Evacuation and other fire safety measures in high-rise buildings

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Evacuation and other fire safety measures in high-rise buildings /

L'évacuation et autres mesures de sécurité incendie dans les grands

immeubles

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Ser

TH1

N21r2

no. 648

c.

2 '

Cuncil Research Report

BLDG

1 y 1 o j

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA CONSElL NATIONAL DE RECHERCHES DU CANADA

Evacuation and Other Fire Safety Measures

In High-Rise Buildings

by J. L. Pauls Reprinted from ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS 1975 Vol. 81, Part 1, p. 528-534

Research Paper NO. 648 of the

Division of Building Research

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L'EVACUATION ET AUTRES MESURES DE SECURITE INCENDIE DANS LES GRANDS IMMEUBLES

Les mesures d'evacuation et le comportement des occupants d'un edifice en cas d'incendie ne sont pas aussi bien connus que d'autres aspects de la conception de plus en plus systematique et technologique de la securite incendie dans les edifices. La situation evolue toutefois. Des recherches recentes et en cours au Canada, dans le Royaume-Uni et aux Etats-Unis cornportent Isetude des methodes d'evacuation des tours de bureaux, et aussi des ternpsd'evacuation, du mouvement des personnes, des aspects physiques et humains de la securite des escaliers, de I'organisation de la securite incendie, des alertes et des communications, et du comportement humain dans des incendies reels. II en resultera peut-etre une revision de certaines dispositions des codes du batiment et des codes de prevention des incendies. Le degre de securite incendie de nos edifices complexes augmente la responsabilite juridique etablie dans les codes et exige une conscience et une competence accrues des architectes, des experts consiels, des proprietaires, des cadres, du personnel d'exploitation, des services d'incendie et, dans une certaine mesure, de tous les utilisateurs.

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ON

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RE SAFETY

MEASURES

J.L. PAULS S i n c e t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 ' s t h e p r o b l e m o f f i r e i n h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s h a s r e c e i v e d a g r e a t d e a l o f a t t e n t i o n i n p o p u l a r a n d t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , a n d t h i s i s now i n c r e a s i n g l y r e f l e c t e d i n s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s ( 1 - 6 ) . I n t h e l a s t few y e a r s , c o n c e r n f o r f i r e s a f e t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s , h a s l e d t o t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f s o m e t i m e s complex s y s t e m s o f f i r e d e t e c t i o n a n d e x t i n g u i s h m e n t , smoke c o n t r o l , a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , s y s t e m a t i c a p p r o a c h e s t o d e s i g n i n g f o r f i r e s a f e t y a r e b e i n g d e v e l o p e d ( 7 , 8)

.

E v a c u a t i o n i n t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s i t m i g h t t a k e i n h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s a s a r e s u l t o f t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s i s l e s s u n d e r s t o o d t h a n many o t h e r a s p e c t s o f s u c h s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h e s t o f i r e s a f e t y . G e n e r a l l y , k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e b e h a v i o r o f b u i l d i n g o c c u p a n t s d u r i n g e m e r g e n c i e s i s p o o r l y d e v e l o p e d , a l t h o u g h t h e r e h a s b e e n r e c e n t p r o g r e s s i n C a n a d a , t h e U n i t e d Kirigdom, and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( 9 - 1 1 ) . P r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s o f s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t i n C a n a d a p r o v i d e b e t t e r i n f o r m a t i o n t h a n h a s b e e n a v a i l a b l e t o d a t e a b o u t b u i l d i n g p o p u l a t i o n a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s r e l e - v a n t t o p r a c t i c a b l e t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n . They a l s o r a i s e q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e v a l i d i t y o f some t r a d i t i o n a l l y a c c e p t e d c o n c e p t s a n d f o n n u l a s f o r e x i t d e s i g n .

A few comments a b o u t t c r m i n o l o g y arid s c o p e may b e r e q u i r e d . I n t h i s p a p e r t h e t e r m " e v a c u a t i o n " i s u s e d i n a b r o a d s e n s e t o d e s c r i b e t h e movement o f some o r a l l b u i l d i n g o c c u - p a n t s t o a p l a c e o f a c c e p t a b l e s a f e t y i n t h e e v e n t o f f i r e . " T o t a l e v a c u a t i o n " means t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l , s i m u l t a n e o ~ ~ s movenlent o f a l l o c c u p a n t s t o t h e b u i l d i n g e x t e r i o r a t g r o u n d l e v e l . O t h c r t e r m s s u c h a s " p h a s e d e v a c u a t i o n " a n d " p a r t i a l e v a c u a t i o n " d e s c r i b e t h e more c o n t r o l l e d a n d u s u a l l y more l i m i t e d movement o f o c c u p a n t s n e c e s s i t a t e d b y i n s u f f i c i e n t e s i t c a p a c i t y o r n u d e p o s s i b l c b y f i r e a n d smoke c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s . The e v a c u a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s a n d s t u d y f i n d i n g s now d e s c r i b e d p e r t a i n t o o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s . Mass e v a c u a t i o n i s l e s s l i k e l y i r l l a r g e r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s b e c a u s e t h e h i g h d e g r e e o f c o m p a r t m e ~ i t a t i o n p r o v i d e d l i m i t s f i r c a n d smoke h a z a r d s . O c c u p a n c y c o n d i t i o n s i n r e s i d - n t i a l b u i l d i n g s a l s o make o r g a n i z e d e v a c u a t i o n movement much l e s s l i k e l y . By way o f c o n t r a s t , h o s p i t a l s a n d s i m i l a r i r l s t i t u t i o n s h a v c a h i g h d e g r e e o f o p e r a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a s \ + f e l l a s e x t e n s i v e c o m p a r t m e n t a t i o n , a n d c o n t a i n s o p h i s t i c a t e d f i r c s a f e t y s y s t e m s . T h i s p e r m i t s m i n i m a l e v a c u a t i o n o f o c c u p a n t s , a p r o c e d u r e t h a t w i l l b e u s e d i n c r e a s i n g l y i n new o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s b u t i s u n f o r t ~ m a t e l y n o t a p p r o p r i a t e f o r f i r e e m e r g e n c i e s i n many e s i s t i n g o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s . T h i s p a p e r d e s c r i b e s t h e e v a c u a t i o n o f h i g h - r i s e o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s t a k i n g p l a c e p r c d o n i i n a n t b on e x i t s t a i r s . O t h e r e v a c u a t i o n , e s c a p e , o r r e s c u e f a c i l i t i e s , s u c h a s c l c v a t o r s , l a d d e r s , r o p e s , a n d h e l i c o p t e r s , h a v e b e e n i n s t r u m e n t a l i n s a v i n g l i v e s i n h i g h - r i s c f i r e s ; b u t w i t h t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f c e r t a i n s p e c i a l l y p r o t e c t e d e l e v a t o r s t h e s e o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s h a v e i n h e r e n t l i m i t a t i o n s , a n d d e p e n d e n c e on t h e i r u s e f o r e v a c u a t i o n i n p r o p e r l y e q u i p p e d h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s i s u n d e s i r a b l e a n d u n n e c e s s a r y . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t a s m a l l number ( a b o u t 33) o f t h e p c o p l c n o r m a l l y p r e s e n t i n h i g h - r i s e o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s c a n n o t o r s h o u l d n o t a t t e m p t t o e v a c u a t e b y means o f crowded s t a i r s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h o s e w i t h o b v i o u s p h y s i c a l d i s a b i l i t i e s , t h i s m i n o r i t y i n c l u d e s p e o p l e w i t h J . L . P a u l s i s R e s e a r c h O f f i c e r , D i v i s i o n o f B u i l d i n g R e s e a r c h , X a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i 1 of C a n a d a , O t t a w a .

528

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h e a r t d i s o r d e r s and c o n v a l e s c e n t s from r e c e n t i l l n e s s , s u r g e r y , o r a c c i d e n t . Movement o f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s t o a p l a c e o f s a f e t y w i l l r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l p l a n n i n g and a s s i s t a n c e from o t h e r o c c u p a n t s .

RECENT CANADIAN STUDIES OF BUILDING EVACUATION

P r e d i c t i o n s o f t i m e s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n o f h i g h - r i s e o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s w e r e p r e - s e n t e d i n 1969 b y G a l b r e a t h ( 1 2 ) , and t h e s e f i g u r e s have b e e n w i d e l y q u o t e d d u r i n g t h e l a s t 5 y e a r s . S i n c e t h a t t i m e more d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s , i n c l u d i n g f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s , h a v e b e e n con- d u c t e d b y t h e a u t h o r ( 9 ) , b e g i n n i n g w i t h o b s e r v a t i o n s o f a m a j o r e v a c u a t i o n d r i l l i n V a n c o u v e r ' s 22- s t o r y B

.

C

.

Hydro B u i l d i n g (13)

.

S u b s e q u e n t l y , o b s e r v a t i o n s have b e e n made i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e Dominion F i r e Commissioner o f n e a r l y 40 e v a c u a t i o n d r i l l s i n O t t a w a i n h i g h - r i s e o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s r a n g i n g from 8 t o 29 s t o r y s . The b u i l d i n g s w e r e o c c u p i e d m a i n l y by C a n a d i a n F e d e r a l Government e m p l o y e e s , many o f whom w e r e a c c u s t o m e d t o t a k i n g p a r t i n e v a c u a t i o n d r i l l s . R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r s u c h d r i l l s a n d f o r r e l a t e d b u i l d i n g f i r e emergency o r g a n i z a t i o n , f a c i l i t i e s , and a c t i v i t i e s h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e Dominion F i r e Commissioner ( 1 4 ) . T o t a l , p h a s e d , and p a r t i a l e v a c u a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s w e r e u s e d , d e p e n d i n g on e a c h b u i l d i n g ' s s i z e , p o p u l a t i o n , and communication f a c i l i t i e s .

The o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e O t t a w a e v a c u a t i o n d r i l l s were c o n d u c t e d by teams o f up t o 1 5 o b s e r - v e r s whose d u t i e s i n c l u d e d moving w i t h e v a c u e e s down e x i t s t a i r s o r making f l o w c o u n t s a t f i x e d l o c a t i o n s . A 1 1 o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e r e c o r d e d ( d u r i n g t h e e v a c u a t i o n s ) o n c o n t i n u o u s l y run- n i n g p o r t a b l e c a s s e t t e r e c o r d e r s ; a n d emergency b u i l d i n g communication s y s t e m s , when u s e d , were r e c o r d e d a s w e l l . P h o t o g r a p h i c and v i d e o - t a p e cameras a l s o p r o v i d e d u s e f u l r e c o r d s . E x t e n s i v e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , answered by s a m p l e s o f e v a c u e e s i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g e v a c u a t i o n o f two b u i l d i n g s , p r o v i d e d a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i n c l u d e d i n s i g h t i n t o e v a c u e e s ' i n t e r - p r e t a t i o n s o f one p a r t i c u l a r l y e x c i t e d and ambiguous announcement, made o v e r a p u b l i c a d d r e s s s y s t e m , s u g g e s t i n g a r e a l f i r e r e q u i r i n g r a p i d e v a c u a t i o n . A l t h o u g h n e i t h e r t h e Ottawa e v a c u a t i o n s t u d i e s n o r p r e v i o u s o n e s i n c l u d e d d e t a i l e d o b s e r - v a t i o n s o f e v a c u a t i o n i n c a s e s o f a c t u a l f i r e , i t seems r e a s o n a b l e ( a n d i n d e e d i s n e c e s s a r y ) t o u s e d e t a i l e d d a t a from e v a c u a t i o n d r i l l o b s e r v a t i o n s i n d e v e l o p i n g d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n a l m e a s u r e s f o r u s e i n a c t u a l h i g h - r i s e f i r e s . I t seems p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e Ottawa e v a c u a t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s b e c a u s e , i n c o n t r a s t w i t h p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s o f movement down s t a i r w a y s , t h e y w e r e c o n d u c t e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f modern h i g h - r i s e o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s . F u r t h e r m o r e , some o f t h e o b s e r v e d e v a c u e e s a r e known t o h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d t h e d r i l l s a s a c t u a l f i r e e m e r g e n c i e s . T o t a l E v a c u a t i o n An i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n s , where a l l b u i l d i n g o c c u p a n t s a t t e m p t t o e v a c u a t e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , i s t h e d e n s i t y o f e v a c u e e s on s t a i r s . D e n s i t y i s i n f l u e n c e d by i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e s i r e f o r s p a c e and i n t e r p e r s o n a l s e p a r a t i o n ( 1 5 ) . I n t h e o b s e r v e d t o t a l - e v a c u a t i o n d r i l l s most e v a c u e e s c h o s e t o occupy a s p a c e r e q u i r i n g an a v e r a g e of a b o u t 2 s t a i r t r e a d s o f a t y p i c a l 4 4 - i n . ( 1 . 1 2 m) w i d e e x i t s t a i r . Based o n t h e v e r y l i m i t e d b e h a v i o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e , i t i s p r e d i c t e d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s p e r c e i v i n g an immediate t h r e a t t o t h e i r s a f e t y m i g h t d e s i r e more s p a c e i n which t o move, t h u s p r o d u c i n g l o w e r d e n s i t i e s on s t a i r s ; a l t e r n a t e l y , i f more s p a c e were n o t a v a i l a b l e , t h e y m i g h t e x p e r i e n c e a d d i t i o n a l a n x i e t y .

Observed d e s c e n t s p e e d s , which v a r i e d a c c o r d i n g t o d e n s i t y ( F i g . l ) , r a n g e d from a b o u t 8 s t o r y s p e r m i n u t e f o r w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s t o 0 f o r crowd d e n s i t i e s e q u i v a l e n t t o 3 e v a c u e e s on e v e r y two 4 4 - i n . ( 1 . 1 2 m) wide s t a i r t r e a d s . A t t h e a p p a r e n t l y c o m f o r t a b l e d e n s i t y o f 1 e v a c u e e t o e v e r y 2 t r e a d s , t h e d e s c e n t s p e e d was a b o u t 4 s t o r y s p e r m i n u t e , t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f a b o u t 100 f t / m i n (30 m/min) a l o n g t h e s l o p e o f t h e s t a i r s .

F i g . 2 shows how f l o w s on s t a i r s , o r number o f p e o p l e p e r m i n u t e p a s s i n g a f i x e d p o i n t , a l s o v a r i e d a c c o r d i n g t o d e n s i t y , w i t h t h e h i g h e s t o b s e r v e d mean f l o w b e i n g a b o u t 30 p e r s o n s p e r m i n u t e p e r 22 i n . ( 0 . 5 6 m) o f s t a i r w i d t h . T h i s o c c u r r e d a t a n a v e r a g e d e n s i t y a b o u t 50% g r e a t e r t h a n t h e a p p a r e n t l y c o n f o r t a b l e d e n s i t y d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . During a t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n i n m i d w i n t e r , when e v a c u e e s wore b u l k y o u t d o o r c l o t h i n g , mean f l o w s were a b o u t 20 p e r s o n s p e r m i n u t e p e r 22 i n . ( 0 . 5 6 m) o f s t a i r w i d t h . The mean f l o w s i n a l l o t h e r o b s e r v e d d r i l l s a v e r - aged o n l y 24 p e r s o n s p e r m i n u t e p e r 22 i n . ( 0 . 5 6 m) o f s t a i r w i d t h . T h e s e f l o w s a r e much lower t h a n t h a t o f 45 p e r s o n s p e r m i n u t e p e r 22 i n . ( 0 . 5 6 m) o f s t a i r w i d t h f r e q u e n t l y m e n t i o n e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e and assumed by b u i l d i n g c o d e s .

F i g . 3 shows how o b s e r v e d crowd e v a c u a t i o n f l o w s i n c r e a s e i n p r o p o r t i o n t o s t a i r w i d t h , a c c o r d i n g t o a ramp f u n c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e s t e p f u n c t i o n ( w i t h 2 2 - i n . a n d 1 2 - i n . i n c r e m e n t s

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o f s t a i r w i d t h ) assumed i n b u i l d i n g c o d e s . (The t r a d i t i o n a l 2 2 - i n . " u n i t o f e x i t w i d t h t 1 con- c e p t i s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e NFPA L i f e S a f e t y Code ( 1 6 ) ) . The t r a d i t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t crowd movement i s most e f f e c t i v e w i t h a s h o u l d e r t o s h o u l d e r a r r a n g e m e n t o f p e o p l e on s t a i r s ( i . e . , 2 f i l e s on a 4 4 - i n . s t a i r ) . O b s e r v a t i o n s i n d i c a t e n o t o n l y t h a t s u c h h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d a r r a n g e - m e n t s a r e r a r e and a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o m a i n t a i n b u t a l s o t h a t f r e e r , l e s s - o r g a n i z e d a r r a n g e - m e n t s l e a d t o e f f e c t i v e f l o w s on a r a n g e o f s t a i r w i d t h s . I n r e c o g n i t i o n o f b o t h t h i s crowd movement phenomenon and t h e mean f l o w s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , i t i s recommended t h a t , w i t h c o n v e r s i o n t o m e t r i c , c o d e s a d o p t a s t a i r d e s i g n f o r m u l a t h a t assumes f l o w s o f 4 o r 5 p e r s o n s p e r m i n u t e p e r 0 . 1 3 m (4 i n . ) o f s t a i r w i d t h .

I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t a m i n o r c o n s t r i c t i o n i n t h e w i d t h o f t h e e g r e s s p a t h d o e s n o t s i g n i - f i c a n t l y r e d u c e e g r e s s f l o w . F o r example, a crowd d e s c e n d i n g a 4 8 - i n . ( 1 . 2 2 m) s t a i r c a n move t h r o u g h a 3 6 - i n . ( 0 . 9 1 m) doorway w i t h o u t r e d u c i n g f l o w below t h e 50 t o 60 p e r s o n s p e r m i n u t e s u s t a i n e d on t h e s t a i r a l o n e .

Based on e m p i r i c a l l y d e r i v e d d e n s i t y , s p e e d , a n d f l o w r e l a t i o n s , F i g . 4 shows how t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o c o m p l e t e t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n i s m a i n l y d e p e n d e n t on a c t u a l b u i l d i n g p o p u l a t i o n and a v a i l a b l e s t a i r w i d t h . By c o m p a r i n g p r e d i c t i o n s g i v e n by F i g . 4 w i t h a c t u a l t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n t i m e s measured i n 56 e x i t s t a i r s u s e d i n n o n w i n t e r t o t a l - e v a c u a t i o n d r i l l s i n O t t a w a , i t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t p r e d i c t i o n s made f o r n o n w i n t e r t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n w i l l b e a c c u r a t e t o w i t h i n p l u s o r minus 20% f o r 90% o f e v a c u a t i o n s . E v a c u a t i o n s i n which e v a c u e e s w e a r o r c a r r y b u l k y o u t d o o r c l o t h i n g c o u l d t a k e up t o 50% l o n g e r t h a n i s shown i n F i g . 4 . The l a c k o f p r e c i s i o n i n p r e - d i c t i n g t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n t i m e s f o r o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s r e f l e c t s t h e l i m i t e d knowledge a v a i l a b l e a b o u t a nwnber o f f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g e v a c u e e s ' e x p e r i e n c e w i t h p r e v i o u s d r i l l s and n o r m a l s t a i r u s e and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o r management a s p e c t s o f h i g h - r i s e e v a c u a t i o n s . T h e s e p r e d i c t i o n s a r e b a s e d on r e c e n t e v a c u a t i o n d a t a and s u g g e s t t h a t t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n w i l l r e q u i r e up t o t w i c e t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e s u g g e s t e d i n p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d p r e d i c t i o n s , b a s e d l a r g e l y on n o n e v a c u a t i o n d a t a ( 1 2 ) . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t a c t u a l p o p u l a t i o n s o f g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s a p p e a r t o b e t y p i c a l l y l e s s t h a n h a l f t h e number assumed i n b u i l d i n g c o d e s , and t h i s may o f f s e t p r e v i o u s o v e r - o p t i m i s m i n p r e d i c t i n g e v a c u a t i o n f l o w s and t i m e s .

An improved a b i l i t y t o p r e d i c t t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n t i m e s i s somwhat a c a d e m i c u n l e s s o t h e r f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f t h e t i m e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d . For e x a m p l e , when a s e r i o u s f i r e o c c u r s , how much t i m e i s a v a i l a b l e b e f o r e f l o o r a r e a s become smoke l o g g e d (17) a n d f o r what p e r i o d o f t i m e c a n e x i t s t a i r s b e u s e d by crowds o f e v a c u e e s b e f o r e smoke becomes psycho-

l o g i c a l l y o r p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y u n a c c e p t a b l e ? W i l l t h e u s e of an e x i t s t a i r f o r f i r e d e p a r t m e n t a c c e s s and f i r e - f i g h t i n g o p e r a t i o n s r u l e o u t t h e u s e by e v a c u e e s o f o n e o r more e x i t s t a i r s a f t e r 5 , 1 0 , o r 1 5 min? T r a d i t i o n a l l y , 7 t o 10 min h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a c c e p t a b l e a s a work- a b l e t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n t i m e , b u t t h i s c r i t e r i o n , l i k e many o t h e r s , i s i n n e e d o f r e - e x a m i n a t i o n . A l s o t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a r e e v a c u a t i o n p o s s i b i l i t i e s e n t a i l i n g more s e l e c t i v e u s e o f e x i t s t a i r - ways. Phased and P a r t i a l E v a c u a t i o n I n p h a s e d and p a r t i a l e v a c u a t i o n , e x i t s t a i r s a r e g e n e r a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r p e o p l e on t h e f i r e f l o o r and a d j a c e n t f l o o r s . The p h a s e d e v a c u a t i o n d r i l l s o b s e r v e d i n h i g h - r i s e o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s i n Ottawa i n c l u d e d s e q u e n t i a l e v a c u a t i o n o f o c c u p a n t s on some o r a l l o f t h e o t h e r f l o o r s , s t a r t i n g from t h e t o p , which c o u l d b e made u n t e n a b l e by smoke moved upwards a s a r e s u l t o f s t a c k e f f e c t ( 1 7 ) . P h a s i n g o r s e q u e n c i n g o f e v a c u a t i o n u s u a l l y r e s u l t e d i n much l o w e r evacuee d e n s i t i e s and f l o w s b u t h i g h e r d e s c e n t s p e e d s t h a n was t h e c a s e i n t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n .

A s i d e from t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s o f p r o v i d i n g w o r k i n g s y s t e m s f o r f i r e and smoke c o n t r o l and f o r communication, b o t h o f which make t h e more s e l e c t i v e a p p r o a c h e s t o e v a c u a t i o n p o s s i b l e , t h e r e a r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l , economic, l e g a l , and o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s n o t y e t r e s o l v e d . F o r example, s e l e c t i v e a p p r o a c h e s t o h i g h - r i s e e v a c u a t i o n a r e h e a v i l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e j u d i c i m s u s e o f communication s y s t e m s by t r a i n e d and e x p e r i e n c e d p e r s o n n e l from t h e b u i l d i n g f i r e emergency o r g a n i z a t i o n o r t h e f i r e d e p a r t m e n t t h a t t a k e s c h a r g e on a r r i v a l . Pre-programmed, r e c o r d e d p u b l i c a d d r e s s announcements h a v e some a d v a n t a g e s o v e r l i v e announcements ( 1 8 ) , b u t t h e y may c a u s e d i f f i c u l t i e s i f a c t i v a t e d by f a l s e a l a r m s o r by l e g i t i m a t e a l a r m s r e g i s t e r e d on a f l o o r o t h e r t h a n t h e f i r e f l o o r . T h e r e i s t h u s s t i l l a need f o r c o m p e t e n t p e r s o n n e l t o o p e r a t e communication equipment ( t o o v e r r i d e a u t o m a t i c s y s t e m s ) , a n d t h e i r t r a i n i n g p o s e s one o f s e v e r a l new c h a l l e n g e s i n o p e r a t i n g l a r g e h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s ( 1 9 ) .

I t i s i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p a r e n t t h a t f i r e s a f e t y i n l a r g e b u i l d i n g s r e q u i r e s competency, n o t o n l y i n d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n , b u t a l s o i n unjioi~rji o p e r a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g e d u c a t i o n o f b u i l d i n g

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u s e r s . T h i s i s r e f l e c t e d i n r e v i s i o n s of m a j o r f i r e c o d e s , s u c h a s New York C i t y ' s f i r e code r e v i s i o n , Local Law No. 5 . T h i s Law a p p l i e s t o a b o u t 800 h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s and r e q u i r e s d e s i g n and o p e r a t i n g m e a s u r e s , i n c l u d i n g management t r a i n i n g and c e r t i f i c a t i o n ( 6 ) .

T h e r e i s a n u r g e n t n e e d t o e v a l u a t e s u c h new m e a s u r e s i n a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s . V a r i o u s t y p e s o f f i e l d s t u d i e s , i n many b u i l d i n g s , a r e n e e d e d i f f i r e s a f e t y i s t o d e v e l o p i n a r a t i o n a l , c o s t - e f f e c t i v e manner. The O t t a w a e v a c u a t i o n - d r i l l o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e an example of s u c h e v a l u a - t i o n s . The need f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s u n d e r l i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f i n d i n g s d e s c r i b e d above r a i s e q u e s t i o n s a b o u t l o n g - h e l d , f i r e s a f e t y o p i n i o n s and e x i t - d e s i g n p r a c t i c e s . To some e x t e n t , r e s e a r c h on t h e b e h a v i o r o f p e o p l e i n f i r e s a l s o r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e v a l i - d i t y ' o f a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g p r e s e n t f i r e s a f e t y p r a c t i c e s .

BEHAVIOR OF PEOPLE IN FIRES

S c i e n t i f i c d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f o c c u p a n t b e h a v i o r i n b u i l d i n g f i r e s h a s b e e n r a r e ( 2 0 ) . Two r e c e n t r e p o r t s from t h e U.K. and t h e U.S. a d d r e s s t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e problem ( 1 0 , 1 1 ) . Both p o i n t o u t t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f e x i s t i n g knowledge, d e s c r i b e work i n r e l a t e d a r e a s s u c h a s d i s a s t e r s t u d i e s and e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y , and p r o v i d e some g u i d a n c e f o r more e x t e n s i v e s t u d y (now u n d e r way i n b o t h c o u n t r i e s ) .

The r e p o r t p u b l i s h e d b y t h e U . K . F i r e R e s e a r c h S t a t i o n i s s p e c i a l l y v a l u a b l e b e c a u s e q u e s - t i o n n a i r e r e s u l t s were u s e d t o h e l p d e s c r i b e t h e b e h a v i o r o f o v e r 2,000 p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n n e a r l y 1 , 0 0 0 f i r e s a t t e n d e d by f i r e b r i g a d e s . The v a r i o u s a c t i o n s t a k e n b y t h e s e p e o p l e were c r o s s - t a b u l a t e d w i t h p e r s o n a l , b u i l d i n g , and f i r e v a r i a b l e s . E v a c u a t i o n o f t h e b u i l d i n g s and movement t h r o u g h smoke were two i m p o r t a n t a r e a s o f i n t e r e s t , and many f i n d i n g s o f a d e s c r i p t i v e n a t u r e a r e l i s t e d i n t h e r e p o r t . I t s t a t e s , " I n g e n e r a l t e r m s t h e m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e a p p e a r e d t o h a v e behaved i n what niight b e c o n s i d e r e d an a p p r o p r i a t e f a s h i o n , a l t h o u g h some 5% o f t h e p e o p l e d i d s o m e t h i n g which was judged t o

'

i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k 1 " ( 1 0 ) .

" P a n i c " and o t h e r t e r m s s u g g e s t i n g h y s t e r i c a l , n o n a d a p t i v e , o r a n t i s o c i a l b e h a v i o r a r e o f t e n i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y u s e d i n b o t h n o n t e c h n i c a l and t e c h n i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f human b e h a v i o r i n f i r e e m e r g e n c i e s and d i s a s t e r s . L i m i t e d r e s e a r c h on b e h a v i o r i n f i r e s and more e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h on l a r g e - s c a l e d i s a s t e r b e h a v i o r s u g g e s t t h a t many common views o f emergency b e h a v i o r a r e un- j u s t i f i e d and t h a t t h e y may l e a d t o e r r o r s i n m e a s u r e s d e s i g n e d t o cope w i t h e m e r g e n c i e s ( 2 1 ) . W i t h i n t h e s p e c i f i c c o n t e x t o f h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g f i r e s , more b e h a v i o r a l s t u d i e s a r e n e e d e d t o e s t a b l i s h how b e s t t o u t i l i z e t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y a d a p t i v e a!ld manageable b e h a v i o r o f p e o p l e i n e m e r g e n c i e s .

CONCLUDING REMARKS

111 view of t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f s t u d y i n g liunian I ~ c h a v i o r , e s p e c i a l l y I n a c t u a l emergency s i t u a - t i o n s , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l o p i n i o n h a s p l a y e d a v e r y l a r g e r o l e i n s e t t i n g o u t and i m p l e m e n t i n g f i r e s a f e t y m e a s u r e s . Some o p i n i o n s a b o u t h i g h - r i s e f i r e s a f e t y h a v e changed d u r i n g t h e l a s t 5 y e a r s and o t h e r s may s o o n c h a n g e , p a r t l y a s a r e s u l t of r e c e n t r e s e a r c h .

O p i n i o n may b e d i v i d e d regarding t h e v a l i d i t y o f p r e d i c t i o n s f o r a c t u a l f i r e e v a c u a t i o n s b a s e d on i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d from e v a c u a t i o n d r i l l s

,

e s p e c j a 1 l y i n government o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s . There a p p e a r s t o b e a growing b e l i e f t h a t emergency b e h a v i o r and nonemergency b e h a v i o r n e e d n o t b e t o o d i s s i m i l a r i f t h e desibm and o p e r a t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s a r e b a s e d o n a v a i l a b l e t e c h n o l o g y . T h e r e i s a l s o a t r e n d , i n c r e a s i n g l y promoted by l e g a l and o t h e r p r e s s u r e s , f o r b u i l d i n g f i r e emergency o r g a n i z a t i o n s and p r o c e d u r e s t o b e s e t up i n nongovernnient o c c u p a n c i e s .

A c c e p t a n c e 1s growing o f f i r e emergency p r o c e d u r e s t h a t do n o t i n v o l v e t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n , and t h i s i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i n c r e a s i n g p r o v i s i o n o f s p e c i a l communication and c o n t r o l s y s t e m s i n h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s . Thc a c t u a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f s u c h p r o c e d u r e s and s y s t e m s r a i s e s d i f f i c u l t i e s , however, p a r t i c u I a r ? y f o r e x i s t i n g h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s . For e x m p l e , code w r i t e r s , e n f o r c e m e n t o f f i c i a l s , d e s i g n e r s , and c o n s u l t a n t s do riot d e a l s i m p l y w i t h r u l e s ; t h e y f a c e new a p p r o a c h e s t o d e s i g n , i n v o l v i n g rlew p e r f o r m a n c e s t a n d a r d s a n d new e q u i p m e n t . B u i l d i n g owners and managers a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y e n c o u r a g e d , o r r e q u i r e d , t o s e t up f i r e emergency o r g a n i z a t i o n s and p r o c e d u r e s w i t h o u t h a v i n g d e t a i l e d g ~ i i d e l i n e s and p e r h a p s w i t h o u t t h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f some t e n a n t s . F i r e s a f e t y m e a s u r e s must a l s o b e r e c o n c i l e d w i t h r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g measures f o r s e c u r i t y . O p e r a t i n g p e r s o n n e l a r e f a c e d w i t h new equipment s y s t e m s , some o f which w i l l b e r a r e l y needed b u t must b e m a i n t a i n e d t o meet p e r f o r n ~ a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t may t a x t h e knowledge e v e n o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e n g i n e e r s .

Those who may have been c o r ~ l r ~ l a c c n t a b o u t s a f e t y i n h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s h a v e r e c e n t l y been

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d i s t u r b e d ( t o a l a r g e l y unknown e x t e n t ) by p o p u l a r - m e d i a a c c o u n t s o f h i g h - r i s e f i r e t r a p s . Now, a n o t h e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l a d j u s t m e n t may b e r e q u i r e d t o make t h e h i g h - r i s e r e f u g e c o n c e p t w o r k . T h i s s i t u a t i o n i s f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t p e o p l e v i s i t , r e s i d e , and work i n d i f f e - r e n t b u i l d i n g s , e a c h w i t h a d i f f e r e n t f i r e emergency p r o c e d u r e .

The t a s k o f a c h i e v i n g h i g h - r i s e f i r e s a f e t y . i s complex. I t e n t a i l s c o o p e r a t i o n and comple- m e n t a r y m e a s u r e s i n a l l a r e a s o f b u i l d i n g d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n , b u i l d i n g management, o c c u - p a n t b e h a v i o r , and f i r e d e p a r t m e n t o p e r a t i o n . A s p a r t o f a s y s t e m a t i c a p p r o a c h t o f i r e s a f e t y , improved knowledge o f t h e human f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n e v a c u a t i o n s h o u l d l e a d t o b e t t e r d e c i s i o n s a b o u t f i r e s a f e t y o p t i o n s and improved a w a r e n e s s o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s and c o n s e q u e n c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e o p t i o n s .

REFERENCES

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Environment Interactions : E v a l u a t i o n and A p p l i c a t i o n s . The S t a t e o f t h e A r t T ~ n v i r o n - m e n t a l Design R e s e a r c h - 1 9 7 4 , P a r t 4 , p p . 1 4 7 - 1 6 8 . P u b l i s h e d by E n v i r o n m e n t a l D e s i g n ! i e s e a r c h A s s o c i a t i o n , I n c . , c / o S c h o o l o f A r c h i t e c t u r e , U n i v e r s i t y o f IVisconsin.

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Feb. 1 9 6 9 .

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1 4 . O f f i c e o f Dominion F i r e Commissioner, " F i r e Emergency O r g a n i z a t i o n s i n F e d e r a l Government Occupied B u i l d i n g s "

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1 7 . G.T. Tamura, "Computer A n a l y s i s of Smoke Movement i n T a l l B u i l d i n g s " , ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS 1 9 6 9 , Vol. 7 5 , P a r t 1 1 , p p . 81-93.

1 8 . E . F . L o f t u s , and J . P

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K e a t i n g , "The P s y c h o l o g y o f Emergency Communications", P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on F i r e s a f e t y i n H i g h - R i s e B u i l d i n g s , S e a t t l e , Nov. 1974, G e n e r a l S e r v i c e s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , P u b l i c B u i l d i n g s S e r v i c e .

1 9 . E . S . Hornby, " V o l u n t e e r F i r e S a f e t y Programs Pay High D i v i d e n d s f o r Government O f f i c i a l s 1 ' , C a n d i a n C o n s u l t i n g E n g i n e e r , V o l . 1 6 , No. 1 1 , N O V . 1 9 7 4 , p p . 3 0 - 3 1 . 20. J . L . B r y a n , "A S t u d y o f The S u r v i v o r s ' R e p o r t s on t h e P a n i c i n t h e F i r e a t A r u n d e l P a r k H a l l i n B r o o k l y n , Maryland, on J a n u a r y 2 9 , 1956", U n p u b l i s h e d P a p e r , F i r e P r o t e c t i o n C u r r i c u l u m , U n i v e r s i t y o f Maryland. 2 1 . E . L . Q u a r a n t e l l i , "Human B e h a v i o r i n D i s a s t e r " , P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t C o n f e r e n c e , D e s i g n i n g t o S u r v i v e D i s a s t e r , I I T R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , C h i c a g o , Nov. 1973.

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CLEMENT G . STEWART

(F.H.

S i e g f r i e d C o . , S p r i n g f i e l d V A ) : W i t h r e g a r d t o f i r e d e p a r t m e n t p e r s o n n e l u s i n g s t a i r s t o r e a c h f i r e l o c a t i o n , h a s t h e r e b e e n a n y e f f e c t o n e v a c u a t i o r l when smoke a n d / o r h e a t e n t e r s t h e s t a i r s ( a n d when s t a n d - p i p e s a r e u s e d w i t h l i n e s c h a r g e d , t a k i n g u p s t a i r s p a c e a n d w i t h p o s s i b l e w a t e r

l e a k a g e ) ?

J . L . PAULS: The downward f l o w o f e v a c u e e s i n d r i l l s was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f - f e c t e d i n t h o s e few c a s e s w h e r e s e v e r a l f i r e d e p a r t m e n t p e r s o n n e l u s e d t h e e x i t

s t a i r s t o r e a c h h y p o t h e t i c a l f i r e f l o o r s . The o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s ( i . e . , smoke, h e a t , c h a r g e d h o s e s ) d i d n o t o c c u r i n t h e e v a c u a t i o n s t u d y . Some i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e movement o f e v a c u e e s t h r o u g h smoke i n a c t u a l f i r e s was o b t a i n e d i n a r e c e n t B r i t i s h s t u d y ( R e f 1 0 i n t h e p a p e r ) . Q u o t i n g f r o m t h e r e p o r t o f t h e s t u d y , " I n i n c i d e n t s w h e r e smoke was p r e s e n t , 60% o f t h e p e o p l e a t t e m p t e d t o move t h r o u g h i t . N e a r l y 50% o f t h e s e p e o p l e moved 1 0 y a r d s o r m o r e " . T h e re-

p o r t a l s o n o t e s "A s u r p r i s i n g l y l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f p e o p l e move t h r o u g h smoke, a n a c t i o n w h i c h w e w e r e l e d t o b e l i e v e was f a i r l y r a r e . . . . T h e r e i s c e r t a i n l y room f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e r e a s o n s f o r a n d t h e c o n d i t i o i l s u n d e r w h i c h p e o p l e move i n t o smoke." A l a b o r a t o r y s t u d y by K e l l y e t a l . , " C o l l e c t i v e be- h a v i o u r i n a s i m u l a t e d p a n i c s i t u a t i o n " ( J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l S o c i a l P s y c h o l -

ogy,

1 9 6 5 , 1, p . 2 0 - 5 4 ) d e s c r i b e s s o c i a l f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o r when t h r e a t e n e d by smoke. More i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t . r e s p o n s e s t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s i n e g r e s s ( a n d a l s o r e f u g e ) i s n e e d e d .

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