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Annotated bibliography on engineering aspects of muskeg and peat (to
30 June 1969)
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA
DIVISION OF BUILDING RESEARCH
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF MUSKEG AND PEAT
(to 30 JUNE 1969) compiled by I.C. MacFARLANE BIBLIOGRAPHY NO. 39 Ottawa November 1970
P R E F A C E
This bibliography i s t h e s e q u e l t o an e a r l i e r muskeg bibliography published by t h e D i v i s i o n of Building Research a t t h e o u t s e t of i t s muskeg r e s e a r c h program. The p r e s e n t volume i n d i c a t e s t h e e x t e n t of t h e knowledge explosion i n t h i s s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v e n i n g f i f t e e n y e a r s .
It i s hoped t h a t t h i s b i b l i o g r a p h y w i l l be of r e a l a s s i s t - ance t o s t u d e n t s , p r a c t i c i n g engineers and o t h e r s who a r e i n t e r e s t e d o r involved i n some a s p e c t of t h e muskeg problem,
The a u t h o r was formerly a r e s e a r c h o f f i c e r w i t h t h e Geotechnical S e c t i o n whose work w i t h t h e Division was
concerned with t h e e n g i n e e r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of muskeg and p e a t .
N. B. Hut cheon D i r e c t o r Ottawa, 1970
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
S i n c e r e a p p r e c i a t i o n i s r e c o r d e d f o r t h e a s s i s t a n c e of J.B. Bordeleau of t h e Geotechnical S e c t i o n t e c h n i c a l s t a f f , who s p e n t many l o n g hours i n s e a r c h i n g o u t r e f e r e n c e s and
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
1. GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1 O r i g i n and Development 1 . 2 E x t e n t and D i s t r i b u t i o n
1 . 3 Geology, Morphology, e t c . a s R e l a t e d ; Environmental F a c t o r s 1 . 4 General R e p o r t s , P o p u l a r A r t i c l e s , e t c .
1 . 5 B i b l i o g r a p h i e s , P r o c e e d i n g s , Books, Research and T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t s , e t c . 1.6 Economic I m p l i c a t i o n s o f Muskeg 2. CLASSIFICATION 2 . 1 General 2.2 T e r r a i n 2.3 M a t e r i a l
3. DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIFIC MUSKEG AREAS (BOTANICAL, ECOLOGICAL, ETC.) 3 . 1 A r c t i c and S u b a r c t i c , General
3.2 Canada
3.3 U n i t e d S t a t e s o f America 3.4 Europe and S o v i e t Union
4 . EXPLORATION AND SAMPLING 4 . 1 A e r i a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n
4.2 E x p l o r a t i o n ; Surveys and Mapping 4.3 Subsurf a c e I n v e s t i g a t i o n s ; Sampling
5. PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PEAT 5 . 1 G e n e r a l 5.2 S t r e s s - D e f o r m a t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 5 . 2 . 1 S h e a r S t r e n g t h and S t a b i l i t y 5.2.2 B e a r i n g C a p a c i t y 5.2.3 C o n s o l i d a t i o n and S e t t l e m e n t 5.2.4 Dynamic Loading 5 . 3 M o i s t u r e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; P e r m e a b i l i t y 5.4 P h y s i c a l and Chemical C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 5 . 5 Thermal C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
6 . ROAD CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES General; Economic F a c t o r s F l o t a t i o n E x c a v a t i o n and B a c k f i l l i n g G r a v i t y Displacement Bog B l a s t i n g J e t t i n g P r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n P i l e Foundations Sand D r a i n s Chemical S t a b i l i z a t i o n
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( c o n t i n u e d )
7. SPECIAL ENGINEERING PROBLEMS 7.1 General
7.2 A i r s t r i p s 7.3 B u i l d i n g s
7.4 Canals, Sewers and P i p e l i n e s 7.5 C o r r o s i v e E f f e c t s of Bog Water 7.6 Dams and Dykes
7.7 Drainage and Water C o n t r o l ; Hydrology 7.8 Railways
7.9 S u r f a c e Subsidence due t o Drainage 7.10 Tower Foundations
8. VEHICLES: MOBILITY AND TRAFFICABILITY 8 . 1 General
8.2 T e r r a i n A n a l y s i s ; T r a f f i c a b i l i t y
8.3 V e h i c l e Design and T e s t i n g ; Types o f V e h i c l e s ; M o b i l i t y
9 . UTILIZATION 9 . 1 G e n e r a l
9.2 T e r r a i n Reclamation and U t i l i z a t i o n 9 . 3 P e a t U t i l i z a t i o n
9.4 P e a t i n C o n s t r u c t i o n
10. MUSKEG AND PERMAFROST AS RELATED; FROZEN PEAT 1 0 . 1 Muskeg and Permafrost
10.2 Frozen Peat
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF MUSKEG AND PEAT
This b i b l i o g r a p h y s u p e r s e d e s an e a r l i e r b i b l i o g r a p h y on muskeg ( p e a t l a n d ) p u b l i s h e d by t h e D i v i s i o n of B u i l d i n g Research i n 1955'. It i n c l u d e s s e v e r a l hundreds of r e f e r e n c e s on muskeg and p e a t c o l - l e c t e d o v e r approximately a f i f t e e n - y e a r p e r i o d , many o f which a r e a v a i l a b l e from t h e L i b r a r y o f t h e D i v i s i o n of B u i l d i n g Research of t h e N a t i o n a l Research Council of Canada.
An a t t e m p t h a s been made t o p r o d u c e a s comprehensive a b i b l i o g - raphy a s p o s s i b l e of E n g l i s h language r e f e r e n c e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h a
f e w r e l a t i n g d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y t o e n g i n e e r i n g a s p e c t s of muskeg and i t s c o n s t i t u e n t m a t e r i a l , p e a t . There i s , of c o u r s e , a g r e a t mass o f l i t e r a t u r e a v a i l a b l e on b o t a n i c a l , p a l e o b o t a n i c a l , e c o l o g i c a l and o t h e r p u r e l y s c i e n t i f i c a s p e c t s o f p e a t , as w e l l a s on u t i l i z a t i o n of p e a t f o r f u e l and f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l purposes. No a t t e m p t h a s been made t o index and a b s t r a c t a l l such a n c i l l a r y r e f e r e n c e s .
Furthermore, t h e r e i s an i n t e r m e d i a t e zone i n t o which many r e f e r e n c e s of a p u r e l y s c i e n t i f i c n a t u r e f a l l , i n t h a t t h e y may n o t r e f e r d i r e c t l y t o e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s of p e a t b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s may be of i n t e r e s t . A few such r e f e r e n c e s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s b i b l i o g r a p h y ; however, i t i s by no means a comprehensive l i s t . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , some element of judgement was i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s . It i s hoped t h a t t h o s e t h a t have been i n c l u d e d are a p p r o p r i a t e i n t h a t t h e y r e f l e c t t h e t h i n k i n g i n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d of s t u d y , and t h a t t h e y w i l l p r o v i d e a l e a d f o r t h e r e a d e r wishing t o f o l l o w up some more fundamental a s p e c t o f p e a t .
The f i r s t c h a p t e r o f t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y i s termed "General Information" and i n c l u d e s t h o s e r e f e r e n c e s t h a t p r e s e n t an o v e r - a l l examination o f t h e problem r a t h e r t h a n o f one p a r t i c u l a r f a c e t . It a l s o i n c l u d e s t h o s e r e f e r e n c e s which could n o t e a s i l y be c l a s s i - f i e d and p l a c e d i n one of t h e o t h e r s e c t i o n s . The r e f e r e n c e s i n t h i s s e c t i o n p r o v i d e a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e s t u d y o f muskeg and p e a t and g i v e some i n d i c a t i o n of t h e scope of t h e problems i t p r e s e n t s .
Chapter 2 , " C l a s s i f i c a t i o n , " r e v e a l s t h a t t h e r e i s a wide d i v e r s i t y o f o p i n i o n on t h i s most important s u b j e c t . Various approaches a r e made t o t h e problem and most c l a s s i f i c a t i o n systems
--
whether of t h e t e r r a i n o r of t h e m a t e r i a l o r b o t h--
t e n d t o r e f l e c t t h e d i s c i p l i n e and o b j e c t i v e s of t h e o r i g i n a t o r o f ap a r t i c u l a r system.
Chapter 3 , "Regional D e s c r i p t i o n s , " p e r m i t s comparisons t o be made of s u r f a c e and s u b s u r f a c e f e a t u r e s o f v a r i o u s s p e c i f i c a r e a s of o r g a n i c t e r r a i n i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e world.
The r e f e r e n c e s i n Chapter 4 on " E x p l o r a t i o n and Sampling" i n d i c a t e t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n h a s been achieved i n a e r i a l survey and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , r o u t e p l o t t i n g , e t c . i n muskeg a r e a s . On t h e o t h e r hand, l i t e r a t u r e i s somewhat s c a n t y on sub- s u r f a c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a s r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e r e s e a r c h h a s been c a r r i e d o u t on t h i s problem.
Bib. 11
-
A P r e l i m i n a r y Annotated Bibliography on Muskeg, compiled by I. C.
MacFarlaneA very l a r g e body of l i t e r a t u r e i s a c c u m u l a t i n g on p h y s i c a l and mechanical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p e a t , as i s shown by C h a p t e r 5.
The need t o know more about t h e e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s of p e a t i n o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e d e s i g n o f s t r u c t u r e s on t h i s m a t e r i a l h a s r e s u l t e d i n an i n c r e a s i n g number of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o i t s i n d e x and s t r e n g t h - d e f o r m a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s . S e t t l e m e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p e a t h a s come under p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e n s i v e s c r u t i n y and , t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of r e f e r e n c e s r e f l e c t t h i s .
Without d o u b t , t h e one a s p e c t o f muskeg t h a t h a s been most documented i s r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n o v e r o r g a n i c t e r r a i n . T h i s i s r e f l e c t e d i n C h a p t e r 6 , where i t i s s e e n t h a t a wide v a r i e t y of c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a r e employed i n an e f f o r t t o o b t a i n a d e q u a t e r o a d s o v e r t h i s t y p e of t e r r a i n . C h a p t e r 7 on " S p e c i a l E n g i n e e r i n g Problems" shows t h a t t h e w a t e r a s p e c t of muskeg p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e e n g i n e e r i n g problems i t p r e s e n t s . I n t h i s c h a p t e r , r e f e r e n c e s a r e a l s o l i s t e d on a wide v a r i e t y o f s t r u c t u r e s which a r e b u i l t on o r i n o r g a n i c t e r r a i n .
The problem o f o f f - r o a d a c c e s s i s one t h a t h a s a l s o been g i v e n a g r e a t d e a l of a t t e n t i o n i n r e c e n t y e a r s . C h a p t e r 8 l i s t s a l a r g e number o f r e f e r e n c e s which r e l a t e b o t h t o t e r r a i n and t o v e h i c l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
U t i l i z a t i o n o f p e a t i s n o t d i r e c t l y o f e n g i n e e r i n g i n t e r e s t , a p a r t from i t s u s e i n c o n s t r u c t i o n . The mining o f p e a t f o r f u e l o r p e a t moss and t h e development o f muskeg a r e a s f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l u s e s , however, o f t e n i n v o l v e problems d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g . C h a p t e r 9 l i s t s s e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s on p e a t u t i l i z a - t i o n ; t h i s l i s t e x e m p l i f i e s what i s a v a i l a b l e and i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o be complete. C h a p t e r 10 l i s t s r e f e r e n c e s on t h e f r o z e n a s p e c t s o f muskeg, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e g a r d t o p e r m a f r o s t a s i t r e l a t e s t o t h e muskeg f a c t o r . To a s s i s t t h e r e a d e r t o l o c a t e t h e work of a p a r t i c u l a r a u t h o r , an a l p h a b e t i c a l a u t h o r i n d e x i s i n c l u d e d . It i s planned t h a t addenda t o t h i s b i b l i o g r a p h y w i l l be f o r t h c o m i n g i n t h e f u t u r e . It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t some impor- t a n t r e f e r e n c e s have been o v e r l o o k e d i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h i s b i b l i o g r a p h y . I f t h e y a r e b r o u g h t t o t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e c o m p i l e r , such r e f e r e n c e s w i l l be i n c l u d e d i n f u t u r e addenda.
C H A P T E R 1
G E N E R A L 1 N . F O R M A T I O N
1.1 Origin and Development
1.2 Extent and Distribution
1.3 Geology, Morphology, etc. as Related; Environmental Factors
1.4 General Reports, Popular Articles, etc.
1.5 Bibliographies, Proceedings, Books, Research and Technical Reports, etc.
1.1 O R I G I N AND DEVELOPMENT
1.1.(1) ANDERSON, J . A . R . The S t r u c t u r e and Development of t h e P e a t Swamps of Sarawak and Brunei. The J o u r n a l of T r o p i c a l Geography, Vol. 1 8 , p. 7-16, 1964.
P e a t swamps cover e x t e n s i v e a r e a s i n t h e humid t r o p i c s and have been recorded from t h e t h r e e main r a i n f o r e s t r e g i o n s of t h e world: South-east Asia, t r o p i c a l America and t r o p i c a l A f r i c a . I n h i s com- prehensive survey of t h e t r o p i c a l r a i n f o r e s t , Richards summarizes t h e a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e v e g e t a t i o n and n a t u r e of p e a t swamps. P o s s i b l y t h e f i r s t person t o d i s c o v e r p e a t i n t h e h d d t r o p i c s was Beccari, but t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s e d e p o s i t s was n o t r e a l i z e d u n t i l P o t o n i e and Koorders drew a t t e n t i o n t o t h e deep p e a t of Sumatra. I n t h e i r paper, and i n Tenison-Woodst d e s c r i p t i o n of Bornean p e a t s , t h e emphasis i s on t h e t r o p i c a l o r i g i n s of c o a l . Fundamental s t u d i e s of p e a t s were made by Polak, who recognized two t y p e s , t h e ombrogenous and t h e topogenous. The f i r s t , developed i n a r e a s of h i g h r a i n f a l l , a r e analogous t o t h e r a i s e d bogs o r hochmoore o f temperate c l i m a t e s . Such formations a r e o f t e n l e n t i c u l a r i n shape, w i t h a bleached c l a y f o u n d a t i o n ; b l a c k w a t e r streams d r a i n i n g t h e p e a t a r e very a c i d , w i t h pH v a l u e s around 3.0. These s o i l s a r e extremely o l i g o t r o p i c . Topogenous p e a t s h s u a l l y evolve a t high a l t i t u d e s a s w e l l a s a l o n g l a k e s and r i v e r s a t low a l t i t u d e s ; t h e y a r e normally a c i d r a t h e r t h a n a l k a l i n e , and t h e r e - f o r e n o t d i r e c t l y e q u i v a l e n t t o temperate f e n p e a t s . Richards and van S t e e n i s s t a t e t h a t topogenous p e a t s cover g r e a t e r a r e a s t h a n ombrogenous p e a t s , b u t no comparative d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e . Recently C o u l t e r has s t u d i e d p e a t swamps i n Malaya t o a s s e s s t h e i r a g r i c u l - t u r a l p o t e n t i a l . He e s t i m a t e s t h a t p e a t covers n e a r l y two m i l l i o n a c r e s i n Malaya. Most formations t h e r e a r e r e l a t i v e l y shallow, depths exceeding 1 8 f e e t b e i n g r a r e , and convex-surfaced f o r m a t i o n s a r e n o t h i g h l y developed. For Sarawak, accounts of p e a t swamps a r e g i v e n by Browne i n h i s book on t h e f o r e s t t r e e s of Sarawak and Brunei, by t h e a u t h o r , and i n t h e Annual Reports of t h e F o r e s t Department.
1 . 1 2 BLOOM, A.L. Peat Accumulation and Compaction i n a Connecticut C o a s t a l Marsh. J o u r n a l of Sedimentary P e t r o l o g y , Vol. 34, No. 3,
P-599-603, 1964.
A sedge-peat bed, upon which a maximum of 35 f e e t o f p o s t g l a c i a l e s t u a r i n e mud has been d e p o s i t e d , h a s been compressed i n 7000 y e a r s t o between 1 3 and 44% of i t s o r i g i n a l t h i c k n e s s . By e x t r a p o l a t i o n an e s t i m a t e may be made t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e t h i c k n e s s w i l l range
between 1 0 and 2 0 % of o r i g i n a l t h i c k n e s s , depending on t h e amount of admixed sand. Such p e r c e n t a g e s a r e somewhat l e s s t h a n t h e r e p o r t e d r a t i o of compaction of p e a t t o c o a l of about 3 : l . However, t h e s e p e r c e n t a g e s r e p r e s e n t t o t a l compaction beginning w i t h o r i g i n a l p l a n t d e b r i s , whereas t h e peat-to-coal r a t i o of compaction does n o t
i n c l u d e t h e e a r l i e s t s t a g e of a l t e r a t i o n and c o n s o l i d a t i o n . (Author's a b s t r a c t )
1 . 1 . ( 3 ) DACHNOWSKI, A.P. P e a t Deposits of Ohio: T h e i r O r i g i n , Formation and Uses. G e o l o g i c a l Survey of Ohio, F o u r t h S e r i e s , B u l l . 16,
Columbus, 1912. 424p.
An e s t i m a t e i s given of t h e e x t e n t and v a l u e of t h e peat-bogs and marshland i n Ohio, t h e d e p t h of t h e s e d e p o s i t s , t h e i r g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l and chemical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t o g e t h e r w i t h an e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e i r f u e l , commercial and a g r i c u l t u r a l u t i l i z a t i o n .
1 1 . 3 (Continued)
Special attention is given to a study of the plants concerned in the formation and development of bogs and marshlands in relation to the purity, character, thermal and physiological value of peat soils.
1 . 1 4 DACHNOWSKI, A.P. Profiles of Peatlands within Limits of Extinct Glacial Lakes Agassiz and Wisconsin. Botanical Gazette, Vol. 80, p.345-366, 1925.
Attempts to show the connection between profile sections of peatlands and the environmental conditions which determine the formation of peat in the United States. The study was directed at the extensive peat deposits covering the beds of extinct Lake
Agassiz in Northern Minnesota and of extinct glacial Lake Wisconsin known as the Great Swamp of Central Wisconsin. Some of the pro- files obtained are described and the relative importance is
reviewed of factors controlling the formation of these peat lands, such as topography, the underlying mineral soils and climate. Recommendations are made to preserve such portions of the forested peatland area, which contain deep water-logged depressions in order to be able to regulate and maintain a favourable ground water table essential for the agriculture of the region.
1 1 5 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES, A.P. Peat Profiles of the Everglades in Florida: the Stratigraphic Features of the "Upper" Everglades and Correl- ation with Environmental Changes. Jourpal, Washington Academy of Sciences, Vol. 20, No.
6,
p.89-107, 1930.Treats in a preliminary fashion the general origin and nature of the upper portion of that large stretch of sedge moor, the Ever- glades of Florida, one of the largest subtropical peat areas in the world, extending from Lake Okeechobee to the Gulf of Mexico. Three distinct but genetically related series of peat profiles are
pointed out. The peat profiles show a remarkable dependence upon inundations and oscillations of water level and corresponding changes in shoreline curing a time relatively recent.
1 1 . 6 DAVIS, C.A. Origin and Formation of Peat. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Bull. 38, Washington,
D.C.,
1913.The opinion of numerous writers favors the hypothesis that coal of all ages has been formed from peat. This discussion of the origin and composition of different types of bogs in relation to varying morphological conditions is included in this report on the origin of coal in order to present an understanding of the manner of occurrence of the great accumulation of vegetable matter from which existing coal deposits have been formed.
1 . 1 7 ) DEEVEY, E.S. Bogs. Scientific American, Vol. 199, No. 4, p.114-116, 118-120, 122, 1958.
A
description is given of the formation of bogs, especially in the northern U.S.A. Bogs as indicators of past climates are dis- cussed. It is proposed that the large area of bogs on the earth's surface may have an effect on world climate. It is also suggested that the increase in carbon dioxide in the air in the past 100 years may be due to the deterioration of bogs, resulting from the generally warmer world climate.1 . 1 8 DOUGLAS, L.A. and J.C.F. Tedrow. Organic Matter Decomposition Rates in Arctic Soils. Soil Science, Vol. 88, No. 6, p.305-312, 1959.
Rates of organic matter decomposition in Arctic soils of Northern Alaska were studied in the laboratory using the Warburg microrespirometer, and in the field using evolved COz techniques. It was found that temperature and moisture levels and soil type all had important influences on rate of organic decomposition. At 70°C the decomposition rate per gram of soil was highest for the half- bog soil; intermediate for the upland tundra and peaty high-centre polygon; and the lowest in the Arctic brown soil. Based on
evolved C02 studies in the field, it was estimated that there was a decomposition rate of approximately 1050 pounds of organic matter per acre per year in the 1 foot layer of the Arctic brown soil, but due to the discontinuous nature of the organic mat, the amount decomposed on an acre basis probably approximated half this value. The mineral horizon on the 4 inches depth showed a decom- position of approximately 300 pounds of organic matter per acre during 1957. The upland tundra soil had an estimated organic
matter decomposition rate of 850 pounds per acre per year; the half- bog 1700 pounds; the high centre peaty polygon 600 pounds.
(Authors1 Summary).
1 . 1 . DURNO, S.E. Evidence Regarding the Rate of Peat Growth. Journal of Geology, Vol. 69, p.347-351, 1961.
Information on the growth rate of peat in relation to its situation and botanical origin can throw light on post-glacial climatic and vegetational history. In this paper, evidence from 4
sites in the eastern Grampian region is examined. Two of these are low level basin peats which have developed to the raised moss stage, and 2 are hill peats. An attempt is made to estimate the rate of growth of peat by dividing the depth by the number of years taken to accumulate that depth. Pollen analyses were carried out for the purpose of dating and on the resulting diagrams pollen zones with equivalent climatic periods are distinguished.
1.1.(10) EINARSSON, T. On the Formation and History of Icelandic Peat Bogs. Trans., Second International Peat Congress (Leningrad, USSR, 1963), Vol. 1, p.213-215. Edinburgh: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1968.
Approximately 10% of Iceland is covered with peat bogs. The Icelandic bogs can be divided into two main groups, the fl6i-bogs and the hallamiri-bogs. These peat bogs reflect clearly the in- fluence of high continual annual precipitation (450-2200 mm) and
low evaporation in a cool, oceanic climate. The Icelandic peat bogs, therefore, not only cover flat valley floors and basins, but also hills and the lower mountain slopes. These bogs are of the soligenous type, because of the sedimentation of aeolian dust
(loess). This redeposited loess or aeolian dust is very marked in the uppermost peat layers and contributes to the fertility of Icelandic .bogs, which need only to be drained by open ditches be- fore being cultivated directly for haymaking.
This paper traces the geological development of the peat bogs and the concurrent deposition and redeposition of aeolian dust and volcanic ash in the peat deposits.
1.1.(11) GIRARD, H. Peat in Quebec: Its Origin, Distribution and Utilization. Quebec Department of Mines, Mineral Deposits Branch, Geol. Rep. No. 31, 1947.
1.1.(11) (Continued)
This comprehensive r e p o r t reviews p r e v i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s which have been c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e Province of Quebec, and d i s c u s s e s b r i e f l y t h e o r i g i n , formation and s t r u c t u r e of p e a t d e p o s i t s and t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e Province. C o n s i d e r a t i o n i s given t o i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of p e a t d e p o s i t s w i t h r e g a r d t o c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of p e a t t y p e s . General o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e made on t h e mining and d r y i n g of p e a t , w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e methods employed i n t h e prepara- t i o n of f i b r o u s p e a t p r o d u c t s . Reclamation of p e a t l a n d s f o r a g r i - c u l t u r a l use i s a l s o d i s c u s s e d , a s w e l l a s i n d u s t r i a l u t i l i z a t i o n of p e a t .
1 . 1 . ( 1 2 ) GORHAM, E. Some E a r l y I d e a s Concerning t h e Nature, O r i g i n and Develop- ment of Peat Lands. J o u r n a l of Ecology, Vol. 41, p.257-274, 1953.
A s t u d y i s made of e a r l y B r i t i s h l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e n a t u r e , o r i g i n and development of p e a t l a n d s . It i s shown t h a t most of t h e b a s i c f a c t s and t h e o r i e s concerning such a r e a s were e s t a b - l i s h e d l o n g b e f o r e t h e development of ecology a s a s e p a r a t e d i s c i p l i n e by p r o f e s s i o n a l s c i e n t i s t s . These e a r l y o b s e r v a t i o n s seem t o have been very l a r g e l y n e g l e c t e d d u r i n g t h e modern p e r i o d of r e s e a r c h on bogs and f e n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e p r e s e n t day s t i l l c o n t i n u e a l o n g much of t h e same p a t h s and t h r e e main l i n e s have developed: (1) The d e s c r i p t i o n of p l a n t communities on p e a t l a n d s ; ( 2 ) The r e l a t i o n of p l a n t and p e a t d i s t r i b u t i o n t o t h e h y d r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s of w a t e r balance and w a t e r movements, a s determined by c l i m a t e and l o c a l topography; ( 3 ) The s t u d y of p e a t and w a t e r chemistry a s a f a c t o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g v a r i o u s t y p e s of p l a n t community and p e a t formation.
1 . 1 . ( 1 3 ) GORHAM, E. The Development of P e a t Lands. Q u a r t e r l y Review of Biology, Vol. 32, No. 2, p.145-166, 1957.
An attempt i s made t o p r e s e n t : (1) a reasonably s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d account of bog development and p e a t accumulation as i t commonly occurs i n n o r t h e r n B r i t a i n , ( 2 ) a d i s c u s s i o n of some chemical
a s p e c t s of bog ecology, and ( 3 ) a g e n e r a l view of some ways i n which t h e major e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s may i n f l u e n c e t h e c o u r s e of bog
development i n v a r i o p s p a r t s of t h e world.
Under t h e heading of c l i m a t e , t h e e f f e c t s of r a i n f a l l , c l i m a t i c f l u c t u a t i o n , temperature, atmospheric n u t r i e n t supply, and wind a r e d i s c u s s e d . The f u n c t i o n of topography i s made apparent i n i t s i n f l u e n c e upon w a t e r flow and n u t r i e n t supply. The importance of both p h y s i c a l and chemical a s p e c t s of t h e g e o l o g i c a l f a c t o r a r e p o i n t e d o u t . Under t h e b i o t i c f a c t o r , human c u l t u r a l o p e r a t i o n s , f a u n i s t i c and f l o r i s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s between widely s e p a r a t e d r e g i o n s , and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s u b s p e c i f i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n c e r t a i n s p e c i e s t y p i c a l of p e a t l a n d s a r e b r i e f l y mentioned. F i n a l l y , t h e importance of i n t e r r e l a t i o n s and i n t e r a c t i o n s of t h e f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g bog development i s re-emphasized. (Author's summary)
1 . 1 . ( 1 4 ) HAMIVIOND, R.F. S t u d i e s i n t o t h e Development of a Raised Bog i n C e n t r a l I r e l a n d . Proc., T h i r d I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e a t Congress (Quebec, 1968). S e c t . 1, p.109-115, Ottawa, 1969.
The morphology of b a s a l p e a t s and u n d e r l y i n g m i n e r a l s o i l s i s used i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h l a b o r a t o r y d a t a t o s t u d y r a l s e d bog devel- opment i n e a s t - c e n t r a l I r e l a n d . Peat formation began o v e r t h e s i t e of an e a r l y p o s t - g l a c i a l l a k e approximately 9,000 y e a r s B.P. and subsequently took 7,000 t o 8,000 y e a r s t o develop a complete cover
1 . 1 . ( 1 4 ) (Continued)
w i t h i n t h e a r e a of t h e complex. P o l l e n , r a d i o c a r b o n and m a c r o f o s s i l d a t a and t h e t y p e of sub-peat m i n e r a l s o i l show t h a t c o r r e l a t i o n s e x i s t between t h e edaphic f a c t o r s and p e a t t y p e . Formation of wood- f e n p e a t s at d i f f e r e n t bog f l o o r l e v e l s was c o n t r o l l e d by e d a p h i c f a c t o r s independently of t i m e . This a l s o ' a p p l i e d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n of "Older Sphagnum" p e a t s which occur o v e r t h e b a s a l p e a t . R e l i c t m i n e r a l s o i l s , found on t h e h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n s of t h e bog f l o o r , have marked a f f i n i t i e s w i t h Grey-Brown P o d z o l i c s o i l s t h a t occupy t h e s u r r o u n d i n g upland and have provided a v a l u a b l e key t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e l a t t e r . (Author's a b s t r a c t )
1 . 1 . ( 1 5 ) HEINSELMAN, M.L. F o r e s t S i t e s , Bog P r o c e s s e s , and P e a t l a n d Types i n t h e G l a c i a l Lake Agassiz Region, Minnesota. E c o l o g i c a l Monographs
(The E c o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y o f America), Vol. 33, No.
4 ,
p.327-374, 1963.Two r e l a t e d e c o l o g i c a l p r o j e c t s concerned w i t h f o r e s t s i t e s and bog p r o c e s s e s on t h e Lake Agassiz p e a t l a n d s of n o r t h e r n Minnesota were conducted a t t h e Lake S t a t e s F o r e s t Experiment S t a t i o n between 1955 and 1961. The f i r s t was a c a s e s t u d y o f b l a c k s p r u c e s i t e s i n Lindford P e a t l a n d , l o c a t e d i n Koochiching County
(ca.
l a t . 48O, long. 94'). F a c t o r s i n v e s t i g a t e d i n c l u d e d bog topography, ground- w a t e r l e v e l s , w a t e r movement, p e a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , p e a t d e p t h , d i s t a n c e from margins, s u b s t r a t a , s o i l t e m p e r a t u r e s , and s o i lf r e e z i n g . S i t e index was t h e dependent v a r i a b l e . The physiography, p e a t s t r a t i g r a p h y , and v e g e t a t i o n o f t h e a r e a are i n t e r p r e t e d i n terms of r e s u l t s .
The second p r o j e c t , a s t u d y of bog p r o c e s s e s and p e a t l a n d t y p e s w i t h i n Lake Agassiz, was conducted a s a survey of p e a t s t r a t i g r a p h y , physiography, and v e g e t a t i o n i n key a r e a s w i t h pronounced vegeta- t i o n p a t t e r n s . Widespread evidence of bog expansion, r i s i n g w a t e r t a b l e s , and s i t e d e t e r i o r a t i o n was found. B a s a l f o r e s t p e a t s were found beneath t h e p o o r e s t muskegs up t o 2 m i from margins. One of few bog l a k e s o f t h e a r e a seems t o have r i s e n some 14 f t w i t h p e a t accumulation.
The i d e n t i t y of t h e p a t t e r n e d bogs and f e n s of t h i s r e g i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d . F e a t u r e s t h a t c l e a r l y mark t h e Lake Agassiz p e a t l a n d s as members o f t h i s circumboreal group i n c l u d e s t r o n g bogs ( S t r a n g - moor), t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y o r i e n t e d f o r e s t i s l a n d s , and f i e l d s o f r e g u l a r l y spaced i s l a n d s .
The d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e o f w a t e r movement p a t t e r n s on f l o r i s t i c s and f o r e s t s i t e s was underscored. The key seems t o be t h e degree o f i s o l a t i o n from m i n e r a l - i n f l u e n c e d groundwater. The c o u r s e of such w a t e r s through bogs i s o f t e n marked by w a t e r - t r a c k v e g e t a t i o n t y p e s . A t e n t a t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f p e a t l a n d t y p e s i s proposed.
1.1.(16) KATS, N.Ya. S t r u c t u r e and Development o f I n t e r g l a c i a l P e a t Bogs and S a p r o p e l D e p o s i t s . T r a n s . , Second I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e a t Congress
(Leningrad, USSR, 1 9 6 3 ) , Vol. 1, p.217-222. Edinburgh: Her Majesty's S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e , 1968.
A t p r e s e n t a l a r g e number o f i n t e r g l a c i a l organogenic d e p o s i t s i s known, many o f which have been examined f o r p o l l e n and macro- f o s s i l s . I n s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t numerous i n t e r g l a c i a l d e p o s i t s have been i n v e s t i g a t e d by p a l y n o l o g i c a l and c a r p o l o g i c a l methods, t h e i r development and v a r i a t i o n i n v e g e t a b l e components d u r i n g t h e Q u a t e r n a r y p e r i o d have n o t y e t been s e r i o u s l y s t u d i e d . Q u e s t i o n s
1.1.(16) (Continued)
arising from the, study of organogenic interglacial deposits are of both special and general interest; some of these questions are discussed in this report. In particular, the origin, development and history of these deposits are considered.
1.1. (17) KURBATOV, I.M. The Question of the Genesis of Peat and its Humic Acids. Trans., Second International Peat Congress, (Leningrad USSR,, 1963). Vol. 1, p.133-137. Edinburgh: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1968.
The theories of origin and accumulation of peat of early re- searchers are summarized and the recent investigation~ of the Belorussian Peat Institute on the genesis of peat are presented. Evidence has shown that the formation of peat is a relatively short biochemical process occurring under the influence of aerobic micro- organisms in the surface layers of the deposits during periods of low subsoil waters. Intensive research has established that humic matter consists of colloidal polycondensates of an acidic nature; their bases consists of aromatic complexes and nitrous components composed of amino-acidic residue.
1.1.(18) LAWRENCE, D.B. Glaciers and Vegetation in Southeastern Alaska. American Scientist, Vol. 46, No. 2, p.89-122, 1958.
Discusses the factors contributing to the recession of glaciers and the development of post glacial vegetation. Following ice recession, vegetation development follows several stages: (1) pioneer stage; (2) alder thicket stage and nitrogen fixation: (3) transition to forest; ( 4 ) spruce and hemlock forest stages; (5) forest deterioration and muskeg development; (6) pit pond develop- ment. An extensive bibliography is included.
1.1.(19) MacMILLAN, C. On the Formation of Circular Muskeag in Tamarack Swamps. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. 23, p.500-507, 1896.
This early paper calls attention to the tension-line between sphagnum moors and the higher forest-clad ridges surrounding such moors as they exist in Minnesota. Sphagnum formations with the various attendant plants are commonly designated as "Muskeagn by the woodsmen of Minnesota. The sphagnum moors, or muskeags, are re- garded as glacial ponds or lakes in the process of conversion to forest. Various stages in the transition are described (with accompanying photographs) from personal observations of the author. 1.1.(20) NEWBOULD, P.J. Peat Bogs. New Biology, No. 26, ~ ~ 8 8 - 1 0 5 , 1958.
Peat bogs are dynamic systems controlled by climate, drainage patterns and the chemical nature of the soil water. Peat for- mation is particularly widespread throughout the whole of the temperate regions; two types of peat are encountered, namely "fen peat" and "bog peat." Sphagnum, probably the greatest peat former, possesses particular properties and is characteristic of peat bogs the world over. The technique of pollen analyses permits researchers to link the changes in peat-forming vegetation to both a time scale and a climatic change.
1.1.(21) OKRUSZKO,
H.
Soil-Forming Process in a Drained Peatland. Trans., Second International Peat Congress (Leningrad, USSR, 1963), Vol. 1, p.189-197. Edinburgh: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1968.In a living and developing peatland a specific process takes place, the result of which is the formation and accumulation of peat. This process, called "peat-forming," can be ranked among geological as well as soil-forming processes. The process takes place under a specific condition
-
a high ground level which causes air deficiency in the soil. The air deficiency affects the nature and velocity of microbiological processes which, being anaerobic, favourthe accumulation and preservation of organic matter. With the drainage of peatland, a new soil process is initiated, instead of peat accumulation, mineralization and complete destruction begin The peat-forming process is replaced by a muck-forming process. This process has a number of characteristic phenomena and forms a definite type of soil called muck soil, replacing the peat soil which existed before drainage. The muck soil has different morphological features and characteristic chemical and physical properties. This report discusses the transformation of peat into muck and considers some of these morphological features as well as chemical and physical characteristics such as percent ash, trace elements, bulk density, specific gravity, porosity, full water capacity, bound water content and permeability.1.1.(22) OSBON, C.C. Classification and Formation of Peat and Related Deposits. Journal, American Peat Society, Vol. 14, p.37-44, 1921.
The terms "bog," "marsh" and "swamp" are defined. Classification systems for peat deposits on the basis of topography and on flora or dominant plant growth are discussed. Peat-forming flora and pro- cesses of peat bog formation are examined.
1.1.(23) POTZGER, J.E. and I.T. Wilson. A Study of Lake Filling and Bog For- mation. Proc., Indiana Academy of Science, Vol. 54, p. 79-80, 1945.
The old, and still commonly prevalent, conception of writers of textbooks and scientific articles is that lake progress in their filling to bog stage by a centripetal process, which in the closing stages frequently results in a small central pond surrounded by a more or less solidified mat. According to such a theory, it would, theoretically, make no difference where in a basin a boring for pollen analysis would be made to obtain a complete pollen profile, one beginning with the earliest plant invaders. Experience showed, however, that borings made on the upper slope of a bog or lake. basin had truncated lower sections of a pollen profile, indicating that filling there began later than in the deeper portion. Using a complete pollen profile (on which showed the earliest spruce period) from a given bog or lake as "standard," pollen profiles from borings in line trasects across the basins were compared with the "standard1' and time of filling was indicated by the progress of succession shown in the pollen profiles. Records from
7
lakes and8
bogs in- dicate that as a whole, lakes begin filling centrifugally, i.e. the deepest part of a basin, or the various depressions in a complex basin, like that of Tippecanoe Lake, fill first. Only aftershallowing of the basin does centripetal filling begin. Where a bog mat forms, it is in a late state of the "verlandung" process. For pollen workers, it is very essential, therefore, that borings be made in the deepest part, or parts, of a bog or lake. (Authors1
1.1.(24) RADFORTH, N.W. Why and How Does Muskeg Occur? Proc. Eighth Muskeg Research Conf., Nat. Res. Council of Canada, Assoc. Ctee. on Soil and Snow Mech., p.145-154, Ottawa, 1962.
It is pointed out that the reasons for the existence of muskeg are both extrabiotic and botanical. The extrabiotic effects in- clude: water (perhaps the most important single factor), Climate (particularly temperature), wind (which affects evaporation), the mineral sublayer (especially its chemical make-up), afld topo- graphic configuration (particularly depressions in the terrain). Botanical effects involve the type of plants which will grow when the above conditions are right, their tissue structure, mesh, etc. These factors, working together and in the proper proportion, retard decomposition of the organic debris which results from the death of plants and peat will accumulate.
1.1.(25) RADFORTH, N.W. Muskeg in Arctic North America. Nature, Vol. 205, No.
4977,
P-1153-1155, 1965,A report on the discovery of shallow peatland in the arctic archipelago of North America. The relationship between freshly epposed inorganic land surfaces and the onset of the deposition process of organic overburden is examined.
1.1.(26) RADFORTH, N.W. The Basis of Predictability of Muskeg States (S~nItnary). Proc., Twelfth Muskeg Research Conf., Nat. Res. Council of Canada, Assoc. Ctee. on Geotech. Res., Tech. Memo. 90, p.1-3, Ottawa,
1967.
The basis of predictability in muskeg must ultimately refer to biological principles. Organization within the biological environ- ment is dependent upon heredity and recurrence. There are four controlling factors in environment: the mineral sublayer, ice, the organic material, and water. Predictability of muskeg states also refers to homogeneity and user requirements.
1.1.(27) RENNIE, Rev. R. Essays on the Natural History and Origin of Peat Moss. Edinburgh : George Ramsay and Co., Printers, Vol. 1, 1807, 233p. ; Vol. 11, 1810, 432p.
These volumes are of particular historical interest to students of peat. Nine essays (the first two in Volume I) are presented on "the peculiar qualities of that substance (peat moss); the means of improving it as a soil; the methods of converting it into a manure; and the other economical purposes to which it may be made subservient .'I The author sets out to prove that peat moss (i.e.
bog) is a build-up of dead vegetation of various plant species and not a living organism in itself or a deposit from the Biblical flood as was popularly believed. A classification system for peat is also developed.
1.1.(28) RIGG, G.B. A Summary of Bog Theories. Plant World,
Val.
19, No. 10, p.310-325, 1916.Various theories have been offered in explanation of the fact that plants other than bog xerophytes are largely inhibited from sphagnum bogs. In this paper the writer has systematically arranged the various theories expounded and has cited literature bearing on this particular question.
1.1.(29) RIGG, G.B. The Development of Sphagnum Bogs in North America. Botanical Review, Vol. 6 , p.666-693, 1940.
1.1.(29) (Continued)
The bogs discussed are those that have a fairly continuous growth of sphagnum moss at the surface which has formed a layer of peat of appreciable thickness and which has exercised a selective influence on the community of plants growing in it. These bogs are common across the North American Continent and the areas where they occur in abundance are briefly described. Sphagnum and the condi- tion it creates is outlined in more detail. A comprehensive list of bog plants is given and reference is made to the kind of peat found in sphagnum bogs. Two kinds of sphagnum bogs are recognized: "flat bogs" and "raised bogs." The phenomena inv~lved in the
course of development of each type are presented. Some general- izations are made on the course of development of sphagnum bogs in North America commonly leading to afforestation.
1.1.(30) RIGG, G.B. The Development of Sphagnum Bogs in North America. 11. The Botanical Review, Vol. 17, No. 2, p.109-131, 1951.
A supplement to the 1940 paper [Reference 1.1(29)], bringing the published information up-to-date. New work in specific areas is reviewed under the general headings of Northern Bogs (including Canada and ~laska), Southern Bogs (the Southern U.S.A.)
,
and well- known bog regions in the United States (States of New Jersey and Washington). The use of volcanic ash as a time marker in bogs is discussed.1.1.(31) RIGG, G.B. and C.T. Richardson. The Development of Sphagnum Bogs in the San Juan Islands. American Journal of Botany, Vol. 21,
p.610-622, 1934.
Gives the profiles of
8
sphagnum bogs and discusses theirdevelopment in Postglacial times; emphasizes the general course of bog development in the San Juan Islands by pointing out the
features common to all bogs. No pollen analysis was made in this study. The von Post scale is utilized to designate the degree of disintegration of the peat.
1.1.(32) ROBERTSON, R.A. Peat: Its Origin, Properties and Use in Horticulture. Scientific Horticulture, Vol. 16, p.42-51, 1962-63.
The origin, nature and development of peat deposits in Britain are dependent on the action and interaction of climatic, edophic and topographic factors. Consequently, the term "peat" covers a wide range of different materials, not all of which are suitable for horticultural purposes. Reference is made to certain physical ,
and chemical properties (moisture and ash contents, pH, percentage nitrogen, moisture-holding capacity, degree of decomposition and grade) of 5 peat types commonly found in Scotland. Production effects, which influence the moisture-holding capacity and state of subdivision, are also considered.
1.1.(33) ROGOFF, M.H. Role of Microbiological Processes in the Formation of Peat and Their Relationship to Coal Genesis. Bulletin, Geological Society of America, Vol. 70, No. 12, Pt.2, p.1063, 1959.
The microfloras of the different peats vary in accord with con- ditions of acidity or alkalinity and the availability of nitrogen and oxygen. These conditions determine the course of microbial attack on plant debris and, depending on the type of plant
1.1.(33) (Continued)
Long periods of slow microbial decomposition of plant material under anaerobic conditions would lead to a product low in nitrogen and oxygen and thus tend toward formation of high-rank coals. Con- versely, aerobic oxidative processes involving less nitrogen loss
from the system and resulting in a product richer in oxygen may pre- cede formation of the lignites and brown coals. These suppositions are confirmed by data on the decomposition of various plant
materials as well as data on the differential decomposition of lig- nin. The role of the various groups of micro-organisms active in plant decay and responsible for these phenomena is discussed.
(From: Abstracts and Index, July
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Dec., 1959).1.1. (34) THAYSEN, A.C. The Microbiological Aspect of Peat Formation. Fuel, Vol. 9, NO. 12, p.560-563, 1931.
Presents an analysis of the behaviour of all the known types of cellulose decomposing micro-organism and shows that the activity of these organisms is limited to the very surface layers of peat. That is, it decreases in intensity as soon as the debris has become waterlogged and in acid peats it ceases altogether long before the
cellulose of the debris has been eliminated.
1.1.(35) THOMPSON, K. Origin and Use of the English Peat Fens. The Scientific Monthly. Vol. 85, No. 2, p.68-76, 1957.
The peat districts of the English fens comprise a distinct
region, unique in several important respects: (1) its physical form is markedly different from most of lowland Britain in low, dead flat, organic soils which without artificial drainage would be sub- merged beneath several feet of water; (2) the region constitutes nearly one-half of Britain's major tract of first class arable land. However, man's winning of the rich fen peat has been succeeded by land-use problems that were not anticipated by the original re- claimers. Principally, peat formation under the former marsh con- ditions has been replaced by peat destruction under reclamation. The decline of peat levels, the result mainly of bacterial de- struction and of wind erosion, aggravates the already severe drain- age problems and points to the loss of the region's only resource
-
its rich soils. Nevertheless, peat conservation is possible:drainage modification, claying, extension of grassland, and wind- erosion preventatives are some of the measures that may prolong the productive life of the fertile fen peat. (Author's summary).
1.1.(36) WAKSMAN, S.A. and
E.R.
Purvis. The Microbiological Population of Peat. Soil Science, Vol. 34, No. 2, p.95-113, 1932.A study was made of the o c c u r m e of bacteria in different layers of a number of lowmoor, sedimentary and highmoor peat profiles. Re- sults are submitted which prove beyond doubt that not only are
micro-organisms present in peat laid down many centuries ago, only are they found there in great abundance, but that their abundance is closely correlated with the decomposition of the peat-forming plants, as well as the gradual changes still taking place in the peat itself. The results tend to p$ove, therefore, that micro- organisms, largely bacteria, are chiefly responsible for peat for- mation and peat transformation.
1 . 1 . ( 3 7 ) WILSON, B.D., A . J . Eames and E.V. S t a k e r . Genesis and Composition of P e a t D e p o s i t s . C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , A g r i c u l t u r a l Experiment S t a t i o n , Mem. No. 188, I t h a c a , 1936.
Peat d e p o s i t s t y p i c a l of t h e i n t e n s i v e l y c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s o f
N e w York were s e l e c t e d w i t h t h e view of a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e i r mode o f b o t a n i c a l and chemical composition of t h e p l a n t remains of t h e p r o f i l e l a y e r s .
The h i s t o r i e s of t h e d e p o s i t s a r e p o s t u l a t e d from t h e s u c c e s s i o n of p l a n t a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t p r e v a i l e d a t d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s i n t h e forma- t i o n of t h e d e p o s i t s , a s r e v e a l e d by t h e p l a n t remains. The n a t u r e o f t h e m a t e r i a l u n d e r l y i n g a p e a t d e p o s i t i s shown t o a f f e c t t h e calcium c o n t e n t and t h e r e a c t i o n (pH) of t h e p r o f i l e l a y e r s . Any e f f e c t of t h e u n d e r l y i n g l a y e r i n t h e b o t a n i c a l composition of t h e l a y e r s i s n o t n e a r l y a s e v i d e n t . Under comparatively d r y condi- t i o n s , sphagnum appears t o i n d i c a t e a s u b s o i l of a c i d r e a c t i o n . 1 . 1 . ( 3 8 ) ZACH, L.W. A Northern Climax
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F o r e s t o r Muskeg? Ecology, Vol. 31,No. 2 , p.304-306, 1950.
Advances t h e t h e s i s t h a t muskeg r e p r e s e n t s a p h y s i o g r a p h i c climax o v e r much o f S o u t h e a s t Alaska: f u r t h e r m o r e , t h a t t h i s p h y s i o g r a p h i c climax may be i n c r e a s i n g a t t h e expense of what i s u s u a l l y a c c e p t e d as c l i m a t i c climax v e g e t a t i o n
-
f o r e s t cover- by a slow b u t pro-
g r e s s i v e p r o c e s s of s i t e d e t e r i o r a t i o n w i t h i n c e r t a i n t o p o g r a p h i c l i m i t s . These c o n c l u s i o n s a r e based on t h e f o l l o w i n g phenomena:( 1 ) r a i n f a l l , ( 2 ) c o o l t e m p e r a t u r e s and l a c k o f s u n s h i n e , ( 3 ) tend- ency of o r g a n i c m a t t e r t o w a t e r l o g a r e a s , ( 4 ) a p p a r e n t d e t e r i o r a t i o n of f o r e s t b o r d e r i n g muskeg, and ( 5 ) t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s u b s t r a t u m does not i n h i b i t muskeg f o r m a t i o n .
1 . 1 . ( 3 9 ) ZUMBERGE, J . H . and J . C . Ayers. Hydrology o f Lakes and Swamps. I n Handbook of Applied Hydrology: A Compendium of w a t e r - ~ e s o u r c e s Technology. E d i t e d by Ven-Te Chow. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1964. Ch. 23, p.23-31.
The terms "bogs," "swamps," and "marshes" a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d and d e f i n e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r o r i g i n .
1.2 EXTENT AND DISTRIBUTION
1 . 2 1 ANDREWS, C.S. Review of Peat Resources and Development in Ireland. Papers Presented at the International Peat Symposium, Section A , Dublin, 1954.
Presents an outline of the activities of the Bord na Mona,
stressing the immediate aim to produce one million tons of sod peat and 2.5 million tons of milled peat annually. A large proportion of this is for consumption in the power stations of the Electricity Supply Board. In an appendix to the paper a summary is given on survey of bogs in Ireland, carried out in 1810-1814 at the direction of the Government of the day.
1.2.(2) ANREP, A.V. Investigation of the Peat Bogs and Peat Industry of Canada, 1911-1912. Dept. of Mines and Technical Surveys, Mines Branch, Bull. No. 9, Ottawa, 1914. 44p.
A report on the investigation of the peat bogs and peat industry of Canada during 1911 and 1912. This report includes a detailed examination of nine peat bogs in the Province of Quebec and an account of a preliminary investigation of a number of peat bogs situated in the immediate vicinity of Sudbury and Selbwood, Ontario. In addition tosthe foregoing are included profiles illustrative of the high bogs (hochmooren) frequently found in the Eastern provinces of Canada, together with translations of a number of documents on the utilization of peat and contemporary developments in European practice.
1.2.(3) AUER, V. Peat Bogs in Southeastern Canada, Geological Survey of Canadq Mem. 162, Ottawa, 1930. 32p.
A summary of a lengthy report presenting the results of an in- vestigation made in 1926 of
34
peat bogs in southeastern Canada, in a region stretching from the Niagara district east to and including Nova Scotia. The aim was to study as large a region as possible in order to determine the general conditions pertaining to the peat bogs of this region and to outline the problems awaiting detailed investigations.1.2.(4) BARRY, T.A. The Distribution of Peats in Ireland. Symposium on Peat as a Medium for Horticultural Crop Production, Dublin,'1968.
Two bog types (raised-type and blanket-bog) and one sub-type (high-level blanket bog) are distinguished. Their geographical distribution in Ireland is outlined on a map in relation to rainfall and relief.
A summary of the distribution-in-depth of the main genetic peat types is given, three in blanket bog and five in raised-type bog, and the story of peat and bog formation since the retreat of the ice is told in eight illustrations. (From Bord na Mona Peat Abstracts, Dublin, Summer 1968, p.1).
1.2.(5) BASTIN, E.S. and C.A. Davis. Peat Deposits of Maine. U.S. Geological Survey, Bull. 376, Washington, D.C., 1909.
1.2.(5) (Continued)
accessible peat deposits of Maine and directs attention to their economic importance as an undeveloped source of fuel supply and as raw material for various other uses.
The economic aspects of peat are cons;i.dered under the following headings: factors influencing the successful utilization of a peat deposit; peat as a fuel; peat as a raw material for other than fuel manufacture; peat in agriculture.
Field observations and laboratory analyses for boreholes from 70 localities in 11 counties are recorded.in the second part of this report. Topographic maps are included, showing the geographical position of the bogs and location of the test holes.
A bibliography and an index complete this study.
1.2.(6) BJARNASON, O.B. The Peat Deposits of Iceland. Papers Presented at the International Peat Symposium, Section
A,
Dublin, 1954.Peat bogs are found in all parts of Iceland with the most
extensive ones located in the main lowland of the southwest of the country. Selected analyses presented in this paper indicate that the peat is not a high quality material; however, huge quantities are stored in the Icelandic bogs. Since there is no other fossil fuel of importance in Iceland, the peat bogs must be considered an important natural resource.
1.2.(7) BLOMQUIST, H.L. Peat Mosses of the Southeastern States. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Vol. 54, No. 1, p.1-21, 1938.
Presents an illustrated key to the peat mosses of the south- eastern states to stimulate interest in learning to recognize the different kinds.
The principal structural features of sphagnum are reviewed so that by referring to the illustrations, the characters can be more easily visualized. The species of sphagnum are outlined and
following previous concepts they are divided into 2 groups or sub- genera. The key to the species and varieties is followed by an annotated list containing observations on distribution and visual characteristics.
1.2.(8) BONSTEEL, J.A. Muck and Peat. (Soils of the Eastern United States and Their Use
-
XXXVIII). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils, Circular No. 65, Washington, D.C., 1912.An estimated 15,000,000 acres of peat and muck deposits in the Eastern United States constitute a large area yet to be reclaimed and utilized for agricultural purposes. Special crops can be grown in these areas, with the addition of certain fertilizers and after proper drainage has been carried out. Each organic deposit must be considered to be a separate drainage problem.
1.2.(9) BONSTEEL, J.A. Marsh and Swamp. (Soils of the Eastern United States and Their Use
-
XL), U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils, Circular No. 69, Washington, D.C., 1912.1.2.(9) (Continued)
It is estimated that probably more than 60 million acres of different classes of undrained land, which are permanently wet, exist in the eastern United States. The subsoil may be peaty, or of mineral soil composition. Small areas have been reclaimed and are used for growing special crops.
1.2.(10) Brown Gold of Alaska Muskegs. Scientific American, Vol. 166, ~ . 1 9 a , 1942.
The 110 million acres of peat muskeg deposits in Alaska are a veritable "Klondike" if they could be inexpensively packed and shipped. Many of the bogs, with a depth of peat of 4 to
6
feet or more, are accessible from the Coast and are easily dug. The short Alaskan summers constitute a serious drawback to successful peat operations.1.2.(11) CAMERON, J.R. Some Aspects of Organic Terrain in Nova Scotia. Proc., Atlantic Provinces Regional Seminars on Organic Terrain Problems, Nat. Res. Council of Canada, Assoc. Ctee. on Soil and Snow Mech., Tech. Memo.
77,
p.15-31, Ottawa, 1963.A general description is given of how bogs are formed. It is estimated that Nova Scotia has about 100 square miles of bogs. The majority of the bogs are less than 10 feet deep. Several bog areas are described and illustrated by aerial photographs.
1.2.(12) CHALMERS, R. Peat in Canada. Geological Survey of Canada, Mineral Resources of Canada, Bulletin on Peat, No. 880, Ottawa, 1904. 4Op.
Describes the origin of peat, the geology and physical features of peat bogs and the mosses which occur in bogs. The distribution of peat in Canada is outlined. Reference is made to peaty areas in Northern Ontario and in the West, which are called umuskegs."
These areas are vast and largely uncharted. An estimate of 37,000 square miles of peat in Canada is given, although it is admitted that this is very conservative. A large part of the report is de- voted to a discussion of the manufacture of peat fuel, moss litter, etc.
1.2.(13) DACHNOWSKI-STOKES, A.P. Peat Resources in Alaska. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Tech. Bull. No. 769, Washington, D.C., 1941.
A comprehensive survey of the main peat bogs existing in Alaska. The primary concern of this paper is with the agricultural and in- dustrial aspects of peat. Almost everywhere the peat areas are called "muskegs." These muskegs are grouped into three classes
-
sloped muskegs, raised muskegs, and flat (or valley) muskegs. The terms woody peat, fibrous peat, sedimentary peat and muck are de- fined. A discussion is included of methods of cutting peat, marketing, etc.1.2.(14) DAVIS, J.H. The Peat Deposits of Florida: Their Occurrence, Develop- ment and Uses. Florida Geological Survey, Department of Conser- vation, Geol. Bull. No. 30, Tallahassee, 1946. 24Tp.
Describes and discusses most of the larger peat deposits and many of the smaller deposits of Florida. Estimates are given of
1.2.(14) (Continued)
the area and depth of many of these. From prospecting data the quantity in tons of peat in many deposits is given. The nature, origin, kinds and composition of peats are described. Many
analyses of Florida peats are presented. The geology of both sur- face and buried peats is described, and some possible correlations of peat and lignite layers with glacial and interglacial ages are considered.
The present and possible future ways of utilizing Floridals large peat resources are considered in detail. Some experiments to de- termine the practicality of using peat for fuel and in making
plastics were conducted, and although these did not give favourable results they show what difficulties must be overcome if large scale utilization of peat is attempted in the future.
1.2.(15) DODSON, W.R. Observations and Studies in the Peat Deposits of Louisiana. Louisiana State University, Agriculture Experimental Station, Bull. No. 343, 1942, 27p.
Although it had been known for sometime that considerable areas of peat existed in Louisiana, few attempts have been made to de- termine the extent of the peat deposits or the nature and possible uses of the peat. This bulletin reports on some surveys made in the peat areas of south Louisiana and the detailed studies of the more interesting deposits. Very large peat deposits were found in the vicinity of the various lakes, the combined area of these deposits is several hundred square miles. The peat consists of partly dis- integrated reeds, grasses, sedges, woody plants and various other aquatic plants. A common component of northern peat bogs, sphagnum moss, is not an important constituent of Louisiana peat deposits. One type of peat has been identified as "Sagittaria peat" with the dominant material consisting of partially disintegrated roots of plants of the genus SAGITTARIA. The distinctive features of this peat are described in some detail.
1.2.(16) ELLIOTT, C.G. Swamp Lands of the United States. U.S. 60th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Document No. 443, Vol. 32, Washington, D.C., 1908.
This report, prepared at the request of the United States Senate, presents information on the location and area of swamp and over- flowed lands in the U.S.A. susceptible to being drained for agri- culture. The effect of drainage on such lands is discussed, and an estimate given of the area of land which has been drained under the laws of the different States and the benefits which have resulted therefrom. A summary is presented of the legislation of different States and methods under which drainage works have been constructed, as well as a review of the drainage laws and policies of leading agricultural countries in Europe. It is estimated that in the U.S.A. there are some 79,005,023 acres (123,500 sq. mi.) of unreclaimed swamp and overflowed land as well as some 150,000,000 acres (235,000 sq. mi.) of wet land under cultivation but on which pro- duction could be increased 20% by proper drainage.
1.2.(17) EYLANDS,
A.
Bogs and Bog Cultivation in Iceland.(In Norwegian). Meddelelser Fra Det Norske Myrselskap, Vol. 62, No.3,
1964.1.2.(17) (Continued)
Describes the historical a.nd technical background to bog use ic Icelar~d. Total bog area (1912 estimate) is 2.5 million acres. The total land area of Iceland is 25 million acres of which less than
8 .
million acres are of any practical agricultural use. Therefore, the bog areas are very important agricultural assets. A typical ash con- tent of the peat is 64% which is very high. Fuel peat in the bogs is usually covered by a thick layer of soil. Bogs are cultivated without addition of mineral soil or liming. Drainage is discussed in some detail; closed drains are hardly ever used and since 1945 open drains have been completed by using torpedo drains. (From Bord na Mona Peat Abstracts, Spring, 1965, p.9).1.2.(18) FERRONIERE,
Y.
Presentation of the Atlas of French Peat Bogs. Papers presented at the International Peat Symposium, Section A , Dublin, 1954.The wartime restrictions of 1940 in occupied France necessitated a full survey and systematic study of the countryrs peat resources. The results of the survey were collected and published in 1949
under the title "The Atlas of French.Peat Bogs." In addition to the volume of large and small scale maps, there is another volume which covers the details of the survey, the economical aspects of peat in France, the properties of the peat, an assessment of its value, and a bibliography. The survey established that France is poor, both in peat resources and good quality peat.
1.2.(19) FILIPOWICZ, J. and
K.
Smyjewski. Exploitation of Peat and Peatlands in Poland. Trans., Second International Peat Congress (Leningrad, USSR, 1963). Vol. 1, p.279-285. Edinburgh: Her Majesty's Stationery Off ice, 1968.A progress report on research activities on peat and the extent of bog reclamation in Poland. Topics considered include: (1) naturalistic and geological studies of peatland; (2) research;
( 3 ) reclamation for agriculture and afforestration; (4) exploita- tion and processing of peat.
1.2.(20) FORTSON, C.W., Jr. Peat Deposits of Georgia. Georgia Mineral News- letter, Vol. 14, No. 1, p.1-21, 1961.
Extensive deposits of peat occur in the Okefenokee Swamp and other districts of Southern Georgia and sufficient markets exist for a substantial increase in the peat industry of the state. The composition and properties of peat and the origin and classification of Georgia peat are discussed in some detail for 25 deposits.
1.2. (21) FRASER, G.K. British Peats. Agriculture, Vol. 55, ~.71-78, 1948. For abstract, see Reference 9.1.(4)
1.2.(22) HEALY, J.V. Some Aspects of Organic Terrain in Newfoundland. Proc., Atlantic Provinces Regiona1,Seminars on Organic Terrain Problems, Nat. Res. Council of Canada, Assoc. Ctee. on Soil and Snow Mech., Tech. Memo.
