une ischémie cérébrale chez le rat
5.5 Conclusion de l’étude n° 1 et ouverture sur le chapitre
À notre connaissance, cette étude est la première à mettre en évidence une perturbation de l’inhibition des réflexes somatiques suite à un exercice fatigant chez des animaux ayant subi une ischémie cérébrale. Les adaptations neuromusculaires dans la phase aigüe devraient être plus étudiées car c’est une période déterminante pour la récupération fonctionnelle. La méthode MCAo-r paraît pertinente pour évaluer les adaptations neuromusculaires dans cette période. La voie réflexe n’est pas modifiée au repos alors que l’amplitude du réflexe-H est modifiée suite à l’exercice isométrique. Cette étude confirme donc que l’exercice isométrique peut être utilisé comme un outil de diagnostic révélant des dysfonctions neuromusculaires qui ne sont pas détectées dans des situations de repos. Ajoutez à cela qu’une fatigue précoce du triceps brachii est observée après l’exercice isométrique un jour et 7 jours après la lésion.
Ces résultats ouvrent des perspectives de recherche, puisqu’il a été suggéré dans la discussion que la fatigue précoce et la modulation de la réponse du réflexe-H peuvent résulter d’une perturbation de l’action des afférences métabosensibles originaires du muscle en activité chez les animaux lésés. Cependant, nous n’avons pas montré directement le rôle de ces afférences sur les voies réflexes dans le cadre de l’ischémie cérébrale. Cette hypothèse sera testée dans le chapitre suivant où la réponse des afférences musculaires métabosensibles et leur action régulatrice dans la moelle épinière et le thalamus (qui est un centre d’intégration important des informations sensorielles) seront mesurées dans la phase aigüe de l’ischémie cérébrale.
Références
Adams RW, Gandevia SC & Skuse NF (1990). The distribution of muscle weakness in upper motoneuron lesions affecting the lower limb. Brain J Neurol 113, 1459–1476.
Adreani CM, Hill JM & Kaufman MP (1997). Responses of group III and IV muscle afferents to dynamic exercise. J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985
82, 1811–1817.
Akhtar M, Pillai K & Vohora D (2008). Effect of thioperamide on oxidative stress markers in middle cerebral artery occlusion model of focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Hum Exp Toxicol 27, 761–767. Alvarez-Buylla A, Ling C-Y & Kirn JR (1990). Cresyl violet: A red fluorescent Nissl stain. J Neurosci
Methods 33, 129–133.
Amann M, Blain GM, Proctor LT, Sebranek JJ, Pegelow DF & Dempsey JA (2011). Implications of group III and IV muscle afferents for high-intensity endurance exercise performance in humans: Muscle afferents, peripheral fatigue and endurance exercise. J
Physiol 589, 5299–5309.
Aronowski J, Samways E, Strong R, Rhoades HM & Grotta JC (1996). An Alternative Method for the Quantitation of Neuronal Damage After Experimental Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion in Rats: Analysis of Behavioral Deficit: J Cereb Blood Flow Metab705– 713.
Asahi M, Asahi K, Jung JC, del Zoppo GJ, Fini ME & Lo EH (2000). Role for matrix metalloproteinase 9 after focal cerebral ischemia: effects of gene knockout and enzyme inhibition with BB-94. J Cereb Blood
Flow Metab Off J Int Soc Cereb Blood Flow Metab 20,
1681–1689.
Asahi M, Wang X, Mori T, Sumii T, Jung JC, Moskowitz MA, Fini ME & Lo EH (2001). Effects of matrix metalloproteinase-9 gene knock-out on the proteolysis of blood-brain barrier and white matter components after cerebral ischemia. J Neurosci Off J
Soc Neurosci 21, 7724–7732.
Balkaya M, Kröber JM, Rex A & Endres M (2013). Assessing post-stroke behavior in mouse models of focal ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 33, 330– 338.
Batchelor FA, Mackintosh SF, Said CM & Hill KD (2012). Falls after stroke. Int J Stroke Off J Int Stroke
Soc 7, 482–490.
Bederson JB, Pitts LH, Germano SM, Nishimura MC, Davis RL & Bartkowski HM (1986). Evaluation of 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride as a stain for detection and quantification of experimental cerebral infarction in rats. Stroke 17, 1304–1308.
Benedek A, Móricz K, Jurányi Z, Gigler G, Lévay G, Hársing LG, Mátyus P, Szénási G & Albert M (2006). Use of TTC staining for the evaluation of tissue injury in the early phases of reperfusion after focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Brain Res 1116, 159–165.
Bhandari U & Ansari Mn (2008). Protective effect of aqueous extract of <i>Embelia ribes</i> Burm fruits in middle cerebral artery occlusion- induced focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Indian J
Pharmacol 40, 215.
Biernaskie J, Szymanska A, Windle V & Corbett D (2005). Bi-hemispheric contribution to functional motor recovery of the affected forelimb following focal ischemic brain injury in rats. Eur J Neurosci 21, 989–999.
Bigland-Ritchie B, Furbush F & Woods JJ (1986). Fatigue of intermittent submaximal voluntary contractions: central and peripheral factors. J Appl
Physiol Bethesda Md 1985 61, 421–429.
Bigland-Ritchie B & Woods JJ (1984). Changes in muscle contractile properties and neural control during human muscular fatigue. Muscle Nerve 7, 691–699. Billinger SA, Gajewski BJ, Guo LX & Kluding PM (2009). Single limb exercise induces femoral artery remodeling and improves blood flow in the hemiparetic leg poststroke. Stroke J Cereb Circ 40, 3086–3090.
Billinger SA, Mattlage AE, Ashenden AL, Lentz AA, Harter G & Rippee MA (2012). Aerobic exercise in subacute stroke improves cardiovascular health and physical performance. J Neurol Phys Ther JNPT 36, 159–165.
Block F, Dihné M & Loos M (2005). Inflammation in areas of remote changes following focal brain lesion.
Prog Neurobiol 75, 342–365.
Borlongan CV, Hida H & Nishino H (1998). Early assessment of motor dysfunctions aids in successful occlusion of the middle cerebral artery. Neuroreport 9, 3615–3621.
hydroxydopamine-induced hemiparkinsonism. J Neurosci Off J Soc Neurosci 15, 5372–5378.
Broughton BRS, Reutens DC & Sobey CG (2009). Apoptotic Mechanisms After Cerebral Ischemia.
Stroke 40, e331–e339.
Brouns R & De Deyn PP (2009). The complexity of neurobiological processes in acute ischemic stroke.
Clin Neurol Neurosurg 111, 483–495.
Canning CG, Ada L & O’Dwyer N (1999). Slowness to develop force contributes to weakness after stroke.
Arch Phys Med Rehabil 80, 66–70.
Capaday C & Stein RB (1986). Amplitude modulation of the soleus H-reflex in the human during walking and standing. J Neurosci Off J Soc Neurosci 6, 1308–1313. Carli M, Evenden JL & Robbins TW (1985). Depletion of unilateral striatal dopamine impairs initiation of contralateral actions and not sensory attention. Nature
313, 679–682.
Carmel JB & Martin JH (2014). Motor cortex electrical stimulation augments sprouting of the corticospinal tract and promotes recovery of motor function. Front
Integr Neurosci 8, 51.
Carmichael ST (2005). Rodent models of focal stroke: Size, mechanism, and purpose. NeuroRX 2, 396–409. Carrera E & Tononi G (2014). Diaschisis: past, present, future. Brain 137, 2408–2422.
Cenci MA, Whishaw IQ & Schallert T (2002). Opinion: Animal models of neurological deficits: how relevant is the rat? Nat Rev Neurosci 3, 574–579. Chang H-C, Yang Y-R, Wang PS, Kuo C-H & Wang R-Y (2010). Effects of insulin-like growth factor 1 on muscle atrophy and motor function in rats with brain ischemia. Chin J Physiol 53, 337–348.
Chen J-R, Cheng G-Y, Sheu C-C, Tseng G-F, Wang T- J & Huang Y-S (2008). Transplanted bone marrow stromal cells migrate, differentiate and improve motor function in rats with experimentally induced cerebral stroke. J Anat 213, 249–258.
Cherry JD, Olschowka JA & O’Banion M (2014). Neuroinflammation and M2 microglia: the good, the bad, and the inflamed. J Neuroinflammation 11, 98. Choi DW & Rothman SM (1990). The role of glutamate neurotoxicity in hypoxic-ischemic neuronal death. Annu Rev Neurosci 13, 171–182.
Cho S-H & Lee J-H (2013). Comparison of the Amplitudes of the H-reflex of Post-stroke Hemiplegia Patients and Normal Adults during Walking. J Phys
Ther Sci 25, 729–732.
Cliffer KD, Tonra JR, Carson SR, Radley HE, Cavnor C, Lindsay RM, Bodine SC & DiStefano PS (1998). Consistent repeated M- and H-Wave recording in the hind limb of rats. Muscle Nerve 21, 1405–1413. Cohen LG, Celnik P, Pascual-Leone A, Corwell B, Falz L, Dambrosia J, Honda M, Sadato N, Gerloff C, Catalá MD & Hallett M (1997). Functional relevance of cross-modal plasticity in blind humans. Nature 389, 180–183.
Constans A, Pin-barre C, Temprado J-J, Decherchi P & Laurin J (2016). Influence of Aerobic Training and Combinations of Interventions on Cognition and Neuroplasticity after Stroke. Front Aging Neurosci; DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2016.00164.
Corbett D & Nurse S (1998). The problem of assessing effective neuroprotection in experimental cerebral ischemia. Prog Neurobiol 54, 531–548.
Corriveau RA, Bosetti F, Emr M, Gladman JT, Koenig JI, Moy CS, Pahigiannis K, Waddy SP & Koroshetz W (2016). The Science of Vascular Contributions to Cognitive Impairment and Dementia (VCID): A Framework for Advancing Research Priorities in the Cerebrovascular Biology of Cognitive Decline. Cell
Mol Neurobiol 36, 281–288.
Cramer SC et al. (2011). Harnessing neuroplasticity for clinical applications. Brain 134, 1591–1609.
Crenna P & Frigo C (1987). Excitability of the soleus H-reflex arc during walking and stepping in man. Exp
Brain Res 66, 49–60.
Crone C & Nielsen J (1989). Methodological implications of the post activation depression of the soleus H-reflex in man. Exp Brain Res 78, 28–32. Demyanenko S & Uzdensky A (2016). Profiling of Signaling Proteins in Penumbra After Focal Photothrombotic Infarct in the Rat Brain Cortex. Mol
Neurobiol; DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0191-x.
De Nunzio AM, Zucchella C, Spicciato F, Tortola P, Vecchione C, Pierelli F & Bartolo M (2014). Biofeedback rehabilitation of posture and weightbearing distribution in stroke: a center of foot pressure analysis. Funct Neurol 29, 127–134.
Deshmukh A, Patel J, Prajapati A, Vaghela M & Goswami H (2011). Cerebroprotective effects of extract of Beta vulgaris (C.) in middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO)-induced cerebral ischemia.
Phytopharmacology138–147.
Didier J-P (2004). La plasticité de la fonction motrice. Springer, Paris; Berlin; Heidelberg.
Dousset E, Marqueste T, Decherchi P, Jammes Y & Grelot L (2004). Effects of neonatal capsaicin deafferentation on neuromuscular adjustments, performance, and afferent activities from adult tibialis anterior muscle during exercise. J Neurosci Res 76, 734–741.
Doyle KP, Simon RP & Stenzel-Poore MP (2008). Mechanisms of ischemic brain damage.
Neuropharmacology 55, 310–318.
Dromerick AW & Reding MJ (1995). Functional outcome for patients with hemiparesis, hemihypesthesia, and hemianopsia. Does lesion location matter? Stroke 26, 2023–2026.
Duchateau J, Balestra C, Carpentier A & Hainaut K (2002). Reflex regulation during sustained and intermittent submaximal contractions in humans. J
Physiol 541, 959–967.
Duchateau J & Hainaut K (1993). Behaviour of short and long latency reflexes in fatigued human muscles. J
Physiol 471, 787–799.
Durukan A & Tatlisumak T (2007). Acute ischemic stroke: overview of major experimental rodent models, pathophysiology, and therapy of focal cerebral ischemia. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 87, 179–197. Dyer J-O, Maupas E, de Andrade Melo S, Bourbonnais D, Fleury J & Forget R (2009). Transmission in Heteronymous Spinal Pathways Is Modified after Stroke and Related to Motor Incoordination ed. Hochman S. PLoS ONE 4, e4123.
Edvinsson L & Krause DN (2002). The blood vessel wall: endothelial and smooth muscle cell. In Cerebral
Blood Flow and Metabolism, 2nd edn., Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins, pp. 30–42. L. Edvinsson and D. N. Krause, Philadelphia, PA.
Edwardson MA & Dromerick A (2016). Ischemic stroke prognosis in adults. Available at: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/ischemic-stroke- prognosis-in-adults.
Erdő F, Berzsenyi P, Német L & Andrási F (2006).
transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats. A 30-day follow up study. Brain Res Bull 68, 269–276.
Freret T, Chazalviel L, Roussel S, Bernaudin M, Schumann-Bard P & Boulouard M (2006). Long-term functional outcome following transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat: correlation between brain damage and behavioral impairment. Behav Neurosci
120, 1285–1298.
Frontera WR, Grimby L & Larsson L (1997). Firing rate of the lower motoneuron and contractile properties of its muscle fibers after upper motoneuron lesion in man. Muscle Nerve 20, 938–947.
Fuchs DP, Sanghvi N, Wieser J & Schindler-Ivens S (2011). Pedaling alters the excitability and modulation of vastus medialis H-reflexes after stroke. Clin
Neurophysiol 122, 2036–2043.
Gandevia SC (2001). Spinal and supraspinal factors in human muscle fatigue. Physiol Rev 81, 1725–1789. Garland SJ & McComas AJ (1990). Reflex inhibition of human soleus muscle during fatigue. J Physiol 429, 17–27.
Gharbawie OA & Whishaw IQ (2006). Parallel stages of learning and recovery of skilled reaching after motor cortex stroke: “oppositions” organize normal and compensatory movements. Behav Brain Res 175, 249– 262.
Goulart F, Valls-Solé J & Alvarez R (2000). Posture- related changes of soleus H-reflex excitability. Muscle
Nerve 23, 925–932.
Gozariu M, Roth V, Keime F, Le Bars D & Willer JC (1998). An electrophysiological investigation into the monosynaptic H-reflex in the rat. Brain Res 782, 343– 347.
Grabowski M, Brundin P & Johansson BB (1993). Paw-reaching, sensorimotor, and rotational behavior after brain infarction in rats. Stroke 24, 889–895. Gupta YK & Briyal S (2004). Animal models of cerebral ischemia for evaluation of drugs. Indian J
Physiol Pharmacol 48, 379–394.
Hafer-Macko CE, Ryan AS, Ivey FM & Macko RF (2008). Skeletal muscle changes after hemiparetic stroke and potential beneficial effects of exercise intervention strategies. J Rehabil Res Dev 45, 261–272. Hallett M (2001). Plasticity of the human motor cortex and recovery from stroke. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 36,
Hankey GJ, Jamrozik K, Broadhurst RJ, Forbes S & Anderson CS (2002). Long-term disability after first- ever stroke and related prognostic factors in the Perth Community Stroke Study, 1989-1990. Stroke 33, 1034–1040.
Haouzi P, Hill JM, Lewis BK & Kaufman MP (1999). Responses of group III and IV muscle afferents to distension of the peripheral vascular bed. J Appl
Physiol Bethesda Md 1985 87, 545–553.
HAS (2015). Prévention vasculaire après un infarctus cérébral ou un accident ischémique transitoire. Haute
Aut Santé. Available at: http://www.has- sante.fr/portail/upload/docs/application/pdf/2014- 09/avc_argumentaire.pdf.
Heiss W-D (2010). The concept of the penumbra: can it be translated to stroke management?: Reviews. Int J
Stroke 5, 290–295.
Hunter AJ, Mackay KB & Rogers DC (1998). To what extent have functional studies of ischaemia in animals been useful in the assessment of potential neuroprotective agents? Trends Pharmacol Sci 19, 59– 66.
Hwang I-S, Lin C-F, Tung L-C & Wang C-H (2004). Responsiveness of the H reflex to loading and posture in patients following stroke. J Electromyogr Kinesiol
14, 653–659.
Ishrat T, Sayeed I, Atif F & Stein DG (2009). Effects of progesterone administration on infarct volume and functional deficits following permanent focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Brain Res 1257, 94–101.
Ivey FM, Macko RF, Ryan AS & Hafer-Macko CE (2005). Cardiovascular health and fitness after stroke.
Top Stroke Rehabil 12, 1–16.
Jin R, Liu L, Zhang S, Nanda A & Li G (2013). Role of Inflammation and Its Mediators in Acute Ischemic Stroke. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 6, 834–851.
Jones TA & Adkins DL (2015). Motor System Reorganization After Stroke: Stimulating and Training Toward Perfection. Physiology 30, 358–370.
Kalezic I, Pilyavskii A., Maisky V., Kostyukov A., Windhorst U & Johansson H (2004). Distinctive pattern of c-fos expression in the feline cervico-lumbar spinal cord after stimulation of vanilloid receptors in dorsal neck muscles. Neurosci Lett 364, 94–97. Khaja AM & Grotta JC (2007). Established treatments for acute ischaemic stroke. Lancet Lond Engl 369,
Kleim JA, Boychuk JA & Adkins DL (2007). Rat models of upper extremity impairment in stroke. ILAR
J Natl Res Counc Inst Lab Anim Resour 48, 374–384.
Kniffki KD, Schomburg ED & Steffens H (1981). Synaptic effects from chemically activated fine muscle afferents upon alpha-motoneurones in decerebrate and spinal cats. Brain Res 206, 361–370.
Knikou M (2008). The H-reflex as a probe: Pathways and pitfalls. J Neurosci Methods 171, 1–12.
Kober F, Duhamel G & Cozzone PJ (2008). Experimental comparison of four FAIR arterial spin labeling techniques for quantification of mouse cerebral blood flow at 4.7 T. NMR Biomed 21, 781– 792.
Koceja DM, Markus CA & Trimble MH (1995). Postural modulation of the soleus H reflex in young and old subjects. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol Mot Control 97, 387–393.
Kudo M, Aoyama A, Ichimori S & Fukunaga N (1982). An animal model of cerebral infarction. Homologous blood clot emboli in rats. Stroke 13, 505– 508.
Lamy J-C, Iglesias C, Lackmy A, Nielsen JB, Katz R & Marchand-Pauvert V (2008). Modulation of recurrent inhibition from knee extensors to ankle motoneurones during human walking: Recurrent inhibition during walking. J Physiol 586, 5931–5946. Lassen NA (1959). Cerebral blood flow and oxygen consumption in man. Physiol Rev 39, 183–238. Laurin J, Dousset E & Decherchi P (2010). Modulation of the spinal excitability by muscle metabosensitive afferent fibers. J Neurosci Resn/a – n/a.
Laurin J, Pertici V, Dousset E, Marqueste T & Decherchi P (2015). Group III and IV muscle afferents: Role on central motor drive and clinical implications. Neuroscience 290, 543–551.
Lawrence ES, Coshall C, Dundas R, Stewart J, Rudd AG, Howard R & Wolfe CD (2001). Estimates of the prevalence of acute stroke impairments and disability in a multiethnic population. Stroke 32, 1279–1284. Lee S-U, Kim D-Y, Park S-H, Choi D-H, Park H-W & Han TR (2009). Mild to moderate early exercise promotes recovery from cerebral ischemia in rats. Can
J Neurol Sci J Can Sci Neurol 36, 443–449.
value of cognitive disorders in stroke patients. Dement
Geriatr Cogn Disord 26, 356–363.
Levin MF, Kleim JA & Wolf SL (2008). What Do Motor “Recovery” and “Compensation” Mean in Patients Following Stroke? Neurorehabil Neural
Repair 23, 313–319.
Liang JN & Brown DA (2015). Impaired H-Reflex Gain during Postural Loaded Locomotion in Individuals Post-Stroke ed. Lebedev MA. PLOS ONE
10, e0144007.
Lin TN, He YY, Wu G, Khan M & Hsu CY (1993). Effect of brain edema on infarct volume in a focal cerebral ischemia model in rats. Stroke 24, 117–121. Liu Z & Chopp M (2016). Astrocytes, therapeutic targets for neuroprotection and neurorestoration in ischemic stroke. Prog Neurobiol 144, 103–120. Liu Z, Zhang RL, Li Y, Cui Y & Chopp M (2009). Remodeling of the corticospinal innervation and spontaneous behavioral recovery after ischemic stroke in adult mice. Stroke 40, 2546–2551.
Longa EZ, Weinstein PR, Carlson S & Cummins R (1989). Reversible middle cerebral artery occlusion without craniectomy in rats. Stroke 20, 84–91.
Macefield G, Hagbarth KE, Gorman R, Gandevia SC & Burke D (1991). Decline in spindle support to alpha- motoneurones during sustained voluntary contractions.
J Physiol 440, 497–512.
Macefield VG, Gandevia SC, Bigland-Ritchie B, Gorman RB & Burke D (1993). The firing rates of human motoneurones voluntarily activated in the absence of muscle afferent feedback. J Physiol 471, 429–443.
Macrae M (1992). New models of focal cerebral ischaemia. Br J Clin Pharmacol 34, 302–308.
Marsden DL, Dunn A, Callister R, Levi CR & Spratt NJ (2013). Characteristics of exercise training interventions to improve cardiorespiratory fitness after stroke: a systematic review with meta-analysis.
Neurorehabil Neural Repair 27, 775–788.
Matsuda F, Sakakima H & Yoshida Y (2011). The effects of early exercise on brain damage and recovery after focal cerebral infarction in rats. Acta Physiol Oxf
Engl 201, 275–287.
Menzies SA, Hoff JT & Betz AL (1992). Middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats: a neurological and
pathological evaluation of a reproducible model.
Neurosurgery 31, 100–106; discussion 106–107.
Metz GA & Whishaw IQ (2009). The Ladder Rung Walking Task: A Scoring System and its Practical Application. J Vis Exp; DOI: 10.3791/1204.
Misiaszek JE & Pearson KG (1997). Stretch of quadriceps inhibits the soleus H reflex during locomotion in decerebrate cats. J Neurophysiol 78, 2975–2984.
Monga TN, Deforge DA, Williams J & Wolfe LA (1988). Cardiovascular responses to acute exercise in patients with cerebrovascular accidents. Arch Phys
Med Rehabil 69, 937–940.
Motta-Oishi AAP, Magalhães FH & Mícolis de Azevedo F (2013). Neuromuscular electrical stimulation for stroke rehabilitation: Is spinal plasticity a possible mechanism associated with diminished spasticity? Med Hypotheses 81, 784–788.
Murphy TH & Corbett D (2009). Plasticity during stroke recovery: from synapse to behaviour. Nat Rev
Neurosci 10, 861–872.
Nielsen JB, Crone C & Hultborn H (2007). The spinal pathophysiology of spasticity ? from a basic science point of view. Acta Physiol 189, 171–180.
Nour M, Scalzo F & Liebeskind DS (2012). Ischemia- Reperfusion Injury in Stroke. Interv Neurol 1, 185– 199.
Nudo RJ (2006). Plasticity. NeuroRx J Am Soc Exp
Neurother 3, 420–427.
Onyango IG, Lu J, Rodova M, Lezi E, Crafter AB & Swerdlow RH (2010). Regulation of neuron mitochondrial biogenesis and relevance to brain health.
Biochim Biophys Acta 1802, 228–234.
Palmieri RM, Ingersoll CD & Hoffman MA (2004). The hoffmann reflex: methodologic considerations and applications for use in sports medicine and athletic training research. J Athl Train 39, 268–277.
Pantano P, Formisano R, Ricci M, Piero VD, Sabatini U, Pofi BD, Rossi R, Bozzao L & Lenzi GL (1996). Motor recovery after stroke: Morphological and functional brain alterations. Brain 119, 1849–1857. Patejdl R & K. Zettl U (2012). Animal Models in Neurology: Drawbacks and Opportunities. Curr Pharm
Patel MD, Coshall C, Rudd AG & Wolfe CDA (2002). Cognitive impairment after stroke: clinical determinants and its associations with long-term stroke outcomes. J Am Geriatr Soc 50, 700–706.
Pérennou D & Bronstein A (2005). Balance disorders and vertigo after stroke: assessment and rehabilitation. In Recovery after Stroke, p. 320. Bogousslavsky J, Dobkin B, Cambridge University Press.
Pettorossi VE, Torre GD, Bortolami R & Brunetti O (1999). The role of capsaicin-sensitive muscle afferents in fatigue-induced modulation of the monosynaptic reflex in the rat. J Physiol 515, 599–607. Phadke CP, Robertson CT, Condliffe EG & Patten C (2012). Upper-extremity H-reflex measurement post- stroke: Reliability and inter-limb differences. Clin
Neurophysiol 123, 1606–1615.
Pisa M (1988). Regional specialization of motor functions in the rat striatum: Implications for the
treatment of parkinsonism. Prog
Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 12, 217–224.
Popp A, Jaenisch N, Witte OW & Frahm C (2009). Identification of Ischemic Regions in a Rat Model of Stroke ed. Kleinschnitz C. PLoS ONE 4, e4764. Rand D, Eng JJ, Liu-Ambrose T & Tawashy AE (2010). Feasibility of a 6-Month Exercise and Recreation Program to Improve Executive Functioning and Memory in Individuals With Chronic Stroke.
Neurorehabil Neural Repair 24, 722–729.
Ren M, Lin Z-J, Qian H, Choudhury GR, Liu R, Liu H & Yang S-H (2012). Embolic middle cerebral artery occlusion model using thrombin and fibrinogen composed clots in rat. J Neurosci Methods 211, 296– 304.
Rochester CL & Mohsenin V (2002). Respiratory complications of stroke. Semin Respir Crit Care Med
23, 248–260.
Rosenberg GA (1999). Ischemic brain edema. Prog
Cardiovasc Dis 42, 209–216.
Rotto DM & Kaufman MP (1988). Effect of metabolic products of muscular contraction on discharge of group III and IV afferents. J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985