HAL Id: dumas-01671703
https://dumas.ccsd.cnrs.fr/dumas-01671703
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Documenter le conflit syrien hors les murs : comprendre
les sources utilisées par les rédactions françaises
Constance Leon
To cite this version:
Constance Leon. Documenter le conflit syrien hors les murs : comprendre les sources utilisées par les rédactions françaises. Sciences de l’information et de la communication. 2016. �dumas-01671703�
École des hautes études en sciences de l'information et de la communication - Université Paris-Sorbonne 77, rue de Villiers 92200 Neuilly tél. : +33 (0)1 46 43 76 76 fax : +33 (0)1 47 45 66 04 www.celsa.fr
Master 1
Mention : Information et communication Spécialité : Journalisme
Documenter le conflit syrien hors les murs
Comprendre les sources utilisées par les rédactions françaises
Responsable de la mention information et communication Professeure Karine Berthelot-Guiet
Tuteur universitaire : Valérie Jeanne-Perrier
Nom, prénom : LEON Constance Promotion : 2015-2016
Soutenu le : 23/05/2016
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4 ! ! ! ! ! !
Documenter le conflit syrien hors les murs :
comprendre les sources utilisées par les
rédactions françaises
!
8D>>?;BA!
"#$#"%&#$#'() ... 3!
DOCUMENTER LE CONFLIT SYRIEN HORS LES MURS : COMPRENDRE LES SOURCES UTILISEES PAR LES REDACTIONS FRANÇAISES ... 4!
)*$$+&"#... 4!
INTRODUCTION ... 5!
ENTRETIENS REALISES ... 9!
I.! LES JOURNALISTES OCCIDENTAUX EXCLUS DU TERRAIN ... 9!
A.! LES JOURNALISTES CONSIDERES COMME DES CIBLES ... 9!
1.! Enlèvements et prises d’otages ... 9!
2.! Victime dans les combats ... 11!
3.! Les troubles psychologiques ... Erreur ! Le signet n’est pas défini.! 4.! Des journalistes considérés comme des espions ... 12!
5.! Les journalistes free-lances ... 12!
B.! LE STATUT PARTICULIER DE L’INFORMATION EN SYRIE ... 13!
1.! La complexe géographie des fronts ... 13!
2.! Les intrusions des pouvoirs publics et des militaires occidentales dans l’information ... 14!
3.! L’ère Al-Assad et le journalisme ... 18!
II. LA TYPOLOGIE DES SOURCES UTILISEES PAR LES REDACTIONS FRANÇAISES . 20! A.! LES REDACTIONS UTILISENT LES RESEAUX SOCIAUX COMME PREMIERE ALERTE OU COMME CONNEXION ... 20!
1.! Les réseaux sociaux comme source première d’information ... 21!
2.! Les réseaux sociaux, comme lien entre les sources et les rédactions ... 22!
B.! LES REDACTIONS EMPLOIENT DES SOURCES LOCALES : CIVILS, JOURNALISTES PROFESSIONNELS OU MILITANTS ... 23!
1.! L’utilisation indistincte des militants, civils ou journalistes professionnels comme source 23! 2.! Les critiques face au recours aux journalistes locaux ... 29!
C.! LES REDACTIONS ET LEURS ENVOYES SPECIAUX OU CORRESPONDANTS ... 30!
D.! LE RECOURS AUX MEDIAS SYRIENS ... 32!
1.! Comprendre le fonctionnement des médias syriens pour réaliser leurs biais dans le traitement de l’information ... 32!
5
2.! Le cas de l’Observatoire Syrien des Droits de l’Homme (OSDH) et les controverses qui
l’agitent ... 33!
3. Les autres médias syriens ... 39!
III. LE CONTENU DES SOURCES ... 43!
A.! DES BILANS COMPTABLES DES VICTIMES,« UN DOIGT MOUILLE »? ... 44!
1.! Cas pratique : comparaison des chiffres avancées par le SNHR, le VDC et le OSDH sur le bilan des frappes russes entre septembre et décembre 2015 ... 46!
2.! L’impossible comptage des victimes ... 48!
3.! Quelle méthodologie pour ces chiffres ? ... 48!
B.! LA VERIFICATION DES SOURCES DEPUIS LE « DESK » ... 51!
1.! La nécessaire compréhension du biais des sources militantes ... 51!
2.! Recouper ses sources, vérification et contextualisation ... 55!
CONCLUSION ... 57! ANNEXES ... 58! BIBLIOGRAPHIE ... 74! Mémoires universitaires ... 74! Livres universitaires ... 74! Essais ... 75!
Articles universitaires : sources documentaires ... 75!
Articles de presse : sources d’exploration ... 76!
Rapports humanitaires ... 77! Documentaires ... 77! RESUME ... 78! MOTS CLES ... 79! GLOSSAIRE ... 79! !
INTRODUCTION
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1
Albert Londres, « Le canon tonne à Changaï pour la possession de Chapeï », Le Journal, 5 février 1932.
2
L’expression est de Ch. Delporte dans son article « Journalistes et correspondants de guerre », dans Encyclopédie de la Grande Guerre 1914-1918. S.Audoin-Rouzeau et J-J. Becker (dir.), Paris, Bayard, 2004, p.722.
8 !
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p+&%%&(! /.1$23*,/$.(! '$/5&.,7&%%&(! _,2&! '-5$/%-&(! I! %&(! /3*[&(! '&! 3*((*#2&Y! %&(! %$.[+&(!%/(,&(!&,!#)/112&(!'&!3$2,(!$.,7/%(!,$+Z$+2(!'2$/,!'&!#/,-!l!! ! ?!,2*5&2(!'&(!&.,2&,/&.(!*5&#!%&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!#$.12$.,-(!*+!,&22*/.!&,!%&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(! W+/!$.,!#$+5&2,!%&!#$.1%/,!(M2/&.Y!%U*.*%M(&!(-3/$,/W+&!'&!#&(!'/*%$[+&(!E&23&,,2$.,!'&! #$3E2&.'2&!#$33&.,!%&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!(U*EE2$E2/&.,!%&(!/.1$23*,/$.(!'&!%&+2(!($+2#&(! E$+2!#$+52/2!+.!#$.1%/,!'$.,!/%(!.&!E&+5&.,!E*(!1*/2&!%U&VE-2/&.#&X!G$+(!5&22$.(!'*.(! +.!E2&3/&2!,&3E(!#$33&.,!%&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!$##/'&.,*+V!(&!5$/&.,!2&1+(&2!%U*##c(!*+! ,&22*/.Y! E+/(! .$+(! -,+'/&2$.(! %*! ,ME$%$[/&! '&(! ($+2#&(! +,/%/(-&(! E*2! %&(! 2-'*#,/$.(! 12*.N*/(&(!&,!&.1/.Y!W+&%!#$.,&.+!%&(!2-'*#,/$.(!12*.N*/(&(!E2-1c2&.,7&%%&(!(-%&#,/$..&2! E*23/!%U&.(&39%&!'&!%&+2(!($+2#&(X!!
9
Entretiens réalisés
Sammy Ketz, directeur du bureau de l’AFP à Beyrouth. Christophe Ayad, directeur du service International au Monde.
Patrick Baz, ancien directeur de la photographie pour le Moyen-Orient et l’Afrique du Nord à l’AFP.
Patrick Boitet, rédacteur en chef d’Un Œil sur la planète, émission géopolitique de France 2. Hala Kodmani, journaliste franco-syrienne au service International de Libération.
Wassim Nasr, journaliste au service International de France 24. François d’Alançon, journaliste au service International de La Croix. Alvaro Canovas, photographe de Paris Match.
Alexandra El Khazan, responsable du Moyen-Orient de Reporters sans frontières (RSF). Bassam Al-Ahmad, ancien porte-parole du média syrien « Violation Documentation Center » (VDC), fondateur du média « Step to work justice in Syria ».
Thomas Pierret, professeur spécialisé sur la Syrie à l’université d’Edimbourg.
Yazan Badran, chercheur syrien, spécialiste des médias syriens, à l’université flamande de Bruxelles.
I.! Les journalistes occidentaux exclus du
terrain
L*.(!+.!#$.1%/,Y!%*!E2-(&.#&!'&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!&(,!/.'/(E&.(*9%&!E$+2!2&.'2&!#$3E,&!'+! '-2$+%&3&.,!'&!%*![+&22&Y!#U&(,!\!'/2&Y!'+!#$3E$2,&3&.,!'&(!9&%%/[-2*.,(Y!'+!.$392&! '&(!5/#,/3&(!&,!'&(!'$33*[&(!#/5/%(!&,!3/%/,*/2&(!*/.(/!W+&!'&(!2&,$39-&(!'&!%*![+&22&! (+2!%&(!E%*.(!3/%/,*/2&(Y!E$%/,/W+&Y!-#$.$3/W+&!&,!($#/*%X!H*!E2-(&.#&!'&!Z$+2.*%/(,&(! (+2!%&!12$.,!#$3E$2,&!+.!#&2,*/.!.$392&!'&!2/(W+&(Y!'$.,!#&%+/!'&!3$+2/2X!;%(!.&!'$/5&.,! E*(!_,2&!&VE$(-(!*+!'*.[&2!./!(&25/2!'&!#/9%&(!E$+2!+.!W+&%#$.W+&!/.,-2_,!E$%/,/W+&!$+! 1/.*.#/&2Xe!A.! Les journalistes considérés comme des cibles
1.! Enlèvements et prises d’otages
6$+2!%UDG^!B&E$2,&2(!(*.(!12$.,/c2&(!:B8]=Y!%&!#$.1%/,!(M2/&.!&(,!%&!E%+(!3&+2,2/&2!E$+2! %&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!I!K!?%$2(!W+U/%!.UM!*5*/,!E*(!'&!E2&((&!%/92&!&.!8M2/&Y!%&!E*M(!&(,!'&5&.+! %&!E%+(!3&+2,2/&2!'+!3$.'&!E$+2!%&(!2&E$2,&2(!OX!8&%$.!%&!'&2./&2!9/%*.!'&!%U$2[*./(*,/$.Y! RQ!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!(M2/&.(!($.,!3$2,(!'&E+/(!%&!'-9+,!'&!%U*..-&!PQCSX L&E+/(!PQCeY!%&(!
e
!Les risques du journalisme dans les conflits armés, Aimé-Jules Bizimana, Communication [En ligne], Vol. 25/1 | 2006, 13 septembre 2013, DOI : 10.4000/communication.
10 2-'*#,/$.(! 2&#$..*/((&.,! %&+2! '/11/#+%,-! 5$/2! %U/3E$((/9/%/,-! 'U&.5$M&2! '&(! Z$+2.*%/(,&(! (+2!%&!,&22*/.Y!#$33&!%&!E2-#/(&!%U?]6!%&!i!1-52/&2!PQCP!'*.(!+.&!'-E_#)&!2&E2/(&!E*2! %UD2/&.,7H&!F$+2!I!K!;%!.0-,*/,!E*(!E$((/9%&!'&!5-2/1/&2!'*.(!%0/33-'/*,!#&(!/.1$23*,/$.(! (+2! %&! ,&22*/.! &.! 2*/($.! '&(! 1$2,&(! 2&(,2/#,/$.(! /3E$(-&(! *+! '-E%*#&3&.,! '&(! Z$+2.*%/(,&(! -,2*.[&2(! &.! 8M2/&! OgX! Lc(! PQCeY! %&(! 2-'*#,/$.(! 12*.N*/(&(! E2-1c2&.,! .U&.5$M&2!W+&!,2c(!E$.#,+&%%&3&.,!'&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!(+2!%&!,&22*/.Y!(U/%(!($.,!E2$,-[-(! E*2! +.&! #$+5&2,+2&! K! 'U&39&''/.[! OX! ! K! J$3E,&7,&.+! '&! #&! W+/! &(,! *22/5-! \! >*2/&! J$%5/.Y! .$+(! *5$.(! '-#/'-! '&! .&! E%+(! '&3*.'&2! \! *+#+.! Z$+2.*%/(,&! '&! #$+52/2! %*! [+&22&! &.! 8M2/&X! J&#/! E$+2! .&! E*(! %&(! &.#$+2*[&2! \! E2&.'2&! '&(! 2/(W+&(! /.#$.(/'-2-(! OY*'-#%*2&! ^2*)*3! 6*,&2($.Y! #)&1! '+! (&25/#&! /.,&2.*,/$.*%! '+! 8+.'*M! @/3&(!&.!PQCeY!E$+2!3&,,2&!1/.!\!%U+(*[&!'&!E/[/(,&(!&.!8M2/&X H*!Z$+2.*%/(,&!*3-2/#*/.&! >*2/&! J$%5/.Y! #$22&(E$.'*.,&! '+! 1(%+23* 4&/),Y! *5*/,! -,-! ,+-&! '*.(! %&! #&.,2&! '&! E2&((&! '&! `*9*! ?32Y! +.! W+*2,/&2! '&! j$3(Y! 9$39*2'-! E*2! %U*23-&! (M2/&..&Y! *%$2(! W+U&%%&!*5*/,!*##+(-!W+&%W+&(!Z$+2(!*+E*2*5*.,!(*!3$2,!%&!2-[/3&!'&!`*#)*2!?%7?((*'! '&!,+&2!%&(!#/5/%(X
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4
Syrie: trois familles entières tuées à Homs, AFP et L’'Orient-Le jour, 8 février 2012. 5
11
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2.! Victime dans les combats
6$+2!B8]Y!%&(!($+2#&(!'&(!'*.[&2(!($.,!3+%,/E%&(!I!K!H&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(Y!E2$1&((/$..&%(! $+!.$.Y!($.,!E2/(!&.,2&!'&+V!-,*+V!I!%&(!1$2#&(!'+!2-[/3&!&,!(&(!*%%/-(!&,!%&(!'/11-2&.,(! [2$+E&(!'U$EE$(/,/$.Y!'$.,!%&(!2*'/#*+V!,&%(!W+&!%&![2$+E&!A,*,!/(%*3/W+&Y!&,!%&(!1$2#&(! a+2'&(X!H&(!,&.,*,/5&(!'U/.,/3/'*,/$.Y!%&(!*22&(,*,/$.(Y!%&(!&.%c5&3&.,(!&,!*((*((/.*,(! ($.,!#$33+.(!&,!'2&((&.,!+.!,*9%&*+!3-'/*,/W+&!3*#*92&!OX HU/.(-#+2/,-!E2$E2&!\!+.&!(/,+*,/$.!'&!9&%%/[-2*.#&!&.,2*s.&!%&!2/(W+&!'&!(&!2&,2$+5&2! ($+(!%&!1&+!&..&3/!'/2/[-!#$.,2&!%&(!1$2#&(!$+!%&(![2$+E&(!*+VW+&%(!/%(!($.,!*##2-'/,-(! $+! W+U/%(! *##$3E*[.&.,! :,/2(! 'U*2,/%%&2/&Y! &39+(#*'&(t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12
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3.! Des journalistes considérés comme des espions
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4.! Les journalistes free-lance
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13
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B.! Le statut particulier de l’information en Syrie
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1.! La complexe géographie des fronts
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;:2+)/3X!H$2(!'U+.!2&E$2,*[&!\!j$3(!E$+2!=)*D$&%.*&.!$#,$92&!PQCCY!j-./.!#$.(,*,&! W+&!I!K!L*.(!%&(!5/%%&(Y!$.!E*((&!'U+.!W+*2,/&2!2&9&%%&!\!+.!W+*2,/&2!%$M*%/(,&X!8*+1!W+&! %&(!'&+V!($.,!&.,2&3_%-&(!\!%U-#)&%%&!'+!E*M(!&,!.&!E&23&,,&.,!E*(!\!%U$EE$(/,/$.!'&! (&!#$.(,/,+&2!+.&!9*(&!*22/c2&!#$.(/(,*.,&!OX!! ! H&(!.-[$#/*,/$.(!'&!^&.c5&!&.,2&!%&![$+5&2.&3&.,!'&!`*#)*2!?%7?((*'Y!%U$EE$(/,/$.! (M2/&..&! &,! %UDG4! '$..&.,! +.&! E2&3/c2&! /'-&! '&(! 1$2#&(! &.! E2-(&.#&! *+! ./5&*+! .*,/$.*%!I!%&(!2&E2-(&.,*.,(!'+![$+5&2.&3&.,!'&!`*#)*2!?%7?((*'Y!'&(!o+2'&(!(M2/&.(Y! &,! '&(! 2&9&%%&(! .$.! 'Z/)*'/(,&(Y! %$.[,&3E(! 2&[2$+E-(! ($+(! %&! '2*E&*+! '&! %U?23-&! 8M2/&..&! H/92&! :?8H=Y! -#%*,-&! &.! E%+(/&+2(! [2$+E&(! '&E+/(! '-9+,! PQCgX! H&(! 1$2#&(!
14 &V#%+&(!'&(!E$+2E*2%&2(!($.,!%UA,*,!;(%*3/W+&Y!%&!12$.,!?%!G+(2*!*%%/-!\!?%7p*/'*!&,!K!'&(! 12*.[&(!'Z/)*'/(,&(!'&!%U/.(+22&#,/$.!(+../,&!OX!H&![2$+E&!/(%*3/(,&!($+,&.+!E*2!%&!p*,*2! &,!%*!@+2W+/&Y!?)2*2!*%78)*3!*!-,-!-[*%&3&.,!2&,/2-!$11/#/&%%&3&.,!'&(!.-[$#/*,/$.(vX!! !
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2.! Les intrusions des pouvoirs publics et des militaires occidentales dans
l’information
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15
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a)! Le dispositif « d’embedding »
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16
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« Un groupe de quatre journalistes, deux Israéliens - Dan Scemama et Boaz Bismuth - et deux Portugais - Luis Castro et Victor Silva -, ont accusé la police militaire américaine de leur avoir fait vivre "les pires quarante-huit heures de leur vie". Les quatre journalistes non
incorporés ont été arrêtés dans la nuit du 25 au 26 mars 2003 alors qu’ils dormaient entre les villes de Kerbala et Najaf, à proximité d’une unité américaine. Pourtant munis de leur carte de presse, les quatre hommes ont été menacés, maltraités et enfermés incommunicado dans une jeep pendant trente-six heures, plongeant leurs médias et leurs familles dans la plus vive inquiétude. », Rapport RSF , 31 mars 2003.
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8/! #&,,&! 5/(/,&! &(,! (,2/#,&3&.,! &.#*'2-&Y! %U*[&.#/&2! E2&.'! '&(! E2-#*+,/$.(! %$2(W+U/%! '-#$.(,2+/,! '*.(! (*! '-E_#)&! %&! 5&29*,/3! '&(! *+,$2/,-(! I! K! A.! #&! W+/! #$.#&2.&! %&(! ,2$+E&(!*+!($%Y!%&!'/(#$+2(!$11/#/&%!'&!>$(#$+!2&(,&!W+&!%0*2,/%%&2/&!&,!%0/.1*.,&2/&!.0-,*/&.,! E*(!E2-(&.,&(!*+!12$.,Y!3_3&!(0/%!*'3&,!W+&!'&(!#$.(&/%%&2(!&,!'&(!1$2#&(!(E-#/*%&(! *+!($%!$.,!Z$+-!+.!2y%&!|&((&.,/&%|!'*.(!%*!E2-E*2*,/$.!&,!%0&V-#+,/$.!'&(!$E-2*,/$.(!OX!! L&2./&2!&V&3E%&!'&!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!K!&39&''&'!O!'+!#y,-!2+((&Y!*5&#!+.!2&E$2,*[&!'&! >*V!L&%*.M!\!?%7G*(2/M*Y!*+!.$2'7&(,!'&!L*3*(Y!E+9%/-!%&!CC!*52/%!PQCS!E*2!%U?]6X!;%! (U*[/,!'&!%*!(/[.*,+2&!'U+.!,2*/,-!'&!E*/V!%$#*%Y!K!E2-(&.,-&!E*2!%*!B+((/&!#$33&!+.! &V&3E%&!'+!2y%&!'&!3-'/*,&+2!W+&!Z$+&!>$(#$+!(+2!%&!,&22*/.!E$+2!E*25&./2!\!%*!E*/V! &.,2&!%&!2-[/3&!&,!%&(!2&9&%%&(X!A%%&!(0&(,!,&.+&!%&!Z$+2!'&!%*!5/(/,&!(*3&'/!'&!Z$+2.*%/(,&(! /.,&2.*,/$.*+V! #)*E&*+,-(! E*2! %&! 3/./(,c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t!K!F0*/3&2*/(!52*/3&.,!5$+(!E*2%&2!'&!%*! (/,+*,/$.!/#/!3*/(!/%(!.&!3&!%*/((&2$.,!E*(!1*/2&!OY!,&.,&!+.!)*9/,*.,!Z+[-!,2$E!9*5*2'!E*2! +.!3/%/,*/2&!2+((&!W+/!$2'$..&!W+0/%!($/,!,&.+!\!%0-#*2,!'&!%*!'-%-[*,/$.!'&!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!OX! J&(! E2-#*+,/$.(! '*.(! %*! 2-'*#,/$.! '&! %*! '-E_#)&! (&39%&.,! _,2&! +.&! E2$,&#,/$.! (+EE%-3&.,*/2&Y!%$2(W+&!%*!($+2#&!&(,!+./W+&!&,!'/11/#/%&!\!5-2/1/&2X!!
K!H$2(W+&!%U$.!.U*!E%+(!%&!#)$/VY!/%!M!*!%&!Z$+2.*%/(3&!K!&39&''&'!OY!ZU*/!'-#$+5&2,!#&,,&! 3*./c2&!'&!,2*5*/%%&2!&.!;2*aX!\!`*['*'Y!3*%[2-!%&!1*/,!W+&!Z&!E*2%&!%*!%*.[+&Y!/%!3U-,*/,! '&5&.+!/3E$((/9%&!'&!,2*5*/%%&2!'&!3*./c2&!/.'-E&.'*.,&X!FU-,*/(!$9%/[-!'&!#)$/(/2!+.! #y,-X! HU;2*aY! #U&(,! %&! E2&3/&2! #$.1%/,! $d! %&(! Z$+2.*%/(,&(! $d! %U-,2*.[&2! &(,! '&5&.+! +.&! #/9%&X!A.!PQQgY!N*!#)*+11*/,!+.!E&+X!8/!ZU*/!+.!5/(*!E$+2!#$+52/2!'+!#y,-!'+!2-[/3&!(M2/&.Y! Z&!E&+V!*%%&2!5$/2!'&!3&(!E2$E2&(!M&+V!#&!W+/!(&!E*((&Y!E$+2W+$/!.&!E*(!%U+,/%/(&2!l!OY! *.*%M(&!6*,2/#a!`*b!'&!%U?]6X!
18
J&E&.'*.,!&.!8M2/&Y!%&(!A,*,(74./(!.U$.,!E*(!&.5$M-!'&!,2$+E&(!*+!($%X!L*.(!+.!*2,/#%&! E+9%/-! &.! 1-52/&2! PQCSY! 8,&E)*.! ]2*/(&2! '+! `$(,$.! ^%$9&! '-5&%$EE&! %U/3E*#,! '&(! E$+5$/2(! E+9%/#(! *3-2/#*/.(! (+2! %&(! 2-'*#,/$.(! *3-2/#*/.&(! *9(&.,&(! '+! ,&22*/.X! ;%! &VE%/W+&!W+&!%&(!3-'/*(!*3-2/#*/.(!E2-(&.,&.,!K!?%&E!#$33&!+.&!b$.&!%/9-2-&!'&E+/(! ,2$/(! *.(! OY! +.&! 2-*%/,-! (&+%&3&.,! E*2,/&%%&! (&%$.! %+/X! H&! Z$+2.*%/(,&! E2-#/(&! W+&! %&(! 3-'/*(!*3-2/#*/.(!'-#2/5&.,!%*!5/%%&!#$33&!K!2&,$+2.*.,!\!E2-(&.,!*+!'-(}+52&3&.,Y! &.!2*/($.!'&!%*!E$,&.,/&%%&!2&E2/(&!'U+.&!E*2,/&!'&!%*!5/%%&!E*2!%&(!,2$+E&(!'&!`*#)*2!?%7 ?((*'!OX!8&%$.!8,&E)*.!]2*/(&2Y!#&,,&!#$+5&2,+2&!#$22&(E$.'!\!K!%U)/(,$/2&!#$.(,2+/,&! E*2!f*()/.[,$.!OY!'$.#!\!+.&!1$23&!'&!K!(,$2M,&%%/.[!O!#$.(,2+/,!E*2!%UA,*,!&,!2-E*.'+! E*2! %&(! 3-'/*(X! 8&%$.! %&! Z$+2.*%/(,&! 8,&E)*.! ]2*/(&2Y! %*! E%+E*2,! '&(! 2-'*#,/$.(! *3-2/#*/.&(!-#2/5&.,!K!%U/.5&2(&!'&!#&!W+U/%!(&!E*((&!2-&%%&3&.,Y!&.!E2-#/(*.,!W+U?%&E! -,*/,!+.&!b$.&!%/9-2-&!E&.'*.,!,2$/(!*.(!&,!W+U&%%&!2&,$+2.&!\!+.&!3/(c2&!E2$1$.'&!OX!! 8,&E)*.! ]2*/(&2! '+! `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
3.! L’ère Al-Assad et le journalisme
L*.(! ($.! %/52&! C&"2+* ;:2+)/3Y! %U*.#/&.! $,*[&! '&! %UA,*,! ;(%*3/W+&Y! G/#$%*(! j-./.! -5$W+&!%*!'/11/#+%,-!E$+2!%&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!'&!#$+52/2!%*![+&22&!&.!-,*.,!&(#$2,-(!E*2!'&(! (*%*2/-(!'+!3/./(,c2&!'&!%U/.1$23*,/$.!(M2/&.X!H$2(!'&!%*!#)+,&!'&!%*!5/%%&!'U?%!p+*(*M2Y! %&!R!Z+/.!PQCeY!G/#$%*(!j-./.!#/,&!%U&V&3E%&!'U+.&!#$22&(E$.'*.,&!'&!%*!``J!I!K!H&! %&.'&3*/.Y! %U&.5$M-&! (E-#/*%&! '&! %*! ``JY! HM(&! L$+#&,Y! $9,/.,! '&(! *+,$2/,-(! %U*+,$2/(*,/$.! '&! (&! 2&.'2&! '*.(! %*! 5/%%&! 2-#&33&.,! K! 2&E2/(&! *+V! ,&22$2/(,&(! OX! ;%! (U*[/((*/,!'U+.!2&E$2,*[&!'/11+(-!&.!'/2&#,!'&!%*!2&E2/(&!E*2!%U*23-&!%$M*%/(,&!'U+.&!5/%%&! *+V! 3*/.(! '&(! 2&9&%%&(X! j-./.! *Z$+,&! I! K! `/&.! (u2Y! %&! 2-[/3&! *5*/,! E2-5+! W+&%W+&(! )*9/,*.,(!#)*2[-(!'&!#%*3&2!%&+2!Z$/&!'+!2&,$+2!'&!%U*23-&X!>*/(Y!#&!W+/!(*+,*/,!*+V! M&+VY!#U-,*/,!,$+(!%&(!)$33&(!*23-(Y!5_,+(!'&!,2&/%%/(!'-E*2&/%%-(Y!#&2,*/.(!E$2,*.,!'&(! /.(/[.&(!Z*+.&(!'+!j&b9$%%*)!OX!
19 ! H&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!($.,!#$.12$.,-(!\!'&![2*.'&(!'/11/#+%,-(!E$+2!$9,&./2!%&+2!5/(*Y!#&2,*/.(! (UM!2&.'&.,!'$.#!(*.(!&,!$9,/&..&.,!'&(!/.1$23*,/$.(!5/*!%&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!#/,$M&.(!(+2! E%*#&X!JU&(,!%&!#*(!'&!%*!Z$+2.*%/(,&!&,!-#2/5*/.&!(M2/&..&!2-1+[/-&!&.!]2*.#&!W+/!(U&(,! 2&.'+&!\!,2$/(!2&E2/(&(!/%%-[*%&3&.,Y!5/*!%*!@+2W+/&Y!&.!8M2/&Y!E$+2!-#2/2&!=),*-$#.),*+(* %A2%.X!K!H*!8M2/&!&(,!+.!&.1&2Y!N*!'-E*((&!%U&.,&.'&3&.,!Z$+2.*%/(,/W+&X!JU&(,!'/11/#/%&! 'U*##-'&2!*+!,&22*/.Y!#y,-!L*3*(Y!#$33&!#y,-!2&9&%%&(!OY!#$.1/23&!`&.Z*3/.!`*2,)&! '+!B$%+)X!?%5*2$!J*.$5*(Y!E)$,$[2*E)&!'&!6*2/(!>*,#)!#$.1/23&!%*!'/11/#+%,-!'U$9,&./2! +.!5/(*!(*.(!#$3E2$3&,,2&!($.!,2*5*/%!I!K!FU*5*/(!-,-!9%*#a%/(,-!E*2!L*3*(!'+!1*/,!'&! 3$.!2&E$2,*[&!(+2!%&(!2&9&%%&(Y!ZU*/!-,-!9%$W+-!\!%*!'$+*.&!%$2(W+&!ZU*/!5$+%+!2&5&./2! E$+2!+.!*+,2&!2&E$2,*[&X!A,!E+/(Y!/%!M!*!&+!+.!$2'2&!'&!%*/((&2!E*((&2Y!+.!$2'2&!,2c(!)*+,! E%*#-Y!E2$9*9%&3&.,!*+7'&((+(!'+!>/./(,c2&!'&!%U;.1$23*,/$.X!`2&1Y!,$+,!#&%*!'-E&.'! '&! (U/%(! ($.,! (*,/(1*/,! '+! 2&E$2,*[&! E2-#-'&.,! OX! <*%-2/&! J2$5*Y! [2*.'! 2&E$2,&2! E$+2! B*'/$! ]2*.#&! &VE%/W+&! &%%&! '*.(!%U-3/((/$.! '+! 3-'/*,&+2! '&! ]2*.#&! J+%,+2&! W+U+.&! 1$/(!W+U+.!Z$+2.*%/(,&!*!$9,&.+!+.!5/(*!#y,-!2&9&%%&Y!/%!(&2*!,2c(!'/11/#/%&!'U$9,&./2!+.!5/(*! #y,-! [$+5&2.&3&.,*%Y! #*2! %&! Z$+2.*%/(,&! &(,! K! *((/3/%-! \! %U&..&3/! OX! H*! Z$+2.*%/(,&! *Z$+,&! W+&! '*.(! %*! b$.&! '&! H*,,*W+/-Y! E2c(! '&! %*! 9*(&! 2+((&! '&! @*2,$+(Y! '&E+/(! %U/.,&25&.,/$.!2+((&!&.!8M2/&Y!#U&(,!*+E2c(!'+!3/./(,c2&!'&!%*!'-1&.(&!2+((&!W+U/%!1*+,! &11&#,+&2!(*!'&3*.'&!'&!5/(*X!LU*E2c(!<*%-2/&!J2$5*Y!%&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!2+((&(!($.,!'$.#! 1*5$2/(-(!'*.(!%&+2!#$+5&2,+2&X!<*%-2/&!J2$5*!#/,&!E*2!*/%%&+2(!+.!&V&3E%&!'&!#$.,2y%&! '&(!#$.,&.+(!'&!%*!E*2,!'&(!*+,$2/,-(!(M2/&..&(!I!%&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!.&!E&+5&.,!E%+(!E*2%&2! '&!K!2-[/3&!(M2/&.!OY!3*/(!K!'UA,*,!(M2/&.!OX!! ! ?%$2(Y!%&(!2*2&(!Z$+2.*%/(,&(!&.5$M-(!(E-#/*+V!($.,!#$.,2*/.,(!'&!#)$/(/2!+.!9/*/(!I!K!F&! E2-1c2&!,2*5*/%%&2!*+V!#y,-(!'&(!3/((/%&(![$+5&2.&3&.,*+V!E%+,y,!W+&!'+!#y,-!'&(!$9+(! W+&! 2&N$/5&.,! %&(! 2&9&%%&(X! Jy,-! 2&9&%%&Y! %U*##+&/%! &(,! E%+(! $+5&2,Y! 3$/.(! 9&($/.! 'U*+,$2/(*,/$.Y!3*/(!#U&(,!E%+(!'*.[&2&+VX!JU&(,!E%+(!1*#/%&!'&!9$((&2!'+!#y,-!'&!#&%+/! W+/! %*.#&! %&(! $9+(! OY! E2-#/(&! ?%5*2$! J*.$5*(! '&! 6*2/(! >*,#)X! 4.! E*2,/! E2/(! W+U*! -[*%&3&.,!#)$/(/!F&*.76/&22&!6&22/.Y!&.!PQCPY!\!`*9!?32$Y!+.!W+*2,/&2!'Uj$3(Y!%$2(! 'U+.!1*3&+V!2&E$2,*[&!*+V!#y,-(!'&!%U?8HY!Z+(,&!*5*.,!%*!2&E2/(&!'Uj$3(!E*2!%&!2-[/3&! (M2/&.X!!
20
II. La typologie des sources utilisées par les
rédactions françaises
H&(!($+2#&(!1/*9%&(!($.,!&((&.,/&%%&(!E$+2!E2$'+/2&!+.&!/.1$23*,/$.!5-2/1/-&!E&.'*.,! +.!#$.1%/,X!>*/(!W+&%(!#2/,c2&(!K!,)-$2/W+&(!O!E&+,7$.!2&,&./2!'*.(!%&!1&+!'&!%U*#,/$.!l!!
!
J$.#2c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
!
@)$3*(! 6/&22&,! E2-#/(&! %*! 3-,)$'&! \! +,/%/(&2! E$+2! #$+52/2! +.&! )/(,$/2&! I! K! H&! 3/&+V! #0&(,! '&! #$39/.&2! %&(! ($+2#&(! OX! L*.(! #&,,&! E*2,/&Y! .$+(! *.*%M(&2$.(! #$33&.,! %&(! 2-'*#,/$.(!(U&3E%$/&.,!\!5*2/&2!%&(!($+2#&(!(+2!%&!,&22*/.!&,!(+2!%U/.,&2.&,X!!
A.! Les rédactions utilisent les réseaux sociaux comme
première alerte ou comme connexion
! !
]*+,&!'U/.1$23*,/$.Y!%&(!2-'*#,/$.(!2&E2$'+/(&.,!E*21$/(!'/2&#,&3&.,!%U/.1$23*,/$.Y!&.! (E-#/1/*.,!%U$2/[/.&!'&!%*!($+2#&X!Lc(!%&!'-9+,!'&!%*!2-5$%+,/$.!(M2/&..&Y!%&(!3-'/*(!$.,! 2*E/'&3&.,! /.,-[2-! #&(! #$.,&.+(! #/,$M&.(! 92+,(Y! %&! G&n! m$2a! @/3&(! *! E*2! &V&3E%&! /.,-[2-!'/2&#,&3&.,!(+2!($.!9%$[!(+2!%*!8M2/&!%&(!5/'-$(!#/,$M&..&(hX!
9
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21
1.! Les réseaux sociaux comme source première d’information
K!J0&(,!+.!#$.1%/,!,2*.(E*2&.,Y!W+/!'$..&!*##c(!\!+.&!3+%,/,+'&!'&!E$/.,(!'&!5+&X!@$+,! %&! 3$.'&! (+2! #&! [2*.'! #)*3E! '&! 9*,*/%%&! '$..&! '&(! /.1$23*,/$.(Y! 1/%3&Y! E+9%/&! '&(! #$33+./W+-(Y!%&!3$/.'2&!#$33*.'*.,!2&9&%%&!E$((c'&!($.!#$3E,&!@n/,,&2X!;%!1*+,!%*! #2/,/W+&2Y!#&2,&(X!J&!.&!($.,!E*(!'&(!($+2#&(!E%+(!E2$9%-3*,/W+&(!W+&!'0*+,2&(X!8/!5$+(! *5&b!*##c(!*+V!,&22/,$/2&(!2&9&%%&(Y!5$+(!*5&b!+.&!5/(/$.!,+..&%Y!5$+(!.0*+2&b!E*(!#&,,&! 5/(/$.!E*.$E,/W+&!W+&!E&23&,,&.,!%&(!2-(&*+V!($#/*+V!OY!*.*%M(&!@)$3*(!6/&22&,!'&! %U+./5&2(/,-!'UA'/39$+2[X!! !
6$+2! #&! '&2./&2! (&! 2&.'2&! (+2! %&! ,&22*/.! .U&(,! E*(! /.'/(E&.(*9%&! E+/(W+U/%! .U&(,! E%+(! E$((/9%&!'&!(UM!2&.'2&!W+&!'U+.!#y,-!$+!'&!%U*+,2&!I!K!]*#,&+2![-.-2*,/$..&%%&Y!%&(!5/&+V! Z$+2.*%/(,&(! &(,/3&.,! W+&! %*! (&+%&! 2&(($+2#&! #0&(,! '0*%%&2! \! L*3*(Y! #y,-! 2-[/3&X! J$33&! 6*,2/#a! J$#a9+2.! W+/! 1*/,! (*! E&,/,&! 9*%%*'&! ,2/73&.(+&%%&! \! L*3*(! &,! E&.(&! W+0/%!*!,$+,!#$3E2/(!OX!!
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22 !
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!
2.! Les réseaux sociaux, comme lien entre les sources et les rédactions
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23
!
B.! Les rédactions emploient des sources locales : civils,
journalistes professionnels ou militants
1.! L’utilisation indistincte des militants, civils ou journalistes
professionnels comme source
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a)! L’indispensable « fixeur » au service des rédactions internationales
H&(!K!%$#*+V!O!,2*5*/%%&.,!#$33&![+/'&(7/.,&2E2c,&(!&,!#$33&!K!)$33&!'&!2-(&*+!OY! E$+2!1*#/%/,&2!%&(!E2/(&(!'&!#$.,*#,!*+!Z$+2.*%/(,&!$##/'&.,*%X!;%!&(,!%U)$33&!\!,$+,!1*/2&! '+!Z$+2.*%/(,&!$##/'&.,*%!&.!3/((/$.!&.!,&22*/.!/.#$..+X!;%!&(,!K!\!%*!1$/(!%U/.,&2E2c,&Y! %U-#%*/2&+2!&,!%U*.[&![*2'/&.!O!:AE(,&/.Y!PQQR=X!J&(!K!1/V&+2(!O!*+V!K!#*E*#/,-(!/.1/./&(* O!:o*,$5(aM!&,!J*2%($.Y!PQQe=!E2$1/,&.,!'&!%&+2(!2-(&*+V!'&!#$.,*#,(!'*.(!%*!2-[/$.!&,! E&+5&.,! */'&2! %&(! Z$+2.*%/(,&(! -,2*.[&2(! E*2! %&+2! #$..*/((*.#&! '&! %*! %*.[+&! &,! '+!
24 3/%/&+X!K!D.!+,/%/(&!+.!K!1/V&+2!OX!L&(!1$/(Y!N*!E&+,!_,2&!+.!5$M$+Y!+.!*.#/&.!Z$+2.*%/(,&Y! +.!3&#!'+!3/./(,c2&!'&!%U/.1$23*,/$.X!L+!#y,-![$+5&2.&3&.,*%Y!%&![+/'&!&(,!.$33-! E*2!%&!3/./(,c2&!'&!%U/.1$23*,/$.!OY!&VE%/W+&!%&!E)$,$[2*E)&!?%5*2$!J*.$5*(!'&!D2#&,*
B2.:"X!8&%$.!%&!E)$,$[2*E)&Y!/%!.UM!E*(!'&!K!#&.(+2&!O!\!E2$E2&3&.,!'/,&!'&!%*!E*2,!
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6*2!*/%%&+2(Y!%U&VE*.(/$.!'+!Z$+2.*%/(3&!K!E*2*#)+,&!OY!#U&(,!\!'/2&Y!'&!%U&.5$/!E$.#,+&%! 'U+.! Z$+2.*%/(,&! (+2! +.! ,&22*/.! '$.,! /%! .U*! *+#+.&! #$..*/((*.#&Y! *+! '-,2/3&.,! 'U+.&! E2*,/W+&!*V-&!(+2!%U*#W+/(/,/$.!'U+.&!&VE&2,/(&!2-[/$.*%&!*!*##2+!%&!2y%&!'+!K!1/V&+2!OY! &VE%/W+&!D25/%%&!8#)&%%!'+!`&2a&%&M!8#)$$%!$1!F$+2.*%/(3!:#/,-!E*2!f/,#)&%%Y!PQQg=X!! !
?%&V*.'2*! A%! o)*b*.! '&! B8]! E2-#/(&! W+&! %U$2[*./(*,/$.! +,/%/(&! +.! 2-(&*+! '&! #$22&(E$.'*.,(! %$#*+V! E$+2! 5-2/1/&2! %&(! /.1$23*,/$.(! ,2*.(3/(&(! E*2! %&(! 3-'/*(! (M2/&.(X!H&(!#2/,c2&(!2&,&.+(!E$+2!'-1/./2!%&!(,*,+,!'&!Z$+2.*%/(,&!($.,!I!K!8*!1$23*,/$.Y! (*! 1$.#,/$.Y! ($.! &VE-2/&.#&! &,! ($.! *#,/5/,-! 3-'/*,/W+&! *5*.,! %*! 2-5$%+,/$.! OX! J&(! #2/,c2&(!(,2/#,(!($.,!*##$3E*[.-(!E$+2!%&!#*(!'&!%*!8M2/&!'U+.&!-,+'&!'&(!'$((/&2(!*+! #*(!E*2!#*(Y!E$+2!W+&!B8]!*EE$2,&!+.&!*/'&!*+!Z$+2.*%/(,&!(M2/&.X!!
25
b)! La naissance des journalistes-activistes
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