Trade and Gender Nexus in the Context of Regional Integration: A Comparative Assessment of the East African Community (EAC)
and the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR)
U N I T E D N A T I O N S C O N F E R E N C E O N T R A D E A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
Trade and Gender Nexus in the Context of Regional Integration: A Comparative Assessment of the East African Community (EAC)
and the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR)
Geneva, 2019
This work is available open access by complying with the Creative Commons licence created for intergovernmental organizations, available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/.
7KHƄQGLQJVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVDQGFRQFOXVLRQVH[SUHVVHGKHUHLQDUHWKRVHRIWKHDXWKRUVDQGGRQRWQHFHVVDULO\
UHƅHFWWKHYLHZVRIWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQVRULWVRIƄFLDOVRU0HPEHU6WDWHV
7KHGHVLJQDWLRQHPSOR\HGDQGWKHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIPDWHULDORQDQ\PDSLQWKLVZRUNGRQRWLPSO\WKHH[SUHVVLRQ RIDQ\RSLQLRQZKDWVRHYHURQWKHSDUWRIWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQVFRQFHUQLQJWKHOHJDOVWDWXVRIDQ\FRXQWU\WHUULWRU\
FLW\RUDUHDRURILWVDXWKRULWLHVRUFRQFHUQLQJWKHGHOLPLWDWLRQRILWVIURQWLHUVRUERXQGDULHV 3KRWRFRSLHVDQGUHSURGXFWLRQVRIH[FHUSWVDUHDOORZHGZLWKSURSHUFUHGLWV
7KLVSXEOLFDWLRQKDVEHHQHGLWHGH[WHUQDOO\
8QLWHG1DWLRQVSXEOLFDWLRQLVVXHGE\WKH8QLWHG1DWLRQV&RQIHUHQFHRQ7UDGHDQG'HYHORSPHQW
UNCTAD/DITC/2019/2 H,6%1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
7KLVVWXG\ZDVSUHSDUHGE\DQ81&7$'WHDPLQFOXGLQJ1XUVHO$\GLQHU$YVDUOHDGDXWKRUDQG&KLDUD3LRYDQL 7KHVWXG\ZDVFRRUGLQDWHGDQGVXSHUYLVHGE\6LPRQHWWD=DUULOOL&KLHIRIWKH7UDGH*HQGHUDQG'HYHORSPHQW 3URJUDPPHDW81&7$'
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ... 5
2. LEGAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK ON GENDER EQUALITY IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR ... 7
3. GENDER IMPACT OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR ... 11
3.1. SOCIOECONOMIC CONTEXT ... 11
3.2. EDUCATION AND ACCESS TO RESOURCES AND OPPORTUNITIES ... 13
3.3. GENDER EMPLOYMENT EFFECTS OF TRADE INTEGRATION ... 22
3.3.1. TRADE STRUCTURE IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR ... 22
3.3.2. EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS ... 23
4. CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS ... 25
REFERENCES ... 27
NOTES ... 29
INTRODUCTION 5
1. INTRODUCTION
There is by now widespread recognition that trade SROLFLHV DUH QRW JHQGHUQHXWUDO &KDQJHV LQ D FRXQWU\pV WUDGH WDNH SODFH LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI VRFLDO DQG HFRQRPLF LQVWLWXWLRQV ZKLFK DUH HPEHGGHG LQ JHQGHU SRZHU UHODWLRQV 7KLV LQ WXUQ OHDGV WR D WZRZD\ UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ WUDGH DQG JHQGHU 2Q WKH RQH KDQG WUDGH OHDGV WR RXWFRPHV WKDW vary by gender.1:LWKLQDFRXQWU\PHQDQGZRPHQ are affected by international trade differently based RQ WKHLU YDULRXV HFRQRPLF UROHV DV ZDJH ZRUNHUV SURGXFHUV FRQVXPHUV DQG WD[SD\HUV :RPHQ DV ZDJH ZRUNHUV FDQ EHQHƄW IURP QHZ HPSOR\PHQW RSSRUWXQLWLHV XQGHU H[SDQGHG WUDGH LQ GHYHORSLQJ FRXQWULHV WKLV LV HVSHFLDOO\ REVHUYHG LQ ODERXU intensive sectors. This is often accompanied, KRZHYHU E\ ZRPHQpV VHJUHJDWLRQ LQWR ORZVNLOOHG VHFWRUV DQG ORZSD\LQJ MREV DV H[SRUWLQJ ƄUPV UHO\
RQ H[LVWLQJ JHQGHU ZDJH JDSV DQG FKHDS IHPDOH ODERXUDVDVRXUFHRIFRPSHWLWLYHVWUDWHJ\RQJOREDO PDUNHWV6WDQGLQJ6WDQGLQJ7KLVWUHQG NQRZQDVIHPLQL]DWLRQRIODERXU2 which was driven by ERWKƄUPVpFRVWFXWWLQJVWUDWHJLHVDQGWHFKQRORJLFDO changes that make physical strength less relevant, KDVPRUHUHFHQWO\EHHQUHYHUVHGDVDUHVXOWRIIXUWKHU WHFKQRORJLFDOXSJUDGLQJLQWKHPDQXIDFWXULQJVHFWRU ZKLFK KDV OHG WR D UHGXFWLRQ LQ WKH UHODWLYH ODERXU GHPDQGIRUZRPHQHPSOR\HHV$QXPEHURIIDFWRUV DUH LQVWUXPHQWDO LQ WKLV VRFDOOHG qGHIHPLQL]DWLRQ RI ODERXUrZKLFKLVSDUWLFXODUO\HYLGHQWLQPLGGOHLQFRPH GHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVWKHNH\GULYHUVLQFOXGHJHQGHU QRUPV GHVLJQDWLQJ VXFK SRVLWLRQV DV qPDVFXOLQHr WKHGHFOLQLQJZHLJKWRIODERXUFRVWVZLWKUHVSHFWWR FDSLWDOFRVWVDQGZRPHQpVOLPLWHGDFFHVVWRWUDLQLQJ DQGVNLOOGHYHORSPHQWSURJUDPV7HMDQLDQG0LOEHUJ
:RPHQ DV SURGXFHUV FDQ EHQHƄW IURP QHZ RSSRUWXQLWLHVXQGHULQFUHDVHGWUDGHWRWKHH[WHQWWKDW WKH\KDYHWKHFDSDFLW\WRSDUWLFLSDWHLQH[SRUWPDUNHWV LI WKH\ SURGXFH IRU WKH GRPHVWLF HFRQRP\ KRZHYHU WKH LQƅX[ RI FKHDS LPSRUWV LV FHUWDLQO\ HFRQRPLFDOO\
GDPDJLQJ:RPHQDVFRQVXPHUVRILPSRUWHGJRRGV FDQ EHQHƄW IURP FKHDS LPSRUWV RI IRRG DQG RWKHU FRQVXPSWLRQJRRGVZRPHQDVFRQVXPHUVRISXEOLF services can be adversely affected by social spending FXWV IROORZLQJ WKH ORVV LQ WDULII UHYHQXHV XQGHU WUDGH OLEHUDOL]DWLRQ ,I QHZ WD[HV DUH LQWURGXFHG WR FRPSHQVDWHIRUWKHORVVLQWDULIIUHYHQXHVZRPHQDV WD[SD\HUVPD\EHVXEMHFWWRWKHJHQGHUELDVLQKHUHQW
LQWD[V\VWHPVXQOHVVJHQGHUVHQVLWLYHPHDVXUHVDUH SXWLQSODFH81&7$'
2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG JHQGHU LQHTXDOLWLHV DIIHFW D FRXQWU\pV H[SRUW FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV DQG WUDGH SHUIRUPDQFH )RU H[DPSOH XQHTXDO GLVWULEXWLRQ RI UHVRXUFHV OLPLWHG DFFHVV WR LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG PDUNHWV JHQGHU ZDJH JDSV LQHTXDOLWLHV LQ DFFHVV WR HGXFDWLRQ DQG WUDLQLQJ DQG XQHTXDO VKDULQJ RI XQSDLG GRPHVWLF ZRUN DQG FDUH UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV OHDG WRGLIIHUHQWRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUPHQDQGZRPHQ7KHVH YDULRXV VRXUFHV RI JHQGHU LQHTXDOLW\ SXW ZRPHQ DW D GLVDGYDQWDJH YLV½YLV WKHLU PDOH FRXQWHUSDUWV 7KHVH DV\PPHWULHV KDYH UHSHUFXVVLRQV QRW RQO\ IRU ZRPHQDQGWKHLUKRXVHKROGVEXWDOVRIRUDFRXQWU\pV FRPSHWLWLYHQHVVDQGWUDGHSHUIRUPDQFH)RUH[DPSOH GXH WR H[LVWLQJ JHQGHU LQHTXDOLWLHV LQ WKH DFFHVV WR UHVRXUFHV DQG WUDLQLQJ ZRPHQ HQWUHSUHQHXUV RIWHQ ODFN WKH QHFHVVDU\ UHVRXUFHV DQG VNLOOV WR FOLPE XS JOREDOYDOXHFKDLQVDQGWHQGWRKDYHOHVVDFFHVVWKDQ PHQWRKLJKHUYDOXHDGGHGVHJPHQWVRISURGXFWLRQ 7KHVH PXOWLSOH FKDQQHOV RI LQWHUDFWLRQ EHWZHHQ trade and gender point to the need for a gender DQDO\VLV RI WUDGH SROLFLHV %HFDXVH RI GLIIHUHQFHV LQ socioeconomic characteristics, sectoral composition of the economy, geographical characteristics as ZHOO DV LQVWLWXWLRQDO DQG OHJDO VHWWLQJV ZKLFK LPSDFW JHQGHUHTXDOLW\LWLVFULWLFDOWKDWDJHQGHUDQDO\VLVEH FDUULHGRQDFDVHE\FDVHEDVLV5HJLRQDO(FRQRPLF
&RPPXQLWLHV5(&VSURYLGHLQWHUHVWLQJFDVHVWXGLHV JLYHQWKHLUH[SRUWRULHQWDWLRQDQGJLYHQWKHGLIIHUHQFHV in the socioeconomic characteristics of their member FRXQWULHV ZKLFK LQƅXHQFH WKH ZHOIDUH LPSDFW RI regional integration.
7KLVEDFNJURXQGSDSHUXVHVDFRPSDUDWLYHSHUVSHFWLYH WR HYDOXDWH WKH LQWHUSOD\ EHWZHHQ WUDGH DQG JHQGHU LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI UHJLRQDO LQWHJUDWLRQ HIIRUWV LQ $IULFD DQG/DWLQ$PHULFDXVLQJWKHFDVHVWXGLHVRIWKH(DVW
$IULFDQ&RPPXQLW\($&DQGWKH6RXWKHUQ&RPPRQ 0DUNHW0(5&2685UHVSHFWLYHO\7KHWUHDW\IRUWKH HVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKH($&ZHQWLQWRIRUFHRQ-XO\
IROORZLQJ LWV UDWLƄFDWLRQ E\ WKH RULJLQDO WKUHH PHPEHU FRXQWULHV3 5ZDQGD DQG %XUXQGL EHFDPH PHPEHUV
RQ-XO\DQG6RXWK6XGDQRQ}$XJXVW
7KH &XVWRPV 8QLRQ 3URWRFRO EHFDPH HIIHFWLYH LQ -DQXDU\DLPLQJWRHVWDEOLVKDFRPPRQH[WHUQDO WDULII RQ LPSRUWV IURP WKLUG FRXQWULHV DQG JUDGXDOO\
HOLPLQDWLQJLQWHUQDOWDULIIV7KHJUDGXDOSURFHVVIRUWKH HVWDEOLVKPHQWRIDFXVWRPVXQLRQZDVFRPSOHWHGLQ -DQXDU\
7KH($&&RPPRQ0DUNHWtWKHVHFRQGFRUQHUVWRQH RIWKHUHJLRQDOLQWHJUDWLRQSURFHVVtFDPHLQWRHIIHFW LQ-XO\ZLWKDQHPSKDVLVRQIXUWKHULQJWKHIUHH PRYHPHQWRIJRRGVVHUYLFHVODERXUDQGFDSLWDO7KH 3URWRFRO IRU WKH (VWDEOLVKPHQW RI WKH ($& 0RQHWDU\
8QLRQZDVVLJQHGLQ1RYHPEHU0RUHUHFHQWO\
WKH($&(OLPLQDWLRQRI1RQ7DULII%DUULHUV$FWHQWHUHG LQWRIRUFHLQ2FWREHULWWDUJHWHGWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQW RI D OHJDO IUDPHZRUN IRU WKH HOLPLQDWLRQ RI LGHQWLƄHG QRQWDULII EDUULHUV LQ PHPEHU FRXQWULHV 7KH XOWLPDWH JRDORIWKH($&LVSROLWLFDOtWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKH (DVW$IULFDQ)HGHUDWLRQ
7KH IRUPDWLRQ RI 0(5&2685 ZDV DOVR GULYHQ E\
both political and economic considerations. The goal was to signal the belief in the importance of both democracy and economic development to achieve KLJKHUVWDQGDUGVRIOLYLQJIRUWKHUHJLRQpVSRSXODWLRQ 7KHWUHDW\IRUWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRI0(5&2685ZDV VLJQHGE\$UJHQWLQD%UD]LO3DUDJXD\DQG8UXJXD\RQ 0DUFKLWWDUJHWHGWKHIRUPDWLRQRIDFRPPRQ PDUNHW D SURFHVV VHW WR EH FRPSOHWHG E\
7KHWUHDW\ZDVODWHUXSGDWHGRQ'HFHPEHU DQGIRUPDOL]HGWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIDFXVWRPVXQLRQ However, the process for the formation of a common PDUNHWDQGHYHQDFXVWRPVXQLRQKDVEHHQVORZHU than planned.
%\ GUDZLQJ XSRQ WKHVH FDVH VWXGLHV IURP WZR FRQWLQHQWV WKLV VWXG\ DGRSWV D FRPSDUDWLYH SHUVSHFWLYHWRH[DPLQHWKHWUDGHDQGJHQGHUQH[XV,W ƄUVWDVVHVVHVKRZJHQGHULQHTXDOLWLHVKDYHHYROYHGLQ WKHFRQWH[WRIUHJLRQDOLQWHJUDWLRQLQGLIIHUHQWGRPDLQV RI HFRQRPLF OLIH DORQJ ZLWK WKH VWDWXV RI OHJDO DQG SROLF\IUDPHZRUNVRQJHQGHUHTXDOLW\LWWKHQDQDO\VHV WKH LPSDFW RI WUDGH LQWHJUDWLRQ RQ JHQGHU LQHTXDOLW\
LQ HPSOR\PHQW LQ ERWK WKH ($& DQG 0(5&2685 6SHFLƄFDOO\ WKLV SDSHU H[DPLQHV ZKHWKHU WKHUH DUH important similarities or differences in the gender implications of regional integration across the two FRQWLQHQWV DQG LGHQWLƄHV SRVVLEOH GULYHUV RI WKHVH similarities or differences. Finally, based on this FRPSDUDWLYHDVVHVVPHQWWKLVSDSHUGLVFXVVHVSROLF\
recommendations for how to make regional integration PRUH JHQGHUUHVSRQVLYH )ROORZLQJ WKLV LQWURGXFWLRQ section 2 provides a comparative assessment of WKHOHJDODQGSROLF\IUDPHZRUNRQJHQGHUHTXDOLW\LQ HDFKUHJLRQDOVHWWLQJ6HFWLRQSUHVHQWVDQLQGHSWK DQDO\VLVRIWKHWZRZD\UHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQJHQGHU DQGWUDGHLQWKH($&DQG0(5&26855(&V6HFWLRQ FRQFOXGHVDQGSURYLGHVDQRYHUYLHZRIWKHDUHDVWKDW have proven to be effective for gender mainstreaming LQWUDGHDQGWKHDUHDVWKDWUHTXLUHIXUWKHUDFWLRQEDVHG RQWKHUHVXOWVSUHVHQWHGLQVHFWLRQVDQG
LEGAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK ON GENDER EQUALITY IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR 7
2. LEGAL AND POLICY
FRAMEWORK ON GENDER EQUALITY IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR
This section presents a comparative assessment of the legal provisions and policy framework on JHQGHU HTXDOLW\ LQ ERWK ($& DQG 0(5&2685 WKHVH SURYLVLRQV FRQVWLWXWH WKH OHJDO DQG LQVWLWXWLRQDO IUDPHZRUNXQGHUO\LQJJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHDFFHVV WRHGXFDWLRQUHVRXUFHVDQGRSSRUWXQLWLHV
International and national inputs for gender equality 7KH8QLWHG1DWLRQV&RQYHQWLRQRQWKH(OLPLQDWLRQRI
$OO)RUPVRI'LVFULPLQDWLRQDJDLQVW:RPHQ&('$:
DGRSWHGLQLVRIWHQUHIHUUHGWRDVDQLQWHUQDWLRQDO ELOORIULJKWVIRUZRPHQ$OOWKH($&PHPEHUVUDWLƄHG WKH &('$: ZLWKRXW UHVHUYDWLRQV ,Q WKH FDVH RI 0(5&2685 3DUDJXD\ DQG 8UXJXD\ UDWLƄHG WKH FRQYHQWLRQ ZLWKRXW UHVHUYDWLRQ $UJHQWLQD DQG %UD]LO DFFHSWHG LW ZLWK UHVHUYDWLRQ 7KH WZR FRXQWULHV GLG QRWFRPPLWWR$UWLFOHSDUDJUDSKZKLFKLVDERXW arbitration.
$W WKH UHJLRQDO OHYHO ($& DQG 0(5&2685 GLIIHU JUHDWO\ LQ UHJDUG WR FRQVLGHUDWLRQ RI JHQGHU LVVXHV RYHUWKHFRXUVHRIWKHLULQVWLWXWLRQDOGHYHORSPHQW7KH ($&7UHDW\UHFRJQL]HVJHQGHUPDLQVWUHDPLQJ$UWLFOH HDQGJHQGHUHTXDOLW\$UWLFOHGDVIXQGDPHQWDO SULQFLSOHVRIWKHFRPPXQLW\H[SOLFLWO\DFNQRZOHGJLQJ WKHUROHRIZRPHQLQWKHVRFLRHFRQRPLFDQGEXVLQHVV GHYHORSPHQWRIWKHUHJLRQ($&,QWKH (DVW$IULFDQ/HJLVODWLYH$VVHPEO\($/$DSSURYHGWKH (DVW $IULFDQ *HQGHU (TXDOLW\ DQG 'HYHORSPHQW %LOO which aims to harmonize legal and state obligations RQ JHQGHU LVVXHV DFURVV PHPEHU FRXQWULHV DQG WR IXUWKHU JHQGHUUHVSRQVLYH OHJLVODWLRQ SROLFLHV DQG programmes at both the national and regional levels ($66,
'LIIHUHQWIURPWKH($&0(5&2685GLGQRWLQFOXGH JHQGHU SURYLVLRQV LQ LWV IRXQGDWLRQDO WUHDWLHV WKH 7UHDW\ RI $VXQFLÐQ DQG WKH 7UHDW\ RI 2XUR 3UHWR ,Q 0(5&2685 JHQGHU PDLQVWUHDPLQJ KDV EHHQ WKH UHVXOW RI PRELOL]DWLRQ RQ WKH SDUW RI FLYLO VRFLHW\
t HVSHFLDOO\ ZRPHQpV RUJDQL]DWLRQV t LQ WKH FRQWH[W of United Nations conferences that increasingly recognized the central role of women and gender HTXDOLW\ LQ WKH SURFHVV RI HFRQRPLF GHYHORSPHQW
(VSLQR+RIIPDQ
,Q WKH &&6&6 &RRUGLQDGRUD GH &HQWUDOHV 6LQGLFDOHVGHO&RQR6XU:RPHQpV&RPPLVVLRQZDV IRXQGHG WR FDUU\ RXW PXOWLSOH DFWLYLWLHV LQ VXSSRUW RI ZRPHQVHQGLQJXSWRGDWHLQIRUPDWLRQWRDOOXQLRQV DQGZRPHQpVGHSDUWPHQWVDQGVHFUHWDULDWVVSUHDGLQJ DZDUHQHVV RI WKH FRQWHQW RI UHOHYDQW JHQGHUEDVHG OHJLVODWLRQ IRUPXODWLQJ DIƄUPDWLYH DFWLRQ SROLFLHV IRU ZRPHQ DGRSWLQJ WKH QHFHVVDU\ PHDVXUHV WR eliminate all forms of discrimination against women, and ratifying the ILO conventions.
,QWKH6SHFLDOL]HG0HHWLQJRI:RPHQ5HXQLÐn (VSHFLDOL]DGD GH OD 0XMHU 5(0 t LQFOXGLQJ ERWK government representatives and members of civil VRFLHW\ t ZDV HVWDEOLVKHG WR H[DPLQH WKH VLWXDWLRQ RI ZRPHQ LQ OLJKW RI WKH PHPEHU VWDWHVp QDWLRQDO OHJLVODWLYH UHJLPHV RQ HTXDOLW\ RI RSSRUWXQLWLHV ZLWK WKH JRDO RI KHOSLQJ VXSSRUW VRFLDO HFRQRPLF DQG FXOWXUDO GHYHORSPHQW 'XLQD 0RUH UHFHQWO\
WKH 5(0 DFTXLUHG PLQLVWHULDO VWDWXV LQ LW ZDV UHSODFHG E\ WKH :RPHQpV 0HHWLQJ RI 0LQLVWHUV DQG +LJK $XWKRULWLHV 50$$0 7KH 50$$0 LQFOXGHV government representatives for gender affairs from ERWK WKH PHPEHU FRXQWULHV DQG DVVRFLDWHG VWDWHV its mission is to propose policy recommendations to PRYHWRZDUGVJHQGHUHTXDOLW\(VSLQR
6LQFHWKHODWHVDQGHVSHFLDOO\VLQFHWKHV JHQGHU LVVXHV KDYH EHFRPH PRUH SURPLQHQW LQ 0(5&2685pVGHFLVLRQPDNLQJ7KHƄUVW0(5&2685 QRUPV RQ JHQGHU ZHUH IRXU PDQGDWRU\ UHVROXWLRQV LVVXHG LQ LQ OLQH ZLWK WKH %HLMLQJ 3ODWIRUP IRU $FWLRQ $PRQJ WKHP 5HVROXWLRQ GHƄQHV JHQGHU PDLQVWUHDPLQJ LQ 0(5&2685 6LQFH 0(5&2685 KDV DSSURYHG D JURZLQJ QXPEHU RI UHFRPPHQGDWLRQVDQGUHJXODWLRQVLQVXSSRUWRIJHQGHU HTXDOLW\JHQGHUHTXDOLW\SROLFLHVKDYHH[SDQGHGIURP DQ H[FOXVLYH IRFXV RQ HPSOR\PHQW WR HQFRPSDVV SROLWLFDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQGRPHVWLFZRUNUXUDOHGXFDWLRQ DQG JHQGHUEDVHG YLROHQFH +RIIPDQ 9 In SDUWLFXODULQWKH0(5&26853ROLF\*XLGHOLQHV IRU *HQGHU (TXDOLW\ 'LUHFWULFHV GH OD 3ROÊWLFD GH ,JXDOGDGGH*ÆQHURGHO0(5&2685PDQGDWHGWKDW UHJLRQDODJHQFLHVH[SOLFLWO\PDLQVWUHDPJHQGHULQWKH GHVLJQRIREMHFWLYHVSROLFLHVUHJXODWLRQVDQGDFWLRQV 0(5&2685
$W WKH QDWLRQDO OHYHO WKH FRQVWLWXWLRQV RI DOO ($&
FRXQWULHVFRQWDLQDFODXVHRQQRQGLVFULPLQDWLRQWKDW PHQWLRQV JHQGHU DQG D FODXVH RQ HTXDOLW\ $OWKRXJK FXVWRPDU\ ODZ LV FRQVLGHUHG D YDOLG VRXUFH RI ODZ XQGHUWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQLQ.HQ\D5ZDQGDDQG8JDQGD
FRQVWLWXWLRQDO QRUPV GRPLQDWH LI WKH\ FRQWUDGLFW FXVWRPDU\ODZ:RUOG%DQN$OO($&PHPEHU FRXQWULHV KDYH PLQLVWULHV UHVSRQVLEOH IRU JHQGHU HTXDOLW\ LVVXHV10 WKH\ DOVR LQFOXGH JHQGHU LVVXHV LQ WKHLU 1DWLRQDO 'HYHORSPHQW 9LVLRQV ZKLFK OD\ RXW ORQJWHUPGHYHORSPHQWVWUDWHJLHV
,Q WKH FDVH RI 0(5&2685 DOO FRXQWULHV UHFRJQL]H WKH ULJKW WR JHQGHU HTXDOLW\ LQ WKHLU FRQVWLWXWLRQV DV ZHOO $UJHQWLQD ZDV WKH ƄUVW FRXQWU\ LQ WKH UHJLRQ WR LPSOHPHQW D TXRWD V\VWHP WR VXSSRUW ZRPHQpV SDUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ QDWLRQDO SROLWLFV ,Q %UD]LO WKH /DERXU &RGH UHTXLUHV HTXDO SD\ IRU HTXDO ZRUN DQG SURKLELWVGLVFULPLQDWLRQ7KH&LYLO&RGHEURXJKW LPSURYHPHQWV LQ ZRPHQpV ULJKWV E\ SURYLGLQJ IRU JHQGHU HTXDOLW\ LQ WKH DFTXLVLWLRQ PDQDJHPHQW DQG DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ RI SURSHUW\ DFTXLUHG DIWHU PDUULDJH 6LPLODUO\3DUDJXD\PDQGDWHVHTXDOSD\IRUHTXDOZRUN SURYLGHVDVVLVWDQFHWRZRPHQZKRKHDGKRXVHKROGV DQGVXSSRUWVZRPHQpVDFFHVVWRSXEOLFIXQFWLRQV
$PRQJ0(5&2685FRXQWULHV8UXJXD\KDVPDGHWKH most noteworthy developments in its legal framework WRJXDUDQWHHJHQGHUHTXDOLW\7ZRLWHPVDUHHVSHFLDOO\
ZRUWKPHQWLRQLQJ)LUVWWKH/DZRQWKH 3URPRWLRQ RI (TXDOLW\ RI 5LJKWV DQG 2SSRUWXQLWLHV PDQGDWHG WKH LQFOXVLRQ RI D JHQGHU SHUVSHFWLYH LQ WKH GHVLJQ DQG LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ RI DOO SXEOLF SROLFLHV LQWKHFRXQWU\6HFRQGWKHt)LUVW1DWLRQDO 3ODQ IRU (TXDO 2SSRUWXQLWLHV DQG 5LJKWV LQGLFDWHG a set of ministerial commitments towards gender HTXDOLW\ ZKLFK LQFOXGHG WKH IROORZLQJ HPSOR\PHQW RSSRUWXQLWLHVDQGWUHDWPHQWLQWKHZRUNSODFHVH[XDO
KDUDVVPHQW YHUWLFDO DQG KRUL]RQWDO ODERXU PDUNHW VHJUHJDWLRQ WUDQVLWLRQ IURP LQIRUPDOLW\ WR IRUPDOLW\
DQG RSSRUWXQLWLHV IRU HQKDQFLQJ SURGXFWLYH FDSDFLW\
LQ XUEDQ DQG UXUDO DUHDV DQG DW WKH KRXVHKROG OHYHO 81&7$'
It is imperative to note that, despite the progress towards gender mainstreaming, large gender gaps DUHVWLOOREVHUYHGLQERWKUHJLRQV$QLPSRUWDQWIDFWRU H[SODLQLQJ WKH SHUVLVWHQFH RI JHQGHU GLVSDULWLHV DUH FXVWRPDU\ SUDFWLFHV ZKLFK VWLOO SRUWUD\ ZRPHQ DV VHFRQGWLHUSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHHFRQRP\
Gender equality scores
7DEOH SUHVHQWV VXPPDU\ VFRUHV RQ GLIIHUHQW GLPHQVLRQV RI JHQGHU HTXDOLW\ FDOFXODWHG E\ WKH :RUOG%DQNq$FFHVVWRLQVWLWXWLRQVrH[DPLQHV whether or not women are treated on a par with PHQZKLOHDSSO\LQJIRUDSDVVSRUWDQGDQDWLRQDO,' WUDYHOOLQJ RXWVLGH WKH FRXQWU\ DQG KRPH FKRRVLQJ where to live, signing a contract, registering a EXVLQHVV RSHQLQJ D EDQN DFFRXQW JHWWLQJ D MRE RU SXUVLQJDWUDGHSURIHVVLRQDQGEHLQJWKHOHJDOKHDG RIKRXVHKROGIDPLO\$OOPHPEHUVRI0(5&2685DQG .HQ\D5ZDQGDDQGWKH8QLWHG5HSXEOLFRI7DQ]DQLD LQWKH($&SURYLGHWKHVHULJKWVHTXDOO\IRUZRPHQDQG PHQ,Q%XUXQGLZRPHQFDQQRWEHWKHOHJDOKHDGVRI KRXVHKROGIDPLO\DQGLQ8JDQGDZRPHQFDQQRWDSSO\
for a passport in the same way as men. Overall, with D IHZ H[FHSWLRQV DFFHVV WR LQVWLWXWLRQV LV WKH PRVW VXFFHVVIXODUHDLQWHUPVRIOHJDOSURWHFWLRQVIRUJHQGHU HTXDOLW\LQERWKUHJLRQV
Table 1. Scores on different dimensions of gender equality in EAC and MERCOSUR members
Source: World Bank, Women, Business and the Law database, 2018 Note: Scores range between 0 and 100 with 100 being the highest one.
} Accessing
Institutions Using Property Providing
Incentives to Work Building Credit Getting a Job
Burundi 91 100 40 0 73
Kenya 100 80 80 25 74
Rwanda 100 100 60 25 63
United Republic of
Tanzania 100 60 80 25 86
Uganda 91 40 60 0 73
Argentina 100 100 100 50 63
Brazil 100 100 100 50 64
Paraguay 100 100 100 75 87
Uruguay 100 100 80 50 73
LEGAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK ON GENDER EQUALITY IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR 9
q8VLQJSURSHUW\rLVEDVHGRQZKRDGPLQLVWHUVPDULWDO SURSHUW\ ZKHWKHU RU QRW WKHUH DUH HTXDO RZQHUVKLS rights to immovable property, whether or not there DUH HTXDO ULJKWV WR LQKHULW DVVHWV IURP SDUHQWV DQG IURPDVSRXVHLQWKHFDVHRIDVXUYLYLQJVSRXVHDQG ZKHWKHURUQRWQRQPRQHWDU\FRQWULEXWLRQVDUHYDOXHG
$OO PHPEHUV RI 0(5&2685 DQG %XUXQGL11 and 5ZDQGDLQWKH($&KDYHPD[LPXPVFRUHVRQHTXDO ULJKWVWRXVLQJSURSHUW\,Q.HQ\DWKH8QLWHG5HSXEOLF RI 7DQ]DQLD DQG 8JDQGD IHPDOH DQG PDOH VXUYLYLQJ VSRXVHVGRQRWKDYHHTXDOULJKWVWRLQKHULWDVVHWV,QWKH 8QLWHG5HSXEOLFRI7DQ]DQLDDQG8JDQGDDGGLWLRQDOO\
VRQVDQGGDXJKWHUVGRQRWKDYHHTXDOULJKWVWRLQKHULW assets from their parents. In Uganda, the law also does QRWSURYLGHIRUYDOXDWLRQRIQRQPRQHWDU\FRQWULEXWLRQV 2YHUDOOPRVW($&PHPEHUVQHHGWRWDNHOHJDOVWHSV WRHQVXUHJHQGHUHTXDOLW\LQLQKHULWDQFHULJKWV'HVSLWH WKH H[LVWHQFH RI ODZV RQ HTXDO RZQHUVKLS ULJKWV WR SURSHUW\ DV GRFXPHQWHG LQ VHFWLRQ JHQGHU LQHTXDOLWLHV LQ WKH DFFHVV WR ODQG VWLOO SHUVLVW LQ ERWK ($&DQG0(5&2685LVVXHVZLWKLQKHULWDQFHULJKWV IRUWKH($&DQGWKHde-factoSUHYDOHQFHRIFXVWRPDU\
ODZRYHUFLYLOODZtHVSHFLDOO\LQUXUDODUHDVtDUHOLNHO\
WREHWKHGULYHUVRIWKLVRXWFRPHLQERWKUHJLRQV q3URYLGLQJ LQFHQWLYHV WR ZRUNr LV EDVHG RQ ZKHWKHU RUQRWZRPHQDUHJXDUDQWHHGDQHTXLYDOHQWSRVLWLRQ after maternity leave, whether or not the government VXSSRUWV RU SURYLGHV FKLOGFDUH VHUYLFHV ZKHWKHU RU QRWSD\PHQWVIRUFKLOGFDUHDUHWD[GHGXFWLEOHVSHFLƄF WD[ GHGXFWLEOHVFUHGLWV DSSOLFDEOH RQO\ WR PHQ DQG ZKHWKHURUQRWWKHUHLVIUHHDQGFRPSXOVRU\SULPDU\
HGXFDWLRQ0(5&2685PHPEHUVZLWKWKHH[FHSWLRQ RI 8UXJXD\ KDYH IXOO VFRUHV RQ SURYLGLQJ LQFHQWLYHV WRZRUN,Q8UXJXD\PRWKHUVDUHQRWJXDUDQWHHGDQ HTXLYDOHQWSRVLWLRQDIWHUPDWHUQLW\OHDYHZKHUHDVWKH other protections and rights are provided. In the case RIWKH($&WKHUHDUHGLVFUHSDQFLHVDFURVVPHPEHUV ZLWK UHVSHFW WR SURYLGLQJ LQFHQWLYHV WR ZRUN .HQ\D DQG WKH 8QLWHG 5HSXEOLF RI 7DQ]DQLD PHHW DOO WKH FULWHULDH[FHSWIRUPDNLQJSD\PHQWVIRUFKLOGFDUHWD[
GHGXFWLEOH7KLVLVDOVRQRWSURYLGHGLQWKHRWKHUWKUHH ($&PHPEHUV$GGLWLRQDOO\LQ5ZDQGDDQG8JDQGD WKHJRYHUQPHQWGRHVQRWVXSSRUWRUSURYLGHFKLOGFDUH VHUYLFHV,Q%XUXQGLEHVLGHVQRWPDNLQJSD\PHQWVIRU FKLOGFDUHWD[GHGXFWLEOHWKHODZGRHVQRWJXDUDQWHH DQHTXLYDOHQWSRVLWLRQDIWHUPDWHUQLW\OHDYHIRUZRPHQ DQG DERYH DOO SULPDU\ HGXFDWLRQ LV QRW IUHH DQG FRPSXOVRU\$OORIWKHVHJDSVLQWKHODZZLWKUHVSHFW WRJHQGHUHTXDOLW\LQZRUNLQFHQWLYHVDUHOLNHO\WRKDUP ERWK ZRPHQpV DQG PHQpV SDUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ WKH ODERXU PDUNHWHTXDOO\
q%XLOGLQJ FUHGLWr LV WKH VLQJOH DUHD LQ ZKLFK ERWK ($& DQG 0(5&2685 PHPEHUV VFRUH FRQVLVWHQWO\
EHORZRWKHUGLPHQVLRQV7KLVGLPHQVLRQVSHFLƄFDOO\
investigates whether or not the law prohibits discrimination in the access to credit by creditors RQ WKH EDVLV RI VH[ RU JHQGHU DQG PDULWDO VWDWXV DQG ZKHWKHU RU QRW UHWDLOHUV DQG XWLOLW\ FRPSDQLHV SURYLGHLQIRUPDWLRQWRSULYDWHFUHGLWEXUHDXVRUSXEOLF FUHGLWUHJLVWULHV2QDYHUDJH0(5&2685PHPEHUV VFRUH EHWWHU WKDQ ($& PHPEHUV ,Q 0(5&2685 3DUDJXD\PHHWVDOOWKHFULWHULDZLWKWKHH[FHSWLRQRI prohibiting discrimination by creditors on the basis RI PDULWDO VWDWXV ,Q $UJHQWLQD %UD]LO DQG 8UXJXD\
GLVFULPLQDWLRQ RQ WKH EDVLV RI VH[ RU JHQGHU DV ZHOO DV PDULWDO VWDWXV LV QRW SURKLELWHG HLWKHU ,Q WKH($&%XUXQGLDQG8JDQGDVFRUH]HURLQDOOIRXU FULWHULD IRU EXLOGLQJ FUHGLW .HQ\D 5ZDQGD DQG WKH 8QLWHG 5HSXEOLF RI 7DQ]DQLD RQO\ PHHW RQH RI WKH IRXUFULWHULDZKLFKLVUHODWHGWRSURYLGLQJLQIRUPDWLRQ WR SULYDWH FUHGLW EXUHDXV RU SXEOLF FUHGLW UHJLVWULHV 'LVFULPLQDWLRQEDVHGRQVH[JHQGHURUPDULWDOVWDWXV in the access to credit is a concern in both regions and needs to be addressed by appropriate legal actions.
)LQDOO\ qJHWWLQJ D MREr LV EDVHG RQ ZKHWKHU RU QRW WKHUH LV JHQGHU HTXDOLW\ LQ YDULRXV DVSHFWV of provision of maternity leave, whether or not there is parental leave, whether or not there is HTXDO UHPXQHUDWLRQ IRU ZRUN RI HTXDO YDOXH QRQ discrimination based on gender in employment, DQG HTXDO ZRUNLQJ ULJKWV LQGXVWU\ RFFXSDWLRQ WDVNVHWFDQGSHQVLRQULJKWVIRUZRPHQDQGPHQ 7KH 8QLWHG 5HSXEOLF RI 7DQ]DQLD LQ WKH ($& DQG 3DUDJXD\ LQ 0(5&2685 KDYH WKH KLJKHVW VFRUH Overall, scores are comparable across members in ERWKUHJLRQV3DLGSDUHQWDOOHDYHDQGƅH[LEOHZRUNLQJ KRXUV IRU SDUHQWV DUH QRW SURYLGHG LQ DQ\ RI WKH members in both regions. Paid leave is provided to ZRPHQIRUDWOHDVWZHHNVLQ%UD]LO3DUDJXD\DQG 8UXJXD\DQGIRUOHVVWKDQZHHNVLQ$UJHQWLQDRI 0(5&2685DQGLQDOO($&PHPEHUV7KHODZGRHV QRWPDQGDWHHTXDOUHPXQHUDWLRQIRUZRUNRIHTXDO YDOXH LQ %UD]LO DQG 8UXJXD\ LQ 0(5&2685 DQG LQ
%XUXQGLDQG5ZDQGDLQWKH($&2QO\LQ5ZDQGD DPRQJ ERWK ($& DQG 0(5&2685 PHPEHUV LV the dismissal of pregnant women not prohibited.
6LPLODUO\ RQO\ LQ $UJHQWLQD DPRQJ ERWK ($& DQG 0(5&2685PHPEHUVDUHZRPHQQRWDEOHWRZRUN LQ WKH VDPH LQGXVWULHV DV PHQ RU LQ MREV GHHPHG KD]DUGRXV DUGXRXV RU PRUDOO\ LQDSSURSULDWH LQ WKHVDPHZD\DVPHQ7KHVHƄQGLQJVVKRZWKDWD
FRXQWU\WKDWPLJKWSHUIRUPZHOOLQVRPHDUHDVPD\
not necessarily do well in some other key areas of OHJDO SURWHFWLRQ IRU JHQGHU HTXDOLW\ 7KLV LQGLFDWHV WKDWWKHOHJDOIUDPHZRUNRQJHQGHUHTXDOLW\QHHGV to be assessed from a holistic perspective.
Gender mainstreaming in trade policy
*HQGHU PDLQVWUHDPLQJ LQ WUDGH SROLF\ LV QHHGHG WR HQVXUH HTXDO DQG VXFFHVVIXO SDUWLFLSDWLRQ RI ZRPHQ DQGPHQLQWUDGHDQGWRHQVXUHWKDWJHQGHULQHTXDOLWLHV DW D PLQLPXP DUH QRW SHUSHWXDWHG WKURXJK WUDGH12 One way of doing so is mainstreaming gender in QDWLRQDO WUDGH SROLF\ GRFXPHQWV13 ,Q WKH ($& DOO PHPEHUVH[FHSW%XUXQGLKDYHQDWLRQDOWUDGHSROLFLHV 5ZDQGD DGRSWHG LWV QDWLRQDO WUDGH SROLF\ LQ 8JDQGD LQ WKH 8QLWHG 5HSXEOLF RI 7DQ]DQLD LQ
DQG .HQ\D LQ .HQ\D 5ZDQGD DQG WKH 8QLWHG 5HSXEOLF RI 7DQ]DQLD DOO PDNH UHIHUHQFH WR gender considerations in their national trade policies.
+RZHYHU WKH\ ODFN VXIƄFLHQW GHWDLO RQ WKH VSHFLƄF LQVWUXPHQWV WR VXSSRUW ZRPHQpV SDUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ WUDGH DQG UHGXFH JHQGHU LQHTXDOLW\ ,Q 0(5&2685
$UJHQWLQDDQG%UD]LOPDNHOLPLWHGUHIHUHQFHWRJHQGHU LVVXHV LQ WKHLU WUDGH SROLF\ UHYLHZV 3DUDJXD\
provides more details on gender considerations in its WUDGH SROLF\ UHYLHZ )LQDOO\ 8UXJXD\ GRHV QRW LQFOXGH DQ\ UHIHUHQFH WR HLWKHU JHQGHU RU ZRPHQ LQ LWVWUDGHSROLF\UHYLHZ2YHUDOOLQERWKUHJLRQV gender considerations are recognized to some degree LQ WKHLU QDWLRQDO WUDGH GRFXPHQWV KRZHYHU LW LV QRW FOHDUKRZDQGZKHWKHULQSUDFWLFHWKH\IHHGLQWRDFWXDO policymaking.
GENDER IMPACT OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR 11
3. GENDER IMPACT OF
REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR
7KH RXWFRPHV RI WKH WUDGH DQG JHQGHU QH[XV DUH FRQWH[WVSHFLƄFLQƅXHQFHGE\H[LVWLQJVRFLRHFRQRPLF VWUXFWXUHV DQG WKH OHJDO DQG LQVWLWXWLRQDO IUDPHZRUNV RQJHQGHUHTXDOLW\,WLVWKHUHIRUHQHFHVVDU\WRFDUU\
RXWDQLQGHSWKDQDO\VLVRIWUDGHDQGJHQGHULQHDFK 5(&WRLGHQWLI\WKHGLIIHUHQFHVDQGVLPLODULWLHVDFURVV the two regions and assess the potential factors that PLJKW XQGHUOLH WKHVH RXWFRPHV ,Q WKLV VHFWLRQ ZH begin with a comparative overview of socioeconomic SURƄOHV:HQH[WH[DPLQHH[LVWLQJJHQGHULQHTXDOLWLHV LQFDSDELOLWLHVLHHGXFDWLRQDQGDFFHVVWRUHVRXUFHV DQGRSSRUWXQLWLHVLHHPSOR\PHQWSDWWHUQVDFFHVV WR ODQG DQG FUHGLW WLPH XVH GHFLVLRQPDNLQJ DQG GLVFXVV WKHLU LPSOLFDWLRQV IRU WUDGH RXWFRPHV :H WKHQORRNDWWKHRWKHUVLGHRIWKHWZRZD\UHODWLRQVKLS and analyse the impact of trade integration on gender LQHTXDOLWLHV 6SHFLƄFDOO\ ZH LQYHVWLJDWH WKH JHQGHU impact of tariff liberalization on employment patterns LQ PDQXIDFWXULQJ LQ WKH WZR 5(&V DQG GLVFXVV WKH
ƄQGLQJV LQ UHODWLRQ WR WKHLU UHVSHFWLYH HFRQRPLF DQG WUDGHVWUXFWXUHV
3.1. Socioeconomic context
7KH($&DQG0(5&2685H[KLELWLPSRUWDQWGLIIHUHQFHV in their level of economic development and factor HQGRZPHQWVDVZHOODVLQWKHLUOHJDODQGLQVWLWXWLRQDO IUDPHZRUNV ,W LV XVHIXO WR PDNH D FRPSDULVRQ RI their basic socioeconomic characteristics to set the backdrop for the comparative analysis of gender and WUDGH 0(5&2685 RQ DYHUDJH KDV PRUH WKDQ VL[
WLPHVWKH*'3SHUFDSLWDRIWKH($&ZKLFKUHƅHFWVWKH PRUHDGYDQFHGOHYHORIGHYHORSPHQWLQ0(5&2685 WDEOH7KH($&DOVRODJVEHKLQGWKHDYHUDJH*'3 SHU FDSLWD RI VXE6DKDUDQ $IULFD 66$ ZKHUHDV 0(5&2685 WHQGV WR EH PRUH FRPSDUDEOH WR WKH DYHUDJH RI WKH /DWLQ $PHULFD DQG &DULEEHDQ /$&
UHJLRQ 7KH ($& IDFHV PXFK KLJKHU GHPRJUDSKLF SUHVVXUHRQODQGWKDQ0(5&2685ZLWKDSRSXODWLRQ GHQVLW\ RI SHRSOH SHU NP2, almost seven times WKH0(5&2685DYHUDJHDQGDOPRVWIRXUWLPHVWKDW RI 66$ 7KLV LV D SDUWLFXODUO\ SUHVVLQJ LVVXH LQ UXUDO areas with implications for the development of the DJULFXOWXUDOVHFWRU
EAC MERCOSUR Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)
Latin America &
Caribbean (LAC)
GDP (billion) 148.4 2815.5 1748.5 6026.8
GDP per capita 2345 14862 3459 14412
Population (million) 173 264 1061 644
Population density (people per km2) 161.0 23.3 44.9 32.1
Gini index a 42.6 49.6
Poverty ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP)
(% of population) a 46.2 42.3
Poverty ratio at $5.50 a day (2011 PPP)
(% of population) b 17.3 27.1
Table 2. Basic socioeconomic indicators
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators database (accessed on 3 August 2018).
Note: The regional averages for the EAC and MERCOSUR are calculated as weighted averages for each respective indicator using population as weights. GDP is calculated in constant 2010 US dollars; GDP per capita is measured in constant 2011 international United States dollars, based on purchasing power parity (PPP); population density is measured as persons per square kilometre of land area; and the poverty ratio refers to the poverty headcount ratio at US$5.50 a day (2011 PPP) for MERCOSUR and US$1.90 DGD\333IRUWKH($&$OO*'3DQGSRSXODWLRQƄJXUHVDUHUHSRUWHGIRUH[FHSWIRU*'3SHUFDSLWDIRU66$DQG/DWLQ America, which refers to 2016.
aLQ%UD]LODQGIRURWKHUVLQ0(5&2685LQ%XUXQGLDQG5ZDQGDLQ.HQ\DLQWKH8QLWHG5HSXEOLFRI Tanzania, and 2012 for Uganda in the EAC.
b 2015 in Brazil and 2016 in other MERCOSUR countries.
,QFRPHLQHTXDOLW\LVKLJKHULQ0(5&2685WKDQLQWKH ($& HYHQ WKRXJK LQHTXDOLW\ LV KLJK LQ ERWK UHJLRQV DFFRUGLQJ WR LQWHUQDWLRQDO VWDQGDUGV LH WKH *LQL LQGH[LVDERYHLQERWKWKH($&DQG0(5&2685
*LYHQWKHODUJHGLVFUHSDQF\LQ*'3SHUFDSLWDEHWZHHQ the two regions, different thresholds of poverty ratios DUHXVHGWRFRPSDUHSRYHUW\OHYHOV7KH($&H[KLELWV D KLJKHU UDWH RI SRYHUW\ WKDQ WKH 66$ DYHUDJH LQ FRQWUDVW0(5&2685SHUIRUPVEHWWHUWKDQWKH/$&
average. It is important to note that poverty is a less SUHVVLQJ LVVXH IRU 0(5&2685 WKDQ IRU WKH ($& LQ this regard, social assistance programs in the form of conditional cash transfers have been an effective LQVWUXPHQWIRUSRYHUW\UHGXFWLRQLQ0(5&2685 7KHVHFWRUDOFRPSRVLWLRQRIWKHHFRQRP\DOVRH[KLELWV important differences across the two regions. The HFRQRP\ RI 0(5&2685 LV GRPLQDWHG E\ VHUYLFHV } SHU FHQW IROORZHG E\ LQGXVWU\ } SHU FHQW DFFRUGLQJWRƄJXUHVIRUDJULFXOWXUHSOD\V D YHU\ OLPLWHG UROH ƄJXUH 7KH ODUJH VHUYLFH VKDUH REVHUYHG LQ 0(5&2685 HVSHFLDOO\ UHODWLYH WR WKH UHJLRQpVOHYHORIGHYHORSPHQWLVLQGLFDWLYHRISUHPDWXUH GHLQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQ 7KLV SURFHVV KDV EHHQ ODUJHO\
GULYHQE\&KLQDpVKLJKGHPDQGIRUSULPDU\SURGXFWV ZKLFK KDV LQGXFHG /DWLQ $PHULFDQ FRXQWULHV WR EHFRPHPRUHGHSHQGHQWRQWKHH[SORLWDWLRQRIQDWXUDO UHVRXUFHVDQGWRUHO\RQFKHDSPDQXIDFWXULQJLPSRUWV
FRPLQJ IURP &KLQD .LP DQG /HH 19 'HVSLWH LWV VPDOO VKDUH LQ WRWDO HFRQRPLF DFWLYLW\ DJULFXOWXUH SOD\V D NH\ UROH LQ 0(5&2685pV H[SRUW EDVNHW 0(5&2685RQO\WUDLOVWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV&DQDGDDQG
&KLQDDVWKHWKLUGODUJHVWSURGXFHURIPDMRUFURSVRQ JOREDOPDUNHWVLHVR\EHDQVFRUQULFHZKHDWDQG VXJDU0DUWLQVDQG2OLYHLUD
,Q WKH ($& VHUYLFHV GRPLQDWH HFRQRPLF DFWLYLW\ DV ZHOO } SHU FHQW t WKRXJK WR D OHVVHU H[WHQW WKDQ LQ 0(5&2685 t IROORZHG E\ DJULFXOWXUH } SHU FHQW DQG LQGXVWU\ } SHU FHQW $V LQ 0(5&2685 WKH DJULFXOWXUDO VHFWRU SOD\V D NH\ UROH LQ WKH H[SRUW VWUXFWXUH RI WKH ($& 7KLV LVVXH ZLOO EH IXUWKHU GLVFXVVHGLQVHFWLRQ
7KHLQGXVWULDOVHFWRUSURYLGHVDFRPSDUDEOHHFRQRPLF FRQWULEXWLRQLQERWKUHJLRQVLWVFRPSRVLWLRQKRZHYHU GLIIHUVVLJQLƄFDQWO\0DQXIDFWXULQJRQDYHUDJHPDNHV XSDURXQGKDOIRILQGXVWU\}SHUFHQWLQ0(5&2685 LQWKH($&LWFRUUHVSRQGVWRRQHWKLUGRIWKHLQGXVWULDO VHFWRU } SHU FHQW ,Q WKH ($& LQ IDFW WKH UROH RI mining has increased since the late 1990s.20 This has RFFXUUHG LQ 0(5&2685 WRR EXW WR D OHVVHU H[WHQW WKDQLQWKH($&&RQVLVWHQWO\SULPDU\SURGXFWVLH DJULFXOWXUHDQGPLQLQJUDQNDWWKHWRSRIPHUFKDQGLVH H[SRUWVLQERWKUHJLRQV,QtRQDYHUDJHJROG QRQPRQHWDU\WHDFRIIHHDQGYHJHWDEOHVZHUHWKH WRS H[SRUW SURGXFWV IRU WKH ($& WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ Figure 1. Sectoral composition of economic activity (per cent GDP)
Source: UNCTADStat database (accessed on 24 August 2018).
1RWH7KLVƄJXUHVKRZVWKHWRWDOYDOXHDGGHGE\NLQGRIHFRQRPLFDFWLYLW\DVDVKDUHRI*'3 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
1997-99 2014-16 1997-99 2014-16 1997-99 2014-16
Agriculture Industry Services
EAC MERCOSUR Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America & Caribbean
GENDER IMPACT OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR 13
LWHPV IRU 0(5&2685 ZHUH FUXGH SHWUROHXP RLOV RLO VHHGV IHHGLQJ VWXII IRU DQLPDOV LURQ RUHV DQG FRQFHQWUDWHV DQG VXJDU21 +LJKHU YDOXH DGGHG PDQXIDFWXULQJSURGXFWVUDQNDVWKHWRSPHUFKDQGLVH imports in both regions.22
2YHUDOO ERWK WKH ($& DQG 0(5&2685 VKDUH WKH FKDOOHQJH RI GHYHORSLQJ WKHLU PDQXIDFWXULQJ EDVH DQG IXUWKHUVWHSVQHHGWREHWDNHQIRULQGXVWULDOGHYHORSPHQW Within the services sector, wholesale and retail trade, and WRXULVPDQGWRDOHVVHUH[WHQWWUDQVSRUWVWRUDJHDQG FRPPXQLFDWLRQKDYHH[SDQGHGLQ0(5&2685RYHUWKH FRXUVHRIUHJLRQDOLQWHJUDWLRQ7KHVHVXEVHFWRUVKDYH H[SDQGHG VLJQLƄFDQWO\ LQ WKH ($& 7KHVH VHUYLFHV DUH in fact listed among the drivers of economic growth for ODQGORFNHGFRXQWULHVVXFKDV5ZDQGD81(&$
DQG8JDQGD:RUOG%DQN
,Q ERWK UHJLRQV PHUFKDQGLVH H[SRUWV DV D VKDUH RI
*'3GLGQRWVXEVWDQWLDOO\LQFUHDVHRYHUWKHFRXUVHRI regional integration.23 In contrast, merchandise imports LQFUHDVHG VXEVWDQWLDOO\ LQ DOO FRXQWULHV LQYROYHG ZLWK WKH H[FHSWLRQ RI %UD]LO ,Q OLQH ZLWK WKH H[SDQVLRQ RI the services sector in economy activity, services trade KROGVDVLJQLƄFDQWVKDUHRIWRWDOWUDGHLQWKH($&UHJLRQ ZKLOHLWUHPDLQVPXFKVPDOOHUWKDQPHUFKDQGLVHWUDGH LQ0(5&268581&7$'D81&7$'E 7KLVLQGLFDWHVWKDWVHUYLFHVWUDGHKDVDPRUHVLJQLƄFDQW FDSDFLW\WRERRVWIHPDOHHPSOR\PHQWLQWKH($&WKDQ LQ0(5&2685ZKHUHQRQWUDGDEOHVHUYLFHVGRPLQDWH the economic activity of the sector.
3.2. Education and access to resources and opportunities
*HQGHU LQHTXDOLWLHV LQ WKH GRPDLQV RI FDSDELOLWLHV HJ NQRZOHGJH KHDOWK HWF DFFHVV WR UHVRXUFHV DQG RSSRUWXQLWLHV HJ ODQG FUHGLW LQIUDVWUXFWXUH LQFRPH HPSOR\PHQW GHFLVLRQPDNLQJ SRZHU HWF DQGVHFXULW\LHYXOQHUDELOLW\WRYLROHQFHDQGFRQƅLFW PD\ UHQGHU ZRPHQ ERWK qVRXUFHV RI FRPSHWLWLYH DGYDQWDJHr DQG qXQGHUDFKLHYHUV RI FRPSHWLWLYH DGYDQWDJHrXQGHUWUDGHUHIRUPV81&7$')RU H[DPSOHJHQGHULQHTXDOLWLHVLQWKHODERXUPDUNHWVXFK DV RFFXSDWLRQDO JHQGHU VHJUHJDWLRQ DQG WKH JHQGHU ZDJH JDS PD\ VHUYH DV D FRVWFXWWLQJ VWUDWHJ\ IRU H[SRUWLQJƄUPVWXUQLQJZRPHQDVZDJHZRUNHUVLQWR qVRXUFHVRIFRPSHWLWLYHDGYDQWDJHr6LPLODUO\JHQGHU LQHTXDOLWLHV LQ DFFHVV WR UHVRXUFHV DQG HGXFDWLRQ WUDLQLQJ PD\ UHQGHU ZRPHQ DV SURGXFHUV DQG VPDOO HQWUHSUHQHXUV qXQGHUDFKLHYHUV RI FRPSHWLWLYH DGYDQWDJHr ,W LV FULWLFDO WR HQVXUH JHQGHU HTXDOLW\
IRU WKH HTXDO DQG VXFFHVVIXO SDUWLFLSDWLRQ RI ZRPHQ LQ WKH HFRQRP\ XQGHU WUDGH UHIRUPV $OWKRXJK DOO WKUHH GRPDLQV DUH UHOHYDQW ZH IRFXV RQ FDSDELOLWLHV PHDVXUHGE\HGXFDWLRQDQGDFFHVVWRUHVRXUFHVDQG RSSRUWXQLWLHV PHDVXUHG E\ HPSOR\PHQW DFFHVV WR ODQGDQGFUHGLWWLPHXVHDQGGHFLVLRQPDNLQJSRZHU VLQFHWKHIRFXVRIRXUDQDO\VLVLVRQZRPHQpVUROHVDV ZRUNHUVDQGSURGXFHUV:HGLVFXVVKRZFKDQJHVLQ JHQGHULQHTXDOLWLHVLQWKHVHGRPDLQVFRPSDUHDFURVV WKHWZRUHJLRQVDQGGLVFXVVWKHLUSRWHQWLDOLPSOLFDWLRQV IRU WUDGH RXWFRPHV $OWKRXJK VXFK DQ DVVHVVPHQW GRHV QRW SURYLGH D FDXVDO OLQN LW QHYHUWKHOHVV KHOSV REVHUYHKRZJHQGHULQHTXDOLWLHVKDYHHYROYHGGXULQJ the implementation of regional integration policies and how the two regions compare along these dimensions.
Education
%RWK 0(5&2685 DQG WKH ($& KDYH DFKLHYHG KLJK QHWHQUROPHQWUDWHVLQSULPDU\HGXFDWLRQ7KH($&
RXWSHUIRUPHG 66$ LQ SULPDU\ HGXFDWLRQ HQUROPHQW DQG HYHQ H[KLELWHG D KLJKHU HQUROPHQW UDWH IRU JLUOV WKDQ IRU ER\V ƄJXUH 0(5&2685pV SHUIRUPDQFH LV VLPLODU WR WKH /$& DYHUDJH LQ SULPDU\ HQUROPHQW DOPRVWWKHVDPHIRUJLUOVDQGER\VVHFRQGDU\DQG tertiary enrolment rates are higher for girls than boys, DQG ERWK DUH DERYH WKH /$& DYHUDJH 7KH JHQGHU HGXFDWLRQJDSLQWKHODERXUIRUFHFDQWKXVEHH[SHFWHG WR VKULQN LQ 0(5&2685 LQ WKH QHDU IXWXUH 7KLV LV also promising for the capacity of women to increase WKHLUHPSOR\PHQWLQQRQDJULFXOWXUDODFWLYLWLHV$VWKH ($&LQFOXGHVOHDVWGHYHORSHGFRXQWULHV/'&VZLWK WKH H[FHSWLRQ RI .HQ\D WKLV UHJLRQ KDV D ORQJHU road ahead in easing the transfer of primary school JUDGXDWHV WR VHFRQGDU\ DQG WHUWLDU\ HGXFDWLRQ ($&
SHUIRUPVVLPLODUO\WR66$LQVHFRQGDU\HQUROPHQWEXW LWODJVEHKLQGLQWHUWLDU\HGXFDWLRQ
Employment patterns
$JULFXOWXUH LV WKH PDLQ VHFWRU RI HPSOR\PHQW LQ WKH ($& DV LQ PRVW FRXQWULHV LQ VXE6DKDUDQ $IULFD 7KHUH}SHUFHQWRIZRPHQDQG}SHUFHQWIRU PHQDUHHPSOR\HGLQDJULFXOWXUHDFFRUGLQJWRUHJLRQDO DYHUDJHV IRU ƄJXUH (YHQ WKRXJK WKH VKDUH RI LQGXVWULDO HPSOR\PHQW LV VWLOO VPDOO LQ WKH ($&PHQKROGDPXFKKLJKHUVKDUHRIMREVLQLQGXVWU\
}SHUFHQWWKDQZRPHQ}SHUFHQW2YHUWKH FRXUVH RI UHJLRQDO LQWHJUDWLRQ ZRPHQpV HPSOR\PHQW has shifted towards services, and now their HPSOR\PHQWVKDUHLQVHUYLFHVLVFORVHWRWKDWRIPHQpV 1RQHWKHOHVV DJULFXOWXUH SUHVHUYHV LWV GRPLQDQFH LQ HPSOR\PHQWGXHWRORZODERXUSURGXFWLYLW\
Figure 2. School enrolment rate by gender (per cent)
Figure 3. Sectoral composition of employment by gender (per cent)
6RXUFH:RUOG%DQN:RUOG'HYHORSPHQW,QGLFDWRUVGDWDEDVHDFFHVVHGRQ$XJXVW
Note: EAC and MERCOSUR regional averages are calculated as weighted averages using male and female populations as weights.
3ULPDU\HQUROPHQWƄJXUHUHIHUVWRIRU3DUDJXD\DQG.HQ\DIRU%XUXQGLDQGIRU8JDQGDVHFRQGDU\HQUROPHQWƄJXUH UHIHUVWRIRU3DUDJXD\IRU.HQ\DDQGIRU8JDQGD6HFRQGDU\HQUROPHQWƄJXUHLVQRWDYDLODEOHIRUWKH8QLWHG5HSXEOLF RI7DQ]DQLD7HUWLDU\HQUROPHQWƄJXUHLVIRUIRU3DUDJXD\IRU8UXJXD\DQGIRU.HQ\D
6RXUFH,/26WDWGDWDEDVHDFFHVVHGRQ$XJXVW
1RWH(PSOR\PHQWƄJXUHVDUHEDVHGRQ,/2HVWLPDWHV($&DQG0(5&2685UHJLRQDODYHUDJHVDUHFDOFXODWHGDVZHLJKWHGDYHUDJHV for female/male sectoral employment shares using male and female employment as weights.
84.0 93.4 79.8 92.3 35.8 80.6 35.4 74.6 5.5 45.5 10.2 40.7
86.2 93.9 74.7 93.0 33.9 84.5 31.2 78.2 3.5 65.9 7.4 53.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
EAC MERCOSUR Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America EAC MERCOSUR Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America EAC MERCOSUR Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America
Primary enrolment (net) Seconday enrolment (net) Tertiary enrolment (gross)
Male Female
76.2 68.5 63.5
56.3
16.0 4.4
22.5 12.2
69.0
57.3 64.8 57.7
14.6 7.5
26.8 18.9 4.4
3.9 10.2 12.3
9.7 10.5
27.4 29.5
6.7 8.4
10.8 13.3
13.2 12.2
25.6 27.7
19.4 27.7 26.3 31.4
74.3 85.1
50.1 58.3
24.3 34.3 24.4 29.0
72.2 80.4
47.5 53.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1997-99 2015-17 1997-99 2015-17 1997-99 2015-17 1997-99 2015-17 1997-99 2015-17 1997-99 2015-17 1997-99 2015-17 1997-99 2015-17
Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male
EAC MERCOSUR Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America &
Caribbean Agriculture Industry Services
GENDER IMPACT OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR 15
:RPHQpVSURGXFWLYLW\LQDJULFXOWXUHODJVEHKLQGPHQpV Crop choice emerges as the main determinant of the DJULFXOWXUDO JHQGHU SURGXFWLYLW\ JDS LQ .HQ\D } SHU FHQWLQZKLFKLQGLFDWHVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRISROLFLHV VXFK DV FUHGLW DQG LQVXUDQFH LQWHUYHQWLRQV WR UHGXFH ULVNVWKDWSUHYHQWZRPHQIURPJURZLQJPDUNHWRULHQWHG FDVKFURSV*LWKLQMLHWDO,QJHQHUDOZRPHQIDFH YDULRXV REVWDFOHV VXFK DV OLPLWHG DFFHVV WR LQSXWV WHFKQRORJ\ DQG H[WHQVLRQ VHUYLFHV DORQJ ZLWK WLPH SRYHUW\DVIDUPHUVLQERWKVXEVLVWHQFHDQGFDVKFURSV :RPHQpV JUHDWHU VKDUH RI FKLOGFDUH UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV LV WKH PDLQ GULYHU RI WKH JDS LQ 8JDQGD } SHU FHQW LQ ZKLFK FDOOV IRU IXUWKHU SROLFLHV WR OLIW WKH EXUGHQRIXQSDLGFDUHZRUNLQDFRXQWU\ZLWKRQHRIWKH KLJKHVWIHUWLOLW\UDWHV$OLHWDO
,QH[SRUWFDVKFURSPDUNHWVVXFKDVWHDDQGFRIIHH WKH VKLIW WR SUHPLXPTXDOLW\ DQG KLJKYDOXH PDUNHW VHJPHQWV SXW FRPPHUFLDOO\ RULHQWHG IDUPHUV ZKR KDYHHDVLHUDFFHVVWRLQSXWVDQGPDUNHWLQJQHWZRUNV DW DQ DGYDQWDJH YLV½YLV VPDOOKROGHU IDUPHUV PDQ\
RIZKRPDUHZRPHQ3ROLFLHVWRVXSSRUWVPDOOKROGHU IDUPHUV LQ DFFHVVLQJ WKH PDUNHWV IRU KLJKHUYDOXH DGGHG SURGXFW VHJPHQWV DUH QHHGHG 81&7$'
&HUWLƄFDWLRQVFKHPHVDUHDQH[DPSOHRIXVHIXO policies. There is, indeed, empirical evidence on the SRVLWLYHJHQGHULPSOLFDWLRQVRIFHUWLƄFDWLRQIRU8JDQGD
&KLSXWZDDQG4DLP5ZDQGD(OGHUHWDO DQGWKH8QLWHG5HSXEOLFRI7DQ]DQLD/RFRQWR 6LPLODUO\LQVWDSOHIRRGFURSVPDUNHWVPHQFRQWLQXH WRGRPLQDWHSURGXFWLRQDQGPDUNHWLQJWKHUHLVQHHG IRUSROLFLHVWRVXSSRUWZRPHQpVDFFHVVWRODQGFUHGLW LQSXWV WUDLQLQJ H[WHQVLRQ VHUYLFHV DQG PDUNHWLQJ QHWZRUNV )RU H[DPSOH LQ WKH 8QLWHG 5HSXEOLF RI Tanzania, married women tend to grow cassava, an LPSRUWDQW VWDSOH FURS WR D OHVV H[WHQW DV LW LV WKH PDOHKRXVHKROGKHDGZKRPDNHVWKHGHFLVLRQVDERXW ODQG DOORFDWLRQ DQG RIWHQ DOORFDWHV IHZHU UHVRXUFHV WR FDVVDYD SURGXFWLRQ ,Q FRQWUDVW ZRPHQ ZLWK GHSHQGHQWVWHQGWRJURZFDVVDYDWRDJUHDWHUH[WHQW WR PHHW WKH IRRG VHFXULW\ QHHG RI WKH KRXVHKROG 0DVDPKD 7KHEH DQG 8]RNZH ,PSURYLQJ ZRPHQpVODQGWHQXUHULJKWVLVFULWLFDOWRKHOSLPSURYLQJ ZRPHQpV VD\ LQ SURGXFWLRQ DQG UHVRXUFH DOORFDWLRQ decisions.
,Q FRQWUDVW WR WKH ($& 0(5&2685pV HPSOR\PHQW has been dominated by services, as is typical in /DWLQ $PHULFD 7KLV SDWWHUQ KDV IXUWKHU LQWHQVLƄHG LQ WKHFRXUVHRIUHJLRQDOLQWHJUDWLRQ7KHVKLIWKDVEHHQ VWURQJHUIRUZRPHQWKDQPHQDFFRUGLQJWRƄJXUHVIRU
t}SHUFHQWRIZRPHQDQG}SHUFHQW RI PHQ ZHUH HPSOR\HG LQ VHUYLFHV LQ 0(5&2685 7KLV SKHQRPHQRQ UHƅHFWV WKH LQƅXHQFH RI ZRPHQpV UHODWLYHO\KLJKHGXFDWLRQLQ0(5&2685DVSUHVHQWHG LQ ƄJXUH ZKLFK KDV LQGXFHG ZRPHQ WR PLJUDWH WR XUEDQDUHDVWRWDNHRQVHUYLFHVMREV$VLQWKH($&
WKHUHLVDODUJHJHQGHUJDSLQLQGXVWULDOHPSOR\PHQWLQ 0(5&2685LQtRQDYHUDJH}SHUFHQW RI PHQ ZHUH HPSOR\HG LQ LQGXVWU\ ZKLOH WKH VDPH ƄJXUHIRUZRPHQZDVRQO\}SHUFHQW
2YHUDOO HPSOR\PHQW ƄJXUHV VKRZ WKDW DJULFXOWXUH DQG t WR D OHVVHU H[WHQW t VHUYLFHV GRPLQDWH IHPDOH HPSOR\PHQWLQWKH($&ZKHUHDVZRPHQFRQFHQWUDWH LQWKHVHUYLFHVVHFWRULQ0(5&26857KHJHQGHUJDS LQWKHVHFWRUDOGLVWULEXWLRQRIHPSOR\PHQWLVKLJKHULQ 0(5&2685 WKDQ LQ WKH ($& ,Q ERWK UHJLRQV WKHUH has been a marked shift of female employment away IURP DJULFXOWXUH WRZDUGV VHUYLFHV RYHU WKH FRXUVH RI UHJLRQDO LQWHJUDWLRQ ZKHUHDV LQGXVWULDO HPSOR\PHQW has only changed by a small margin. Hence, in both regions the process of regional integration has not led WR D VWURQJ ULVH RI HPSOR\PHQW LQ WUDGDEOH LQGXVWULDO sectors for both men and women.+RZHYHUWRXULVP DVSDUWRIWKHWUDGDEOHVHUYLFHVVHFWRULVDVLJQLƄFDQW VRXUFHRIHPSOR\PHQWIRUZRPHQLQERWKUHJLRQV 7KHVHUYLFHVVHFWRULVWKHPDLQVRXUFHRIHPSOR\PHQW IRU ZRPHQ LQ 0(5&2685 DQG WKH VHFRQG ODUJHVW VRXUFH RI HPSOR\PHQW IRU ZRPHQ LQ WKH ($& DV VKRZQ LQ ƄJXUH ,W LV WKHUHIRUH XVHIXO WR H[DPLQH KRZ ZRPHQ DUH GLVWULEXWHG DPRQJ GLIIHUHQW VXE sectors of services in comparison to men, and how WKHVH SDWWHUQV FKDQJHG LQ WKH FRXUVH RI UHJLRQDO LQWHJUDWLRQ 7UDGH LH ZKROHVDOH DQG UHWDLO WUDGH DQG UHSDLU DQG VHUYLFHV UHODWHG WR GRPHVWLF ZRUN LH DFWLYLWLHV RI SULYDWH KRXVHKROGV H[WUDWHUULWRULDO RUJDQL]DWLRQV DQG VHUYLFHV QRW HOVHZKHUH FODVVLƄHG DUHWKHWZRPDMRUVRXUFHVRIHPSOR\PHQWIRUZRPHQ LQ VHUYLFHV LQ 0(5&2685 WDEOH WKHVH MREV DUH characterized by a high degree of informality. Women DUHDOVRGLVSURSRUWLRQDWHO\FRQFHQWUDWHGLQHGXFDWLRQ KHDOWK DQG VRFLDO ZRUN 7KHVH ƄJXUHV VKRZ WKDW VHUYLFHV HPSOR\PHQW H[KLELWV D VLJQLƄFDQW GHJUHH RI gender segregation in line with the traditional gender GLYLVLRQ RI ODERXU LQ 0(5&2685 $V LQGLFDWHG LQ WDEOHLQWKHFRXUVHRIUHJLRQDOLQWHJUDWLRQWKHUHKDV EHHQVRPHVKLIWWRWRXULVPDQGƄQDQFHKRZHYHUWKH traditional gendered patterns of services employment VWLOO SHUVLVW 0HQ LQ VHUYLFHV DUH FRQFHQWUDWHG LQ WKH WUDGHVHFWRUWKLVLVIROORZHGE\WKHWUDQVSRUWVWRUDJH DQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQVDVZHOODVƄQDQFHVHFWRUV
:KROHVDOH DQG UHWDLO WUDGH LV WKH PDLQ VRXUFH RI services employment for both men and women LQ WKH ($& &URVVERUGHU WUDGH PRVWO\ GRQH E\
ZRPHQDQGLQIRUPDOO\IRUPVDVLJQLƄFDQWPHDQVRI VXVWDLQLQJOLYHOLKRRGVLQ(DVW$IULFD7RXULVPIRUPV the second most important services sector for ZRPHQLQOLQHZLWKWKHVLJQLƄFDQWUROHWKDWWRXULVP SOD\VLQVHUYLFHVWUDGHLQWKH($&+RZHYHUZRPHQ WHQGWREHVHJUHJDWHGLQWRORZHUVNLOOHGDQGKLJKHU ULVN MREV DV GRFXPHQWHG IRU .HQ\D &KULVWLDQ HW DO ,Q FRQWUDVW PHQ KROG D ODUJHU VKDUH RI KLJKHUVNLOOHG VHUYLFHV MREV VXFK DV WKRVH LQ WUDQVSRUW VWRUDJH FRPPXQLFDWLRQ ƄQDQFH DQG SXEOLFVHUYLFHV7KHVHSDWWHUQVKDYHEHFRPHPRUH HYLGHQWLQWKHFRXUVHRIUHJLRQDOLQWHJUDWLRQ*HQGHU segregation of services employment appears to EH OHVV VHYHUH LQ WKH ($& WKDQ LQ 0(5&2685 However, in both regions, women tend to hold ORZVNLOOHGVHUYLFHVMREVZLWKIHZHURSWLRQVLQKLJK VNLOOHGMREVLQWUDGDEOHVHFWRUV7KHVHƄQGLQJVSRLQW
MERCOSUR EAC
Male Female Male Female
2000s 2010s 2000s 2010s 2000s 2010s 2000s 2010s Wholesale and retail trade, and repair 19.0 18.9 16.0 17.5 10.5 11.1 7.1 11.0
Hotel and restaurants 3.1 3.5 4.2 5.8 1.1 1.3 2.8 4.7
Transport, storage and communications 7.9 8.6 1.4 1.8 3.0 4.8 0.1 0.3
Financial intermediation, real estate and
business activities 7.7 8.9 6.4 9.0 0.7 1.5 0.2 0.6
Public administration and defence;
compulsory social security 5.9 5.8 4.7 5.4 1.6 1.5 0.3 0.4
Education 2.1 2.6 11.1 11.1 2.1 2.6 1.3 2.1
Health and social work 1.7 2.0 7.1 8.0 0.6 0.7 0.6 1.0
Other community, social and
personal service activities 3.4 3.1 5.5 6.2 1.3 1.3 0.6 1.3
Activities of private households, extraterritorial
RUJDQL]DWLRQVDQGVHUYLFHVQRWHOVHZKHUHFODVVLƂHG 1.3 1.0 17.8 14.7 1.6 1.0 4.3 2.3 Table 3. Composition of services employment by subsectors and gender (per cent shares)
6RXUFH ,/26WDW GDWDEDVH DFFHVVHG E\ 81&7$' D LQ )HEUXDU\ DQG E\ 81&7$' E LQ 1RYHPEHU IRU MERCOSUR).
1RWH%XUXQGLDQG.HQ\DLQWKH($&DQG3DUDJXD\LQ0(5&2685FRXOGQRWEHLQFOXGHGLQWKHFDOFXODWLRQRIUHJLRQDODYHUDJHVGXH to data constraints. Regional averages are calculated as weighted averages for men and women using male and female employment as weights. Data refer to 2000 and 2010 for Argentina and Uruguay, to 2002 and 2014 for Brazil, to 2002 and 2012 for Rwanda, 2006 and 2014 for the United Republic of Tanzania, and 2003 and 2012 for Uganda.
at the role of gender norms and stereotypes that VXVWDLQJHQGHUVHJUHJDWLRQRIHPSOR\PHQW
:LWKLQWKHLQGXVWULDOVHFWRUPDQXIDFWXULQJW\SLFDOO\RIIHUV UHODWLYHO\KLJKHUZDJHVDQGPRUHVWDEOHMRESURVSHFWV FRPSDUHGWRDJULFXOWXUHDQGORZVNLOOHGVHUYLFHVVHFWRUV 0DQXIDFWXULQJFRQVWLWXWHVDODUJHUVKDUHRIHPSOR\PHQW for men than for women in both regions in line with the WUDGLWLRQDO JHQGHU GLYLVLRQ RI ODERXU ƄJXUH ,Q WKH ($&KRZHYHUWKHFRQWULEXWLRQRIPDQXIDFWXULQJWRWRWDO employment has increased for both men and women RYHU WKH FRXUVH RI UHJLRQDO LQWHJUDWLRQ HYHQ WKRXJK LW UHPDLQV TXLWH OLPLWHG ,Q FRQWUDVW LQ 0(5&2685 WKHUH LV HYLGHQFH RI GHLQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQ WKH VKDUH RI HPSOR\PHQWLQPDQXIDFWXULQJLQIDFWGHFOLQHGIRUERWK men and women.
,W LV XVHIXO WR H[DPLQH KRZ ZRPHQpV VKDUH LQ WRWDO PDQXIDFWXULQJ HPSOR\PHQW KDV HYROYHG RYHU WLPH WR VHH LI WKHUH KDV EHHQ D qIHPLQL]DWLRQ RI ODERXUr RU qGHIHPLQL]DWLRQ SURFHVVr IROORZLQJ
GENDER IMPACT OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR 17
Figure 4. Gender-based indicators of manufacturing employment
Source: ILOStat database (accessed on 3 September 2018).
Note: EAC and MERCOSUR regional averages are calculated as weighted averages for female/male sectoral employment shares XVLQJPDOHDQGIHPDOHHPSOR\PHQWDVZHLJKWV%XUXQGLDQG.HQ\DFRXOGQRWEHLQFOXGHGLQWKHFDOFXODWLRQRIWKH($&DYHUDJHGXH WRGDWDFRQVWUDLQWV7KHVUHIHUWRIRUDOOFRXQWULHVH[FHSWIRUWKH8QLWHG5HSXEOLFRI7DQ]DQLDDQG8JDQGD WKHVUHIHUWRIRU$UJHQWLQD3DUDJXD\DQG8UXJXD\WRIRU%UD]LOWRIRU5ZDQGDWRIRU8JDQGDDQGWR 2014 for the United Republic of Tanzania.
11.5 9.9
14.9 13.3
35.1 36.1
1.5 2.6 3.2 4.2
32.0
39.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
2000s 2010s 2000s 2010s 2000s 2010s
Manufacturing share of female employment
Manufacturing share of male employment
Female share of total manufacturing employment
MERCOSUR EAC
Figure 5. Composition of male and female employment by work status (per cent shares)
Source: ILOStat database (accessed on 14 August 2018).
Note: EAC and MERCOSUR regional averages are calculated as weighted averages for female/male sectoral employment shares XVLQJPDOHDQGIHPDOHHPSOR\PHQWDVZHLJKWV7KHVUHIHUWRIRUDOOFRXQWULHVH[FHSWIRU%XUXQGLDQGWKH8QLWHG 5HSXEOLFRI7DQ]DQLDWKHVUHIHUWRIRU$UJHQWLQD%XUXQGL3DUDJXD\DQG8UXJXD\WRIRU%UD]LOWRIRU 5ZDQGDWRIRU8JDQGDDQGWRIRUWKH8QLWHG5HSXEOLFRI7DQ]DQLD'DWDIRU.HQ\DDUH,/2HVWLPDWHV7KHFDWHJRU\RI qRWKHUrLVQRWSUHVHQWHGLQWKHƄJXUHEHFDXVHLWFRUUHVSRQGVWRDYHU\VPDOOVKDUHRIWRWDOHPSOR\PHQW
66.4 72.2
61.7 64.9
8.7 13.0
22.6 29.2
2.7
2.4
5.5 4.9
2.4 2.7
2.8
3.8
23.1 22.2
29.0 28.9
62.3
41.0
60.7 46.5
7.4 2.9 3.7 1.2
26.4
42.9
13.7 20.1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
2000s 2010s 2000s 2010s 2000s 2010s 2000s 2010s
Female Male Female Male
MERCOSUR EAC
Employees Employers Own-account workers Contributing family workers
LQFUHDVHG WUDGH OLEHUDOL]DWLRQ DV GLVFXVVHG LQ WKH LQWURGXFWLRQ )LJXUHV VKRZV D FOHDU SDWWHUQ RI IHPLQL]DWLRQ RI ODERXU LQ WKH ($& ZKLOH ZRPHQpV VKDUH LQ PDQXIDFWXULQJ HPSOR\PHQW UHPDLQHG DOPRVW WKH VDPH LQ 0(5&2685 LQ WKH FRXUVH RI UHJLRQDO LQWHJUDWLRQ :H HPSLULFDOO\ H[DPLQH WKH UROH WDULII OLEHUDOL]DWLRQ SOD\HG LQ WKLV RXWFRPH LQ VHFWLRQ}
)LQDOO\ ZH H[DPLQH KRZ WKH FRPSRVLWLRQ RI HPSOR\PHQW E\ ZRUN VWDWXV KDV FKDQJHG IRU men and women over time to gain insights on the TXDOLW\RIMREVJHQHUDWHGXQGHUUHJLRQDOLQWHJUDWLRQ policies.29'XHWRGLVSDULWLHVLQWKHOHYHORIHFRQRPLF GHYHORSPHQW WKH ($& DQG 0(5&2685 H[KLELW sharp differences in terms of employment by work VWDWXV ,Q WKH ($& WKH WZR IRUPV RI YXOQHUDEOH HPSOR\PHQW LH FRQWULEXWLQJ IDPLO\ ZRUNHUV DQG RZQ DFFRXQW ZRUNHUV GRPLQDWH WKH HPSOR\PHQW VWUXFWXUH HVSHFLDOO\ IRU ZRPHQ LQ 0(5&2685 HPSOR\HHV LH ZDJHVDODU\ ZRUNHUV FRQVWLWXWH WKH ODUJHVW VKDUH RI WRWDO HPSOR\PHQW ƄJXUH There is also a greater degree of gender segregation ZLWK UHVSHFW WR ZRUN VWDWXV LQ WKH ($& WKDQ LQ 0(5&2685 ,Q ERWK UHJLRQV WKHUH KDV EHHQ D GHFOLQHLQWKHVKDUHRIYXOQHUDEOHHPSOR\PHQWDQG DQLQFUHDVHLQWKHVKDUHRIHPSOR\HHVLQWKHFRXUVH of regional integration.
Figure 6. Incidence of account ownership by gender (per cent)
6RXUFH:RUOG%DQN:RUOG'HYHORSPHQW,QGLFDWRUVGDWDEDVHDFFHVVHGRQ$XJXVW
Note: EAC and MERCOSUR regional averages are calculated as weighted averages using male and female population as weights.
)LJXUHVDUHIRUIRU%XUXQGLDQGIRUIRUWKHUHVWRIWKHFRXQWULHV
64.1 52.9 36.9 52.0
67.8 62.6 48.4 58.6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
MERCOSUR EAC Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America &
Caribbean Female Male
Access to resources and opportunities
,QUHODWLRQWRDFFHVVWRUHVRXUFHVDQGRSSRUWXQLWLHV DFFHVVWRILQDQFHLVDNH\GLPHQVLRQ*LYHQWKDWRQ DYHUDJH ZRPHQ KROG IHZHU UHVRXUFHV DQG DVVHWV FRPSDUHGWRPHQDFFHVVWRILQDQFHLVSDUWLFXODUO\
LPSRUWDQWIRUZRPHQIDUPHUVDQGEXVLQHVVRZQHUV LQ VWDUWLQJ RU H[SDQGLQJ WKHLU IDUP RU HQWHUSULVH )LJXUH SUHVHQWV WKH LQFLGHQFH RI DFFRXQW RZQHUVKLSE\JHQGHUDWDILQDQFLDOLQVWLWXWLRQRUZLWK D PRELOH PRQH\ VHUYLFH SURYLGHU $V D UHIOHFWLRQ RI WKH JHQGHUELDVHG FXVWRPV DQG WUDGLWLRQV WKDW OLPLW ZRPHQpV DFFHVV WR ILQDQFH LQ ERWK WKH ($&
DQG0(5&2685ZRPHQRQDYHUDJHRZQDVPDOOHU VKDUH RI DFFRXQWV WKDQ PHQ %RWK 0(5&2685 DQG WKH ($& KDYH D KLJKHU LQFLGHQFH RI DFFRXQW RZQHUVKLS WKDQ WKH DYHUDJHV IRU /$& DQG 66$
UHVSHFWLYHO\7KHJHQGHUJDSLQDFFRXQWRZQHUVKLS LVKLJKHULQWKH($&WKDQLQ0(5&2685KRZHYHU EHWZHHQ DQG WKH ($& H[SHULHQFHG D PXFK ODUJHU LQFUHDVH LQ DFFRXQW RZQHUVKLS WKDQ 0(5&26857KHLQFUHDVHZDVPRUHWKDQWZRIROG IRU ERWK ZRPHQ DQG PHQ LQ WKH ($&
DFFRUGLQJWR:RUOG%DQNpV*OREDO)LQGH[GDWDEDVH 7KH VSUHDG RI PRELOH PRQH\ DFFRXQWV ZDV WKH PDLQGULYHURIWKLVLQFUHDVHZKLFKLQIDFWFRQVWLWXWH D VLJQLILFDQW SRUWLRQ RI DFFRXQW RZQHUVKLS LQ WKH ($&
19
Figure 7. Sources of and motivation for borrowing by gender (per cent)
6RXUFH:RUOG%DQN7KH*OREDO)LQGH[GDWDEDVH
Note: EAC and MERCOSUR regional averages are calculated as weighted averages using male and female population as weights, UHVSHFWLYHO\)LJXUHVDUHIRUIRU%XUXQGLDQGIRUIRUWKHUHVWRIWKHFRXQWULHV
7.4 8.6
3.1 6.1
8.9 12.5 7.8 9.7
9.4 14.1 23.1 29.0
36.7 42.4 12.3 16.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Female Male Female Male
EAC MERCOSUR
Borrowed to start, operate, or expand a farm or business Borrowed from a financial institution
Borrowed from a financial institution or used a credit card Borrowed from family or friends
GENDER IMPACT OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR
%RUURZLQJIURPIDPLO\RUIULHQGVLVWKHPRVWFRPPRQ IRUP RI FUHGLW LQ WKH ($& ZKLOH LW LV VHFRQGDU\ WR ERUURZLQJIURPDƄQDQFLDOLQVWLWXWLRQRUXVLQJFUHGLW FDUGV LQ 0(5&2685 ƄJXUH 7KH VKDUH RI WKH SRSXODWLRQ ERUURZLQJ IURP D ƄQDQFLDO LQVWLWXWLRQ LV VOLJKWO\ KLJKHU LQ WKH ($& WKDQ LQ 0(5&2685 HYHQ WKRXJK WKH\ DUH ERWK ORZ DW DURXQG } SHU FHQW +HQFH FUHGLW FDUG XVDJH LV YHU\ FRPPRQ LQ 0(5&2685 'HVSLWH WKH GLIIHUHQFHV DFURVV ERWK UHJLRQV RQH FRPPRQ IHDWXUH LV WKDW ZRPHQ consistently have lower shares of borrowing than PHQ 0RUHRYHU ERUURZLQJ IRU LQYHVWPHQW SXUSRVHV DOVRH[KLELWVDJHQGHUELDVLQOLQHZLWKWKHWUDGLWLRQDO gender regime that assigns women a secondary role LQSDLGHFRQRPLFDFWLYLW\DQGDSULPDU\UROHLQXQSDLG ZRUN $ ORZHU VKDUH RI ZRPHQ } SHU FHQW LQ WKH ($& DQG } SHU FHQW LQ 0(5&2685 ERUURZV WR VWDUW RSHUDWH RU H[SDQG D IDUP RU EXVLQHVV WKDQ PHQ } SHU FHQW LQ WKH ($& DQG } SHU FHQW LQ 0(5&2685 LQ ERWK UHJLRQV 2YHUDOO 0(5&2685 ODJVEHKLQGWKH($&LQWHUPVRIERWKWKHOHYHORIDQG WKHJHQGHUJDSLQERUURZLQJIRULQYHVWPHQWSXUSRVHV ZKLOHDFFHVVWRIRUPDOVRXUFHVRIFUHGLWVHHPVWREH PRUHSUHYDOHQWLQ0(5&2685WKDQLQWKH($&
/DQGLVDNH\DVVHWIRUDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLRQDQG LVFULWLFDOLQWKH($&DVHPSOR\PHQWLVGRPLQDWHG
E\ DJULFXOWXUHtHVSHFLDOO\ IRU ZRPHQtDQG DV DJULFXOWXUDOFRPPRGLWLHVDUHDPRQJWKHWRSH[SRUW SURGXFWV/DQGFDQEHDUHVRXUFHIRUVXEVLVWHQFH and cash crop farming and can act as a collateral for ERUURZLQJ$VDOVRGRFXPHQWHGLQVHFWLRQERWK ($&DQG0(5&2685PHPEHUVLQWURGXFHGODZVRQ HTXDOSURSHUW\RZQHUVKLSDQGVRPHDOVRRQHTXDO LQKHULWDQFHULJKWV'HVSLWHWKHVHOHJDOSURWHFWLRQV H[LVWLQJ FXVWRPV DQG WUDGLWLRQV FRQWLQXH WR LQKLELWZRPHQpVIXOOHQMR\PHQWRIWKHVHULJKWVDQG FRQWLQXHWROLPLWWKHLURZQHUVKLSRIDQGDFFHVVWR ODQGHVSHFLDOO\LQUXUDODUHDV)LJXUHSUHVHQWVWKH ILJXUHVRQWKHLQFLGHQFHRIDJULFXOWXUDOKROGHUVDQG ODQGRZQHUVIRUWKH($&DQG0(5&2685PHPEHUV for which data were available.30 There is a large JHQGHUJDSLQWKHLQFLGHQFHRIDJULFXOWXUDOKROGHUV E\ JHQGHU DFURVV ERWK UHJLRQV )RU H[DPSOH LQ
%UD]LO } SHU FHQW RI WRWDO KROGLQJV ZHUH KHOG E\
PHQ LQ *HQGHU JDSV LQ ODQG RZQHUVKLS DUH UHODWLYHO\VPDOOHUWKDQLQKROGLQJ$OWKRXJKLWLVQRW SRVVLEOHWRFDOFXODWHUHJLRQDODYHUDJHVGXHWRGDWD constraints, men on average hold an overwhelming FRQWURORYHUDJULFXOWXUDOODQGFRPSDUHGWRZRPHQ in both cases. This has adverse implications for ZRPHQ IDUPHUV WR WDNH DGYDQWDJH RI QHZ H[SRUW RSSRUWXQLWLHV WKDW DULVH XQGHU UHJLRQDO LQWHJUDWLRQ policies.
Figure 8. Incidence of agricultural holders and landowners by gender
Figure 9. Proportion of time spent on unpaid domestic and care work by gender (per cent of 24-hour day) Source: FAO, Gender and Land Rights database (accessed on 10 August 2018).
1RWH/DQGKROGHUƄJXUHUHIHUVWRIRU$UJHQWLQDDQGWKH8QLWHG5HSXEOLFRI7DQ]DQLDIRU%UD]LOIRU8JDQGDDQG IRU8UXJXD\/DQGRZQHUƄJXUHUHIHUVWRIRU3DUDJXD\IRUWKH8QLWHG5HSXEOLFRI7DQ]DQLDDQGIRU8JDQGD
Source: CEPALSTAT database for Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, World Bank, Gender Statistics database for the United 5HSXEOLFRI7DQ]DQLDDFFHVVHGRQ$XJXVWDQG81:RPHQIRU5ZDQGDDQG8JDQGD
1RWH($&DQG0(5&2685UHJLRQDODYHUDJHVDUHFDOFXODWHGDVZHLJKWHGDYHUDJHVXVLQJSRSXODWLRQDVDZHLJKW7LPHXVHƄJXUHV refer to 2013 for Argentina and Uruguay, 2012 for Brazil, 2016 for Paraguay, 2011 for Rwanda, 2014 for the United Republic of 7DQ]DQLDDQGIRU8JDQGD&RPSDUDEOHƄJXUHVDUHQRWDYDLODEOHIRU%XUXQGLDQG.HQ\D
16.2 12.7 19.7 19.7 16.3 27 45.2 49.6
83.8 87.3 63.5 80.3 83.7 69.9 54.8 50.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Argentina Brazil Uruguay United Republic
of Tanzania
United Republic
of Tanzania
Uganda Paraguay Uganda
Agricultural holder Agricultural landowner
Female Male
4.2 7.8
15.0 16.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
MERCOSUR EAC
Male Female
GENDER IMPACT OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR 21
Unpaid care and domestic work play a critical role in social provisioning. Under the traditional gender division RIODERXUZRPHQVKRXOGHUWKHEXONRIXQSDLGZRUNZKLFK XQGHUPLQHVWKHLUSRVLWLRQDQGEDUJDLQLQJSRZHULQWKH ODERXUPDUNHWOLPLWVWKHLUDFFHVVWRWUDLQLQJSURJUDPV DQGMHRSDUGL]HVWKHLUDFFHVVWRUHVRXUFHVDQGPDUNHWV ,WLVWKHUHIRUHLPSRUWDQWWRH[DPLQHWLPHXVHSDWWHUQVLQ DQ\ DQDO\VLV RI JHQGHU DQG WUDGH 6SHFLƄFDOO\ ZRPHQ VSHQGPRUHWKDQWKUHHWLPHVWKHDPRXQWRIWLPHPHQ VSHQGRQXQSDLGGRPHVWLFDQGFDUHZRUNLQ0(5&2685 DQGPRUHWKDQWZLFHWKDWRIPHQLQWKH($&ƄJXUH 8QHTXDO VKDULQJ RI XQSDLG GRPHVWLF DQG FDUH ZRUN UHPDLQVDVLJQLƄFDQWEDUULHUWRZRPHQpVSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQ the economy in both regions and needs to be taken into FRQVLGHUDWLRQIRUPDNLQJWUDGHSROLF\JHQGHUVHQVLWLYH 3URYLVLRQRIFKLOGFDUHVHUYLFHVE\WKHSXEOLFVHFWRURULQ SDUWQHUVKLSZLWKWKHSULYDWHVHFWRULQFOXGLQJWHPSRUDU\
FKLOGFDUHIDFLOLWLHVDWERUGHUFURVVLQJVFRXOGEHHIIHFWLYH PHDVXUHVWRFRQVLGHU
Figure 10. Indicators of decision-making
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators database (accessed on 10 August 2018).
Note: EAC and MERCOSUR regional averages are calculated as weighted averages using population as a weight. Firms with female WRSPDQDJHUƄJXUHVDUHIRUIRU%UD]LODQGIRUWKHUHVWRI0(5&2685PHPEHUVIRUIRU%XUXQGLIRU5ZDQGD DQG IRU WKH UHVW RI WKH ($& PHPEHUV 3URSRUWLRQ RI VHDWV KHOG E\ ZRPHQ LQ QDWLRQDO SDUOLDPHQWV ƄJXUHV DUH IRU DQG proportion of women in ministerial level positions are for 2016 for all of the countries.
21.3 15.8
17.4 14.7
23.7 19.4 7.0
27.0
29.3 24.2
15.6
33.4
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
Latin America & Caribbean Sub-Saharan Africa MERCOSUR EAC
Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments (%) Proportion of women in ministerial level positions (%) Firms with female top manager (% of firms)
$ FRPSOHWH H[DPLQDWLRQ RI ZRPHQpV UROHV LQ WKH HFRQRP\ DOVR UHTXLUHV HYDOXDWLQJ ZRPHQpV DFFHVV WR GHFLVLRQPDNLQJ LQ SROLWLFV ILUPV DQG ZLWKLQKRXVHKROGV7KH($&H[KLELWVDUHPDUNDEOH performance in political participation, partly WKDQNV WR SROLWLFDO TXRWDV LQWURGXFHG IRU QDWLRQDO parliaments and local governments, compared to ERWK0(5&2685DQG66$:RPHQKROG}SHU FHQW RI VHDWV LQ QDWLRQDO SDUOLDPHQWV DQG } SHU FHQWLQPLQLVWHULDOSRVLWLRQVLQWKH($&ILJXUH
&RQYHUVHO\0(5&2685ODJVEHKLQGWKH/$&LQDOO WKUHHLQGLFDWRUV,Q0(5&2685KRZHYHUZRPHQ hold a slightly higher share of managerial positions DW WKH ILUP OHYHO FRPSDUHG WR WKH ($& 2YHUDOO ZLWK WKH H[FHSWLRQ RI $UJHQWLQD 0(5&2685 has limited political participation of women while KROGLQJ PDQDJHULDO SRVLWLRQV FRQWLQXHV WR EH D PDMRUFKDOOHQJHIRUZRPHQLQERWKUHJLRQV
3.3. Gender employment effects of trade integration
7UDGH DIIHFWV JHQGHU LQHTXDOLWLHV DQG ZRPHQpV ZHOOEHLQJ WKURXJK PXOWLSOH FKDQQHOV DV GLVFXVVHG LQ WKHLQWURGXFWLRQ6LQFHFRPSDUDEOHGDWDLVDYDLODEOHRQO\
IRUHPSOR\PHQWZHIRFXVRXUDQDO\VLVRQWKHJHQGHU HPSOR\PHQW HIIHFWV RI WUDGH LQWHJUDWLRQ LQ HDFK 5(&
$FFRUGLQJWRVWDQGDUGWUDGHWKHRU\WUDGHOLEHUDOL]DWLRQ OHDGVWRDQH[SDQVLRQRIH[SRUWVDQGSURGXFWLRQLQORZ VNLOOHGODERXULQWHQVLYHVHFWRUVLQGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHV EDVHG RQ WKHLU FRPSDUDWLYH DGYDQWDJH 7KLV LQ WXUQ OHDGVWRDQLQFUHDVHLQWKHUHODWLYHGHPDQGDQGUHWXUQV WR IHPDOH ODERXU LH ERWK HPSOR\PHQW DQG ZDJH JDLQVVLQFHZRPHQDUHFRQVLGHUHGWRIRUPWKHEXONRI WKHORZVNLOOHGODERXUIRUFHLQWKRVHFRXQWULHV,QWHQVH FRPSHWLWLRQRQJOREDOPDUNHWVPD\DOVRLQGXFHƄUPVWR UHO\RQFRVWFXWWLQJVWUDWHJLHVDQGKLUHDFKHDSIHPDOH ZRUNIRUFHDVDVRXUFHRIFRPSHWLWLYHDGYDQWDJHWKDQNV WRWKHJHQGHUZDJHJDS,QWKLVVHFWLRQZHƄUVWH[DPLQH WKHFKDQJHVLQWUDGHVWUXFWXUHLQWKHFRXUVHRIUHJLRQDO integration and make a comparative assessment of the gender employment effects of regional integration in ERWK5(&V
3.3.1. Trade structure in the EAC and MERCOSUR
%RWK UHJLRQV VKRZ LPSRUWDQW VLPLODULWLHV ZLWK UHVSHFWWRWKHFRPSRVLWLRQRIH[SRUWVDQGLPSRUWV E\ SURGXFW JURXSV $FFRUGLQJ WR ƄJXUHV IRU t LQ ERWK UHJLRQV H[SRUWV DUH GRPLQDWHG E\ SULPDU\ SURGXFWV } SHU FHQW LQ WKH ($&
DQG } SHU FHQW LQ 0(5&2685 DQG UHVRXUFH EDVHGPDQXIDFWXUHV}SHUFHQWLQWKH($&DQG } SHU FHQW LQ 0(5&2685 ƄJXUH :KLOH D VKLIW WRZDUGV PDQXIDFWXULQJ DQG XQFODVVLƄHG SURGXFWV PDLQO\ QRQPRQHWDU\ JROG RFFXUUHG LQ WKHFRXUVHRI($&UHJLRQDOLQWHJUDWLRQWKHRSSRVLWH RFFXUUHG LQ 0(5&2685 ZKHUH PDQXIDFWXUHV ORVW WKHLU VKDUH LQ PHUFKDQGLVH H[SRUWV 7KLV ZDV PDLQO\ GULYHQ E\ WKH H[SDQVLRQ RI DJULFXOWXUDO DQG DJURLQGXVWULDO H[SRUWV VXFK DV FRUQ VR\EHDQ DQG ZKHDW GXH WR KLJK GHPDQG E\ &KLQD DQG RWKHU $VLDQ FRXQWULHV ZKLFK LV KLJKOLJKWHG DV D SUREOHPDWLFLVVXHRIFRQFHUQE\WKH8QLWHG1DWLRQV (FRQRPLF &RPPLVVLRQ IRU /DWLQ $PHULFD DQG WKH
&DULEEHDQ (&/$& ,Q FRQWUDVW LPSRUWV RI PHGLXP DQG KLJKWHFK PDQXIDFWXUHV FRUUHVSRQG WR } SHU FHQW RI WRWDO PHUFKDQGLVH LPSRUWV
Figure 11. Composition of exports and imports by product groups in the EAC and MERCOSUR (per cent)
6RXUFH81&7$'6WDWGDWDEDVHDFFHVVHGRQ6HSWHPEHU
1RWH $FFRUGLQJ WR WKH /DOO FODVVLƄFDWLRQ SULPDU\ SURGXFWV UHIHU WR DJULFXOWXUH DQG PLQLQJ SURGXFWV UHVRXUFHEDVHG PDQXIDFWXUHVUHIHUWRDJUREDVHGDQGRWKHUUHVRXUFHEDVHGSURGXFWVORZWHFKQRORJ\PDQXIDFWXUHVUHIHUWRWH[WLOHJDUPHQWIRRWZHDU etc.; medium-technology manufactures refer to automotive, process, and engineering products; high-technology manufactures refer WRHOHFWURQLFDQGHOHFWULFDOHWFSURGXFWVDQGXQFODVVLƄHGSURGXFWVUHIHUWRFRPPRGLWLHVDQGWUDQVDFWLRQVQRWHOVHZKHUHVSHFLƄHG
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
1997-1999 2015-2017 1997-1999 2015-2017 1997-1999 2015-2017 1997-1999 2015-2017
EAC MERCOSUR EAC MERCOSUR
Exports Imports
Primary products Resource-based manufactures
Low-technology manufactures Medium technology manufactures High technology manufactures Unclassified products
GENDER IMPACT OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN THE EAC AND MERCOSUR 23
LQ WKH ($& DQG WR } SHU FHQW LQ 0(5&2685 7KHVH FDWHJRULHV LQFOXGH DXWRPRWLYH SURFHVV HQJLQHHULQJ DQG HOHFWURQLFV SURGXFWV DQG KHQFH hint at reliance on imports as capital goods as well.
,PSRUWVRIUHVRXUFHEDVHGPDQXIDFWXUHVDOVRKROG DVLJQLƄFDQWVKDUHLQWKH($&PDLQO\UHVXOWLQJIURP LQWUD($& WUDGH 81&7$' D )LQDOO\ ERWK UHJLRQVGLGQRWVKRZDQ\VLJQLƄFDQWWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ LQ WKH FRPSRVLWLRQ RI LPSRUWV LQ WKH FRXUVH RI UHJLRQDO LQWHJUDWLRQ KHQFH UHOLDQFH RQ KLJK YDOXH DGGHGLPSRUWVFRQWLQXHVWREHDFKDOOHQJHIRUWKH LQGXVWULDOGHYHORSPHQWSURVSHFWVLQERWKUHJLRQV ,QWUD5(& WUDGH UHPDLQHG ZHDN LQ ERWK UHJLRQV DQG PRUH VR LQ 0(5&2685 0HUFKDQGLVH H[SRUWV ZLWKLQ WKH 5(& DV D VKDUH RI WRWDO PHUFKDQGLVH H[SRUWV LQFUHDVHG WR VRPH H[WHQW LQ WKH ($& IURP }SHUFHQWWR}SHUFHQWDQGGHFOLQHGVKDUSO\
LQ 0(5&2685 IURP } SHU FHQW WR } SHU FHQW EHWZHHQ t DQG t31 ,QWUDUHJLRQDO merchandise imports as a share of total merchandise LPSRUWVDUHKLJKHULQ0(5&2685WKDQLQWKH($&
however, their share in both regions fell over the FRXUVH RI UHJLRQDO LQWHJUDWLRQ32 This shows that ERWKUHJLRQDOLQWHJUDWLRQH[SHULHQFHVIHOOEHKLQGWKHLU H[SHFWHG RXWFRPHV ZLWK UHVSHFW WR WKHLU UHJLRQDO trade potential.
0HUFKDQGLVHH[SRUWVWRGHYHORSLQJHFRQRPLHVLQ$VLD GRPLQDWHGE\&KLQDDQG,QGLDLQFUHDVHGVLJQLƄFDQWO\
in both regions, replacing the dominance of traditional H[SRUW PDUNHWV LQ WKH (XURSHDQ 8QLRQ IRU ERWK WKH ($& DQG 0(5&2685 DQG LQ WKH 1$)7$ PHPEHUV IRU 0(5&2685 81&7$' D 81&7$'E 6LPLODUO\ 'HYHORSLQJ $VLD VXEVWDQWLDOO\ LQFUHDVHG LWV share in total merchandise imports, while imports from RWKHU UHJLRQV LQFOXGLQJ LQWUD5(& LPSRUWV ORVW WKHLU shares in total merchandise imports in both regions 81&7$'D81&7$'E:KHQZHORRNDW WKH FRPSRVLWLRQ RI LQWUD5(& PHUFKDQGLVH H[SRUWV ZH REVHUYH VRPH WHFKQRORJLFDO XSJUDGLQJ ZLWK D VKLIWIURPUHVRXUFHEDVHGWRZDUGVORZDQGPHGLXP WHFKQRORJ\ PDQXIDFWXUHV LQ ERWK UHJLRQV 81&7$' D81&7$'E
3.3.2. Empirical Analysis
7UDGH RSHQQHVV UHƅHFWV WKH LQƅXHQFH RI ERWK WUDGH SROLF\ DQG QRQSROLF\UHODWHG IDFWRUV VXFK DV LQFUHDVHGJOREDOL]DWLRQZKHUHDVWDULIIFKDQJHVUHƅHFW WKHLQƅXHQFHRIWUDGHSROLF\DVLWVPDLQLQVWUXPHQW7R assess the impact of trade integration on gendered HPSOR\PHQWSDWWHUQV81&7$'DDQG81&7$'
E H[DPLQHG KRZ VHFWRUDO WDULII FKDQJHV LQƅXHQFHG ZRPHQpV HPSOR\PHQW LQ PDQXIDFWXULQJ ƄUPVLQ($&DQG0(5&2685PHPEHUVUHVSHFWLYHO\
XVLQJWKHIUDPHZRUNLQ-XKQHWDODQG81&7$' 33:HUHO\RQWKHƄQGLQJVIURPWKHVHWZRVWXGLHV WRFDUU\RXWDFRPSDUDWLYHDVVHVVPHQW
6HFWRUDOWDULIIFKDQJHLVGLVWLQJXLVKHGDVH[SRUWWDULIIV WRDVVHVVWKHLPSDFWRIWDULIIFKDQJHVIDFHGLQH[SRUW PDUNHWV DQG DV LPSRUW WDULIIV WR H[DPLQH WKH HIIHFW of increased import competition in the domestic market. 7KH HPSLULFDO DQDO\VLV DOVR GLVWLQJXLVKHV between different trading partners to test whether the LPSDFW YDULHV DFURVV PDUNHWV GXH WR GLIIHUHQFHV LQ WUDGHGSURGXFWVRUVSHFLDOL]DWLRQSDWWHUQV($&$VLD 3DFLƄF(XURSHDQ8QLRQ66$DQGWKHZRUOGDUHWKH UHJLRQDO FDWHJRULHV XVHG IRU WKH ($& DQDO\VLV DQG /DWLQ$PHULFD1RUWK$PHULFD(XURSHDQ8QLRQDQGWKH ZRUOGDUHWKHRQHVIRU0(5&26857KHHVWLPDWLRQV DUH FDUULHG RXW IRU HPSOR\PHQW LQ SURGXFWLRQ DQG QRQSURGXFWLRQ WDVNV VHSDUDWHO\ WR FKHFN IRU DQ\
LQƅXHQFH RI WUDGHLQGXFHG WHFKQRORJLFDO XSJUDGLQJ ZKLFK UHGXFHV WKH QHHG IRU SK\VLFDOO\ GHPDQGLQJ VNLOOV DQG KHQFH LQFUHDVHV WKH UHODWLYH SURGXFWLYLW\
RI ZRPHQ LQ EOXHFROODU RU SURGXFWLRQ MREV -XKQ HW DO )LQDOO\ VHYHUDO ƄUP FKDUDFWHULVWLFV DUH LQWURGXFHGDVFRQWUROYDULDEOHV
$FFRUGLQJ WR WKH HPSLULFDO ƄQGLQJV VXPPDUL]HG LQ 7DEOHDUHGXFWLRQLQWDULIIVRQH[SRUWVRIWKH($&
DQG0(5&2685KDGDSRVLWLYHHIIHFWRQZRPHQpV HPSOR\PHQWVKDUHLQPDQXIDFWXULQJƄUPVDFURVVWKH ($& H[FHSW IRU %XUXQGL 81&7$' D DQG 0(5&2685 H[FHSW IRU %UD]LO 81&7$' E 7KLVHIIHFWZDVREVHUYHGRQO\IRUZRPHQSURGXFWLRQ ZRUNHUVZKLOHQRVLJQLƄFDQWHIIHFWZDVREVHUYHGIRU ZRPHQQRQSURGXFWLRQZRUNHUV+HQFHLWDSSHDUV WKDW WDULII OLEHUDOL]DWLRQ LQ H[SRUW PDUNHWV OHG WR D IHPLQL]DWLRQ RI WKH ODERXU IRUFH LQ EOXHFROODU MREV LQ ERWK UHJLRQV 7KLV ƄQGLQJ PLJKW EH LQGLFDWLYH RI WUDGHLQGXFHG WHFKQRORJLFDO XSJUDGLQJ ZKLFK LQFUHDVHV ZRPHQpV UHODWLYH HPSOR\PHQW RQO\ LQ EOXHFROODU MREV E\ UHGXFLQJ WKH UHTXLUHG SK\VLFDO strength. It might also be the case that women in SURGXFWLRQ WDVNV VHUYH DV D VRXUFH RI FRPSHWLWLYH DGYDQWDJHIRUH[SRUWLQJƄUPVWKDWWDNHDGYDQWDJHRI WKHH[LVWLQJJHQGHUZDJHJDSV
,PSRUWWDULIIOLEHUDOL]DWLRQGLGQRWKDYHDVLJQLƄFDQWHIIHFW RQ JHQGHU HPSOR\PHQW SDWWHUQV LQ ($& PHPEHUV 81&7$' D ,Q FRQWUDVW WUDGH OLEHUDOL]DWLRQ PHDVXUHGE\DUHGXFWLRQRIWDULIIVLPSRVHGRQLPSRUWV
ZDV IRXQG WR KDYH D QHJDWLYH HIIHFW RQ ZRPHQpV HPSOR\PHQW VKDUH LQ SURGXFWLRQ WDVNV LQ %UD]LO DQG 8UXJXD\ ZKLOH WKH HIIHFW ZDV SRVLWLYH LQ 3DUDJXD\
DQGRQZRPHQpVHPSOR\PHQWVKDUHLQQRQSURGXFWLRQ WDVNV LQ $UJHQWLQD DQG 3DUDJXD\ LQ 0(5&2685 DFFRUGLQJWRWKHHPSLULFDODQDO\VLV81&7$'E Women are more negatively affected by import FRPSHWLWLRQWKDQPHQLQ0(5&2685QRVLJQLƄFDQW gender employment effects from import competition DUHIRXQGLQWKH($&+RZHYHURQHVKRXOGQRWHWKDW 0(5&2685PHPEHUVZLWKWKHH[FHSWLRQRI3DUDJXD\
DFWXDOO\ H[SHULHQFHG DQ LQFUHDVH LQ DYHUDJH DSSOLHG WDULIIUDWHVLQPDQXIDFWXULQJSURGXFWVLQWKHSRVW HUD 81&7$' D 7KLV LPSOLHV WKDW WKH LQFUHDVH LQ DSSOLHG WDULIIV RQ LPSRUWV LQ IDFW LV H[SHFWHG WR KDYHDSRVLWLYHHIIHFWRQZRPHQpVHPSOR\PHQWVKDUH LQ PDQXIDFWXULQJ IRU WKH DERYHPHQWLRQHG FRXQWULHV This effect adds on top of the positive employment HIIHFW IRXQG IRU WDULII OLEHUDOL]DWLRQ LQ H[SRUW PDUNHWV
$W WKH VDPH WLPH VHFWLRQ GRFXPHQWHG D VPDOO increase in the share of female employment in the PDQXIDFWXULQJ LQGXVWU\ LQ 0(5&2685 ZKLOH WKH LQFUHDVHZDVPXFKVWURQJHUIRUWKH($&2YHUDOOWKH HPSLULFDOƄQGLQJVRQWKHLPSDFWRIWDULIIOLEHUDOL]DWLRQ RQ ZRPHQpV HPSOR\PHQW VKDUH LQ PDQXIDFWXULQJ ƄUPVDUHFRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKHSRVLWLYHWUHQGLQIHPDOH HPSOR\PHQW VKDUH LQ PDQXIDFWXULQJ LQ WKH ($& ,Q contrast, the fact that there was a small increase
The Impact of a reduction in…
Export tariffs Import tariffs
On women’s employment share in
PDQXIDFWXULQJƂUPVDPRQJf EAC MERCOSUR EAC MERCOSUR
Total workers +
(all except Burundi) +
(all except Brazil) ,QVLJQLƂFDQW ,QVLJQLƂFDQW
Production workers +
(all except Burundi) +
(all except Brazil) ,QVLJQLƂFDQW - (Brazil, Uruguay);
+ (Paraguay)
Non-production workers ,QVLJQLƂFDQW ,QVLJQLƂFDQW ,QVLJQLƂFDQW - (Argentina, Paraguay) 7DEOH6XPPDU\RIHPSLULFDOƂQGLQJV
Source: UNCTAD Secretariat compilation based on UNCTAD (2018a) and UNCTAD (2018b)
LQ WKH IHPDOH HPSOR\PHQW VKDUH LQ PDQXIDFWXULQJ LQ 0(5&2685 DV GRFXPHQWHG LQ VHFWLRQ LPSOLHVWKDWRWKHUIDFWRUVHJSULYDWL]DWLRQƄQDQFLDO OLEHUDOL]DWLRQGRPHVWLFSROLFLHVVXFKDVGHUHJXODWLRQ HWF PLJKW KDYH EDODQFHG RXW WKH H[SHFWHG SRVLWLYH HPSOR\PHQWERRVWIURPWDULIIFKDQJHVLQPDQXIDFWXULQJ LQ0(5&2685EDVHGRQWKHHPSLULFDOƄQGLQJV )LQDOO\ ZKHQ GLVWLQJXLVKHG E\ WUDGLQJ SDUWQHUV WKH HIIHFWVVKRZGLIIHUHQFHVDFURVVUHJLRQV,QWKH($&
WDULII OLEHUDOL]DWLRQ LQ H[SRUW PDUNHWV LQ WKH $VLD 3DFLƄF UHJLRQ DQG WKH (XURSHDQ 8QLRQ KDV D VLPLODU EXWVPDOOHUSRVLWLYHHIIHFWRQWKHIHPDOHHPSOR\PHQW VKDUHLQSURGXFWLRQWDVNVRQO\,WVHHPVWREHWKHFDVH WKDW WKH VKLIW RI H[SRUW VWUXFWXUH IURP WKH (XURSHDQ 8QLRQWR'HYHORSLQJ$VLDOHDGWRVLPLODURXWFRPHVIRU JHQGHUHPSOR\PHQWSDWWHUQVLQWKH($&7KLVLVQRW VXUSULVLQJJLYHQWKHVLPLODUFRPSRVLWLRQRI($&H[SRUWV WR WKHVH UHJLRQV 81&7$' D ,Q 0(5&2685 WDULIIOLEHUDOL]DWLRQLQH[SRUWPDUNHWVLQ1RUWK$PHULFD KDGDQHJDWLYHHIIHFWRQZRPHQpVHPSOR\PHQWVKDUH LQSURGXFWLRQWDVNVZKLOHWKHRSSRVLWHLVWUXHIRUH[SRUW PDUNHWVLQ/DWLQ$PHULFD7KLVPLJKWEHEHFDXVHƄUPV H[SRUWLQJWR1RUWK$PHULFDPLJKWEHPRUHHIƄFLHQWRU ELJJHU DQG PLJKW EH H[SRUWLQJ SURGXFWV ZLWK KLJKHU YDOXH DGGHG WKDQ WKRVH H[SRUWLQJ WR /DWLQ $PHULFD hence, they might be attracting relatively more male ZRUNHUVSRWHQWLDOO\OHDGLQJWRGHIHPLQL]DWLRQRIODERXU
