receiving II rewa rd, might.Yb18 l11ethe mselve s for Ilissi ng 'thatre ....ard , In. op·eratlonll1_..

t.errl~these '.

. \. ^'...ind i.vi dual s," becaus e, '

~f

^-'their

lower ed se lf-este em,wou.ld.be mo r e,1~kelyto perform poorly

.

. .,

^,-

.

onsimp lee~perill ent a ltask s,a n d to se.ethe tasks ~s less c eerr ebre :and Le ea.worthw~1 1 e. -on ,the.ot h er,.h a nd, 1nd 1v idu~ ls-whowe,reaware thatotherseer e pe·rfor ming 'the

~same tasks as they ,bu t rece i vinga punl' .sh me nt:f orlIlak in g e; r ors, lIlight thinkofthe:~selvesas lIlor e 'dellervin~'; ·In th15inBt.~·c~ thtse individ ual s, becaus e'of their·lnere ai, e d.

"

\\ .

.

.

.

,

- '",_. ' ': ,. ' '" :'. :.

Belf-e:lf eem,'wo u i d.b e more,l'ikelyto perfor m"wellon s~inple as-more'desii-abl9'

experli1lental'co~dl'tlonwer-e informed t'h a t .they lIer. e..

in

^a

'c ont r ol condit 1onand"wo'uldmiss a

ne~a'tlve

ma'n i p u l'ati o nI

. ' . --r .. . ".. ' ,.

('t . e.,·a17..vol t sh6-ekfore,~eherro r)",-r bese two ,groups Missi ng-re ward and termed

respect i vely , are,

','MiS S i n g:-p u:n ishm e n:~.., ,I n.the·comparision.condi tion subjects

_ ., ... ." .. '.1

wer e givena taskto perform with.n,?.._k ~ o w l ed geof.any other.

.conditio ns• .predic t i~ns ^fo'r .'th~1'v a"ri~us exper im enta;L ecnctrr cn s fOl IO"W.

:'t~S k; co mpl et e d <co r r ec tl y).

an.d'·m~~e, _Wor·thwh lle

^{•.: '}"/":. ;

rc , ; "

"0 ." C

^{t-he..; ' " "••,}

~.o

^{••t beLn, " " •••••.•.••••}

~ori't':(H· group .:~rfe o t~behav .iO,ur."t.he'f01l0w-~ngexperlment_~.J' _. ' was,·conducted.' Ther eweretJ oex pe rre entar.c o nditto_n_~__-:a nd

.I'

o'ne cOm p~ ~ i::IiO n "c.o n dI~j,.~n . SUb~e~~Sin^{0r'e ex:erimental/ '}

condlt~ on ~er:e_.t nr o r-aec that th e y we r e 1n .1I.c on t r ol

'. •, -- • ' : ,• ' _ - - •-~ -.I

.~tmd itio n an.~.wOUld.therero.~.e1'1155a;posHtve: ".e:xperime~;a l .manipula'ti-on,,( i.e., l1I_rewardof·$1·.50f,oreach page'of·a

L..:._,.•,. __,...,. ...,'.'.

Page.22.

I':issing--reward condit.Ion. .Ind iYiduals paii' participate in",!itpa yc hcl cgy

~xp.erilllen~ ,.bel1ev~d.

!,t h e'ms e l ve s to .be ra n,d ~lfoI ly assigned to a control condition in which they'wererequi redto perform'a'~er i e s: o f'S'i'~PI ~ ta.s'k;~th'~ no furtherremunera tion. These individuals werevewat-e t.here was ~n elpeJ"li'~ental condition in

• c' • "

pa'~ticip~ nts 'we r e co. perform 't he sametas'k.as.

w~ i c hthevve r eto be.paidaJi~a.dd1t! Onalsurnfor completed.correctly.." '

The Theon ·'of Reactance Pr.ed~ctS" that tne s e indi~iduals,'in"'anat t empt to r'~storl~'t he i r'f~ eed om, ~oUld

be .more l1kelyto 'dr o p out of the studyorsabotagethe

.results'byexhibiting poorer performanceor by failing to foUowinstructions . It' "e t ec eug g e at s that individual"s will either di stort their cognit.Ion s or alter th e i r b ehev tcur-.and' tha t ,'t he occur-r-ence of, .one',wn!greli/tlY oeereese.the likelihood of the ot.ber- ; The,,'Th e ory ~;'"

Inequityma~es th~ same general'prediction s" ,th a t is, .indiViduals'wi i l cnangetheir: .behavi~·ur'o r modify their

. '

. .

^{,~ .}

^{. '}

.---'~g n i t i o ns ^{in an effol'tto}reduc~ percei~e~ ^{tncongr-uft Les ,}

For .example,' one wa y to'red uce t~e.inequity in mlss1nB-reward "<:9ndition would beta

le 53 tedtousand more int e resti ng. Anot h e r alterna ti~Ei

J

1

L L --- --- -- - - - --..;--..; -'-- - - ..;.. ._..;.._ _

.;..,..._7<

.. --:-- ,- - -_ ..

~.,--...:,..-'.._.; ...:._-,.,-_

. . . _ . -. - .

^....:.-.~

.. .

^{~, .J}

. ..' :, ,". <.: ' .'"

Mis sin g-punis h me nt ecndttion . '!his con dltion'wasthe'

;'::...·S8. :·"

~s

..'"th;

"1s.3ing':::r:'e'~8rd . cond i~io~" ~~'c~~t

^-

~'ha~'" 't~e ~'

ind 1V ld~8l4 wer e: infor~·ed.__..that: th.e S~~;j~ct~'"i~,:',t,he/ ,~1.perlll e-ntalcondiUon.(thecandlti~n'to .whiCh they"w~r e··."

·,·.c .' '.:;'., ..

."

.; ...

, . . ' .

de:servin g~n oushto~enjoythe:benefi t of.,th e

...

^:,."

.'

'coiiJi t.ion "

.

'.

'.

llugges te d.by ;t h is theory-,would be that ind1V idualll coul d,.

'. ':". :" ..

:. . :'.

^{,.' ..'. ." .. '"}~.,

.... :

^" / . '

.

pe~form..1eu·w.ell._"? r.'J Us t.Wo.rld theo r y.pr ed i ct.3.: l t h er v-.

" that·in~l~idu.al.s ,'.~i i i:<te ~-d"^to:.Y i ~w^..th~:m e~ be r'$.,of^t'he

npe r'inienhl,"sr~up^withmore'~5te'~~.~~. o~^the.othe~'h'~nd^{;' ,}

tp~'y' 'm'~L..1le!:~ig:'t;'··

^.

the~5ei~·e s.'.

^{t'hink i n s'}

"that 'th~ y, .~;~ " ~~t'

tUkwhi chthe Y.f a i l edta.c o. ple te-c or r ectl y; AT.heory"o r

.',

.'

... j ~;

'n at a,uig n ed ) re ~ eiY.ed'ane-lec~tr ic,~tiac k'fo.r eac~page'~~.8

-:.:

. . " .." .

Re a c~an c e pr ed lcta beh a v lo u ral-.change'sIn.exactly,t hesa~e

'directi~n^{ta r} 'the'm1s~ing_pun ish,ment"cOnd1tl0~.lIS' ·for·, .the· mlsSlns~rew~rd ^cond it- l a n . Th~.The~r Yior In"eqU~t'~'·p-;"edl~ ts

~ .lower d~O ~ o~~ r a~e

^{an d}

bett~,~ " p~r:rO~~8nce . , The " ~ Just ·

Wo r ld Theor y pr ed iet~. ^{that"t he ' l}'(1dlv iduals .rn the .

.-~~s~·~n'g- pun1shm,~~ t,

^{gr q,up,!O'U'l d et}

the~ ,d'erOg~'te' th~'se '

^in'

~h'e ^{, '>,}

h ypothe tiC~~ puni~h~el}t '

^{gro upor}

~~or~8se the,i r' s~~i":este em

an?~bet,~er.,thei~ perr~rlll ~n ce·.

"~ ,^"

.". " "

~,

_ ...

_. -.-~'

. ---_ .'

"'

.

. ^...~

·' ... ...

' .

...

',.. -"

... .

"

^{, Page}5.}

.

.... :.

'"

·'.i n f 0!"'iatlo n.about.t he s':lbjects.'.atti t ud e s. The .first·

..

. . .

... ~~~

^-.:

. ..

^:

t.hr~~';~u'el!'tto~ ~,'on.'.the. quest. i.~nri·l1re~'~~.d"sUbjec t s

wh,at't heir.t Uk ~~s, wh1eh co~c1 1tlo n,the)',wer,e'·in;, ~n~.

th'e ~:

:··..

wi'r~,

.

~Ss1 gn~d to

't he.!r

',~~n.d.i ~;on

,...':

The., .n~x t.

t'w6:ques

. ,

tfons a a^" ked fo^'.'r,an evd ua.!10n·o f t he

.

expe r 1men t· a:~d:,t~e. ,"eiper;ini~'nte~;'arid 'wer e foi lowed' by·'three ';q"uo ; tlon:s1I1I11e'd~'a.~·dl:!1~ overtng'ho w:the,,~ub jee't, felt;

b~iori;'d "ur 1~g:^{and'af ter'th e.}experll1e~t:^{::,The flnal,two}

;'q~,~~'t10 ns' '~~ke~. :h'~

^:

~·u~·jeh:,.~'r t~er·' wO~'1~:',3e'ie et

^.

f~~ ~.

fut ure;.sll.l1l1a"i npe r1u: nt;'fndlv1c1Uai::s,fromtt:e'g roUp

th~; ':~~r~: '1~ ~; tllO~e , ;om '

^the

,''!~t~er·"·~roup

^•.

~, ~~~j~ct',

~~ re,. 111 ~~ as~~~· w~l~h·

^group

,t~~~, ~OUI ~ ri~~~ ;reie'rre~ :

.to'.hue~~'~1l^in'}':ad ~he1 ha"~'oichoic~:: ^{. . :}

tre a t men t

C'~nd 1tio~ ·.

^The,

~'ontr ol','gr~~p: ~e r'formed ihe"

^tasks

,:without anrkriowhdg·e ·:Of.'ot~.e~ cond!tiona::-. Sub ject a'were

~ lmPl~

.i n forme d't h;;t

it:2e'j[ peri~enter

^.

w~s

^'in

t·e'r~~'te·d,

^in:,teak:;

pe rformanc e..

fTh~ 1Il 15~tng''':'re~a-rd 'grou~

was:infor med

tha~ '-u;~

ex perte eneer wa,

i~ t'e~~ ~ted

^in,.

t~rect' o ~

^rews'r:d'on

'ta~k

· t:~ Sk,· t"o. ~er·form:'"

^.nie arr r er-e nee betwun"grou psinv'o.lvtd· .the1nf o r mati o nthllt the:SUbjec ts were'givenconc e r ning the"

:' .~

.,' .

·:

" th ~.'·: t~.~: "Qr

^the

~~~

e

'an~: depO'~'i ~

^{It, '}i

nt,?, ttl~.·:'env~~,o~~.' t,~ped ,

-to'the',s 1deof',;.thelr.d e s k . ih'.r;o lnst r uctfons,e x,Pl a i ned ,that

" .' it ',\;as" n ~~e:S5a rifor ~he num~~r to" ~e

^{on ea'ch pag e}:'t o"'e'ria ;le

,t'~~' ~x~eri:Jen ter

^to

:~·ee ~'·~~ll ~ti~. pape~:s. ~~ne ·

^{:b-y .. ; same}

-per-eon. togeth e r.and assur- eimon'Ylifty;. ','After'the'~f1,r.~t'page:

~a:5'c~.mPleted^,.n~(Ilbe.r~d', ".and'depO~lted::i'n':th'e^{,'enve lo,pe'. '':}th~' .,':,.5~jec'ts..vere.-to"'b~g~~D,'U'; ~ se~on·d':;eilV'elope'.'-'continu i ng

., ^" :. " " , ', , " ' .

$1.50fo r eac h':page"ofth e·ts's,ks··c'om pJ.~t'ed wit hou t er-ro r:' ·

'Th~ 1\1s~ln!':'punish~ent

^{gro up}

'~as 8 ive~

^the,

sa~e ,i~·ro;~ ~t.ion>

except t.hey~~r e ; l~'rormedtha t^{theot;h er},gr; UP' \;OUl dre c eive

)

. 17-voltshockfo r each pageof th e't aSk

comPl.e~.~d , ~~ t h

^an

er;rr: The conjrOl group was not given anr 00 cernin gthe_ex i stenceofothe rcond i t ions .

/

,. .

. (

su'~i~~~"as he. j e~ln~·~d the~ "~~:d·~_ ·t·lie' t~~ ks· in.

seo;ue nee"--a n d':

w;lte·'·"t1i~ l r^{':nu mber on,}U~ e'·'t~p "or',oe BCh''p a gea's'1,~:w~ s:~'

..

~:~~~.i~t·e:~ .'. . ~~ .. ~'xperl.m'e·n~~·~.

^then"

~o~~," t~e:' s~;~ : ;'eC~

^{,to ties}

In,; '

....,'.:.

. .,~,"'. . ' , ' , , , ", .. ,.. :and."infor rne4· .

",' "~r.ter~?o,.~ ~.f1>U~u ~~e·;~per1111"enter,r ~_~~rn:d,. ", .: ,.

the::subjec-ta,t ha t Use willup~··(No's ubj e c t , COIII pleted pl1

. :..

th'~ : ·'~~.ie's':

^{in-··,t his·.}

't i~e'~ )': ~e

^coHeot'ed

·~he . e~,,~ope.ll an~

·. : ::d .. :,.:::,::''':~: ~;L : , ::: ;~:::;:~::,::::t::;::::' t : : : :::: .,~

-:the experimellt'w~s'OYer: •'pal d"t he m .end'aaicedthen 'i f.,the)'

.:', _{· >} E':,~:~:;::::::::::::.::;::q:~::::::::::, ^{:: u ::,:,} o:~:::: ^{. .'.}

,A,:.~~a,~e ~a~, :lef~'~t" th~ -,bo tt,o~

^of

t he' pa~e .~or', "t~~>. su·bjects.

\:.~·si,8 n,i ~.t he y.:.~anted to part;1elpa,t e!,and ..box to cheok:1C

,-~--- ~--- "

r

"The'

~~5k5, a'~:1tt;metiC pr'o'b\ems~'iv lng and

'proofrea d ing',

we re

analY5~d

^{:bYmeans;tlf.}

tw6 one-~a~' an~lY5e5

^ot

·,~ariane~ :

^.

.

;he Ind.e

p

e nd e n t

Va~ia?l~:-~ilrthe ,

^{ex per}

~m ental c~'nd

^it.tcn,

t~e

dep ende nt me a s ur e ~we r e'.th e percentof' correctr.eepc ne e a un th ear l tti metict:'1a,sk;~n~the n~mbe r,o f typogra phical er ror s ' det ected in- th e proo frea d i n g tas k . (.Se elabh2 fori!'e ans). Th~ pe.rc '~ t co~ r e~.tsporesw~ reana lyzed',f o ll owing an~' arc erne,tr a p s'ro rinat t.on.,

r re

^{analysesof,var}renee r-evea ted a

Slgn_l~lcarit .main ef~e~t'if

experime n t a l

condi'~10 n ~~~

^{··..bo th}

pr-corce actng f{2, IIS)-:',1.1:reo.',2<"0 1andarit hmeticprob~e",-'

. '

.".,'"

. . . .. " , '

re.su~wer~·^in,t.he ,~dicted di~ec~ion.and ^with,aSl~8 htlY

'\' ,> 6 ,

(' ,On.bothper-f'orraanc e , tasks 'the missing - re war d group

the,.'lo we s t andthe miss ing_pu n is hment,group eeored

~^{the .highe s t·. 'A} Newman-Keule,.t~ st i~d^teaiee ,t h'at th~

'\ :

',d~,fre r enCl~^{\b etw:en the.mi}ssing:-pun'i shment s~bj ee ts^{and the}

ccn rrc i.sub-j e c.t sw'a,ssig n ifi can t for".both' the lII'athem a tical

\ ',:'. .•. . . • I 'I

(.2r Oll, and ',~~e :pr~o tt e~di,nB tasks, (:2<.001) ., 1M t,he

? f s Si ng- re wardco.ndlti o n neither the pe r f orma nc e'on th e

~ ' .'ilathe~~t,ic S

^task,

(~<

^{.o e) ."}

no'r ~'~e, p'roof~,ead

^Lng,

tas~' (.E~. O~) ,

^'

di ffer ed.si g n if1c a ntiy frC?mthe'cQntr o {gro up.,''Ho we v e r-,'. the

.Page 33

" I " "

'-l arger samplewo uldp r q babl' y neve"be en si g n if i c a n t. rne pe'rf o rlllano e',

' d1ffer~n ee ~e'twe~n

^{th e}

,lII iss ~"n'g~ ~e~ard'''gr~up ' ~rid

"':'" ," .

.

^{. . .. . ',:', . --- \.' ,} _. :

.-

^{....' ".}

the mlssin g-p u n 1::lhlll~nt gr,oup was .s1~n1f~e a nt.~. ~h e Pf.oo~r Uding ta sk (,E<.0001' and in:the math elllaU.estas k (£<;0 0 1).

eet rev e:

L ' .

^{, '.} . , '-'. ,

...

^{. .~ ,.. ''}

.

·that others were perfo rmin g thesalletasks foracre pay ,

t~nd ed ',~o perfo~ · l~ n· ·

^{we'll '.; both'}

lIl~th~,..a tie al -:·

^and',

pr:O?fr,~~~ing: t~~k~, ~~an" SUbjeC ~s

^..

, ~nawar,e- ^of

^any

;. ~'th~r

,eond,itiOn ., 'Con ve rs ely, subje etswno,we r e led,fo -eell ~ ve, tha t..!Jt hers .we'r e perfo r mi ng the same tas ks',b ut ,be ing puri1::lhe d forthe ir·erro rsperf o rmed bet~er on bot h .ta sksI.,.

'. , -. ',

..

/ . ". "

comparedwiththe ~ub jectsuna wareof anyother,condLt tcn,

'To 'de termi n e;'if st;b j e~ts attelllpt ed to !ner ease the

, , .. . .: . - ,

. ,

spe ed of tlhe ir per fo ,:mance th etot arnumbe rof lIathe lDatical i .,' ;

.. \ : '

. . .

.questi ons eOlllpl ete d, re&ard~e:5S of ~heth er'or. not the

sol utionwascor re c t, wa sana l yzed usi ng aon e-wa y anal YS N

"

of v er rence • The an alysLa reve a led that the re wa s 8

I ' <

sign i fioant dif~e r encebetw~engroups F(2,1l5) =3. 2,3,E<·05 . ~I

The Ne~an':Keul s te st"indi c ated that theonlysig n ific an t : di f f er e ncewas be t ween the lIilllli n g .r eward condition 01 = '.

, ,

- - ,

i \

J .

:23.88).:and t'he lIisw!ii

g

punis hllentcon~lt1.on. (~'"^r1.31•.

i«_05 )'" ~The d1Cf~rences ~e,t~een

^the.'

.hs~ng_PUn1sh~,ent : ·

group. and the cont tol gr oup"":"(~.;'30.56) and"the mi s s ing-r ewar d'group and' the,.c o n.trol ,group not"

,J5 ~gn if1c ant" (..E.( . 2 5,)" Th us,subjects\flrlo mis sed 8pun ishment·

eoepjet.ed»c -epro bl emscve reiitha~'dld'l5ub'Je~'t l5 \fh~mi~5e d'

, ..r.

, reve r-d, rneproofreadi ngtask,)/a sno t,simil,arly an a ly zed

" ' . .

';.1l~:H·" "n~~,po s si b le to.dete r,i ne e'l8c t~y how far,'~.n

,ind iv i d ual had,read'beion~ the' laJ5t typographicalerror

.'1

I

. I J 1

detec te d.

I.

tend'·t'o'change

'" ^{. .}

..

" ^.

" . ' .

th~t-others'^lirerewardedor'.pun ishedfor per fo rJlling·the sallie t'as k . If .ind 1Yi~Uals. believ e ot hers are rece iv i n g.

"punish ments'ro e-.thei r'lI1stak~8whilethey"r"enot,th~ytend'

tobe

mor~

^{caref ul;lukefewe:}

~r~ or:l,

^a.nddo

mor~ ~rk.

^,on:.'

the,ot he! hand,',if':lubj ects b!lfev e'that.othe rs'

~'ece1v {~g rewar ds whil~th.~y are,not,'they tend to be,l~'s~

o~r e fu I , m~keecr-e'errors,a~d ~o.lesswork.

Th e l~st' b~h~'vioural' ^{ee esu r e.\fIlS,the number of}

·.1sin ter pret,a tio~s" 'of.1nJ5tr ucti o nsacros sgr~u ps.- Er ro rs

,:,

l'age.35',

.. " ,,' " " ,0

tha treflectedafailure to follo w'in s truc t-i o nsra t he r than'

· 1 b,io , 'WlbU';. " ; " ' " "bj ''''' .'O'; 11'; ' ,;p"fo·,mth' .

task 're que's t e d classed as of'

" ' a

misinterpr eta tio n. For .example , if a subject were to'skip allthe~roo:fr eadingtasks and do only the,arIthmetic ,tas ks·

or ,t o'.s ki P o v er ,8,se c ti o n in ~he math, an error of

mi s i n t e r pr e t a ti o n"wo uld b'~'scoredfor,tha t SUbj~.ct~ / f an''1 indl vidualmad e .apart i cu l a r ;kindof erro r" o nepointonry-

" . ... . , . • .. , ... . .y.

wasscor,ednomat t erhow oftent he',er;ror wa srepe ate d. For example;',if a,subject,.we r-e.

to,

s,ki p questton s {dothe-tas ks outof sequence) he or she,wouldbejacored onlyone po i nt , n o

. .

ma tter how many 'que sti o ns were s,ki,p ped. A case'-t hat illustratesthe"p r-o ced ureistha t ofal5u bj e c t :,who di vide d, the,numeratorinto thedenceijna tor: All the questionsthat

" ' . .

wer edonein thiis'fa shio n, i/ 'they';were er-] thme ti'c a ll y cor r ectgiv en,the'inver ~lon,wer ~'scored ~sco~ r ect"'hilt:at the same time this individual was score d with one misinte rp ret a tionerror.

.. .... ,

^{, .'}

. ' . " ;r

1 _ - • • ••

. Nos.Ubj:ect

.lIlad·e JD~'r ,

^e..

th~n ,on~'.k " d ^of .'. "0" ""'. " '00 ' / . . • •..' .'

eercr.,thu s subj ectswhodi dmake such erro rs 'were

sco~ ,

^{' :''.}

one"

~hl1~ .

^{thQse whO'·did.no t were-}

~cored ,Z~7"he

^{. . '}

mis s i ng-p un i Shmentgr-o upvmadethe fewest _errors (2)",the,' .c~n t!,,~l. group.mad e'moreer.r~r 5 (6 ),and,themisSlng- rewa~d

'Page'36

(3).me subject s' pe r cep t i on of in ,t he "re~a~d ll ,and

. .

.

q.~.e5t io nna1r e .wes divide?,into thre,emai~)C0mp,onent5(,~ther thema n i pul a t i o n checks.aLr e ad y. diseueaedjr (1) The

Pe rc e p tion of the.exp~ri~ent"was,?e as ur edby'quest.Lo n de si gn ed to"measure cognitive

,d i llt Ct ti o n'.or,emotionll1'change that,~~ght'hav e occur r,edas a

func ti on .o f the ex perimenta l manipulat ion . The group.mee e~he'mo~t e r,r,or~, ~^12).,

,'II.

C~i-~Quai"e,t e ~t ^{wa s} per.r.,ormed",and"".vealed,the d..

itf5· .,en.ceS b etwee'n :~roups

^{..'.0 'be.}

signi.ficant

(Chi ...,~qUare

⁽²⁾',,"1.6, <,03 ) • Overall ",those

, , ' . ., '

individuals who'thoughtt.hey-wer-e mssinga benefit had..mor.~

.e~rorsand,misinterpreted.t,~e,in s.t~Uc t1~ns more fre que,ntly

. .t. nen t'hosey-n

t~e .~,ontrol ,gro':Jp~' c~ nv.et'selY' '1n~h idU~lS

^1,"

the mi s s i n g-pun i s hme n t conditi0p hal! fewer errors, and mi 8inter pr ~ted^{,t h e} instructions le s s fr-equentlytha~/ttl;"'"

cbntr-oIgr ou p ;