Algerian Arabic Varieties Speakers’ Errors in English Writings “A Contrastive Error Analysis Study”

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PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ALGERIA

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION

AND .

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

UNIVERSITY OF ORAN 2 AHMED BEN AHMED

FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for

The Doctorate Degree in

Linguistics

SUBMITTED BY UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF Mr. HEMAIDIA Mohamed Pr. LAKHDAR BARKA Sidi Mohamed

"Members of the Jury"

Présidente : Pr. Khadoudja BELKHENCHIR Université Oran 2 Rapporteur : Pr. Sidi Mohamed LAKHDAR BARKA Université Oran 2 Examinatrice : Dr. Louafia BOUKRERIS Université Oran 2 Examinateur: Pr. Ali BAICHE Université de Tlemcen

Examinateur: Pr. Abess BAHOUS Université de Mostaganem Examinateur : Pr. Zoubir DENDANE Université de Tlemcen

-2016-

Algerian Arabic Varieties Speakers’ Errors

in

English Writings

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*Dedication*

In the memory of my father and mother and

the dear young nephew HICHAM

To my brothers and sisters and their family members

To my wife and children

To all my friends

2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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3 S p e c i a l t h a n k s a r e t o D r . B e n a b e d A m a r , m y c o l l e a g u e i n t h e E n g l i s h d e p a r t m e n t , n o w a n d m y f i r s t t e a c h e r a t t h e m i d d l e s c h o o l w i t h w h o m I t o o k t h e f i r s t s t e p s o n t h e c o u r s e o f E n g l i s h l e a r n i n g . T h e n i c e m o m e n t s w e s p e n t i n h i s c l a s s e s r e m a i n u n f o r g e t t a b l e M y t h a n k s a l s o g o t o S a f a L a i d w h o p r o v i d e d m e w i t h a l l t h e b o o k s a n d d o c u m e n t s I n e e d e d f r o m t h e l i b r a r y . I d o a p p r e c i a t e h i s h e l p . I w o u l d l i k e a l s o t o t h a n k m y w i f e a n d a l l f a m i l y m e m b e r s w h o s p a r e n o t i m e a n d e f f o r t t o p r o v i d e m e w i t h t h e m o s t s u i t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s f o r s u c c e s s , e s p e c i a l l y t o m y s o n Z a k a r i a w h o h a s b e e n o f r e m a r k a b l e h e l p w i t h c o m p u t i n g w o r k s w h i c h s e r v e d t h e f i n a l s h a p i n g o f t h e t h e s i s . M y t h a n k s g o t o a l l m y t e a c h e r s s i n c e t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l t o t h e p o s t g r a d u a t e l e v e l . T h a n k y o u a l l .

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4 D e d i c a t i o n ……….. A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s………. T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s . . . List of Tables……….. List of Appendices……….

L i s t o f Abbreviations & Acronyms...………

L i s t of Arabic Phonemic S ymbols ………...…

Abstract………

General Introduction……… …….

C h a p t e r I : T h e o r e t i c a l R e v i e w : C r o s s - L i n g u i s t i c Influence And Learner’s Errors

Introduction………. ...

I . 1 . N o t i on of Error……….………. I . 2 . Error and Mistake……….. I . 3 . Approaches to the study of Errors……..………..

I . 3 . 1 .C ontrastive Anal ysis Approach………...

I . 3 . 2 .Error Anal ysis Approach………..….………

I . 4 . D e s c r iption of Errors……….……….. I . 4 . 1 . S peakers’ Errors... I . 4 . 2 . Hearers’ Errors... I . 5 . Sources of Errors……….……….. I . 5 . 1 . Intralingual Errors………. … I I I I V X I V X V I X V I I X X X X 1 I 2 4 3 5 3 6 3 8 4 0 4 1 4 5 4 8 4 8 4 8 4 9 5 0

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I . 5 . 2 . Interlingual (Interference) Errors………..

I . 5 . 3 . Developmental Errors…………..………..….. I . 6 . Classification of Errors……….……….. I . 7 . Error C ategories………. I . 7 . 1 . O mission………... I . 7 . 2 . A d d i t ion…………...…… ………....……...…… I . 7 . 3 . S e l e c t i o n………..………...…...…… I . 7 . 4 . Ordering………...……..

I . 8 . Significance of Learners’ Errors……… I . 9 . Interlanguage as a Learner’s Language……….. I . 1 0 . Ps ychological Aspect of Interlanguage………..

I . 1 0 . 1 . L a n g u a g e Interference and Transfer………. .. I . 1 0 . 1 . 1 . Negative Transfer………. I . 1 0 . 1 . 1 . 1 . Phonological Interference…………. I . 1 0 . 1 . 1 . 2 . L e x i c a l Interference……… I . 1 0 . 1 . 1 . 3 . Grammatical Interference………….. I . 1 0 . 1 . 2 . Positive Transfer………..……… I . 1 0 . 2 . Avoidance……… I . 1 0 . 3 . Overuse……… I . 1 0 . 4 . Fossilization……… C onclusion……… ...……. C h a p t e r I I : A r a b i c V e r s u s E n g l i s h M o r p h o l o g y : I l l u s t r a t i o n a n d C o m p a r i s o n Introduction……… ...

I I . 1 . Arabic and English Languages……….

5 1 5 2 5 2 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 9 6 0 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 7 0 7 4 7 5 7 8 7 9 7 9 8 1 8 5 8 6

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6 I I . 2 . A r a b i c v e r s u s E n g l i s h M o r p h o l o g y : I l l u s t r a t i o n a n d C o m parison………... I I . 3 . P arts of S peech………. I I . 3 . 1 . N o u n……….. I I . 3 . 1 . 1 . Gender……… I I . 3 . 1 . 2 . Determination………... I I . 3 . 1 . 3 . Number………... I I . 3 . 1 . 4 . C ase………..………... I I . 3 . 1 . 4 . 1 . Nominative C ase………...……. I I . 3 . 1 . 4 . 2 . Accusative C ase………... I I . 3 . 1 . 4 . 3 . Genitive C ase………...…..… I I . 3 . 1 . 5 . C ase Inflection………. I I . 3 . 1 . 5 . 1 . Noun/Verb Agreement………... I I . 3 . 1 . 5 . 2 . Noun/Adjective Agreement…………... I I . 3 . 1 . 5 . 3 . N o u n / P ronoun Agreement…………... I I . 3 . 1 . 6 . S i m i l a r i t i e s a n d D i f f e r e n c e s………. I I . 3 . 2 . V e r b……….…… I I . 3 . 2 . 1 . Tense……….. I I . 3 . 2 . 2 . Voice……….. I I . 3 . 2 . 3 . Mood……….. I I . 3 . 2 . 4 . P erson………... I I . 3 . 2 . 4 . 1 .C ase………... I I . 3 . 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 . Nominative C ase……….... I I . 3 . 2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . P ossessive C ase……….…... I I . 3 . 2 . 4 . 1 . 3 . Objective C ase………... I I . 3 . 2 . 4 . 2 . Number………... . I I . 3 . 2 . 4 . 3 . Gender……….…... I I . 3 . 2 . 5 . S i m i l a r i t i e s a n d D i f f e r e n c e s………….... I I . 3 . 3 . P a r t i c l e s………. I I . 3 . 3 . 1 . Adverbs………. I I . 3 . 3 . 2 . P reposition……… 8 9 8 9 9 0 9 1 9 2 9 2 9 4 9 4 9 5 9 6 9 6 9 7 9 9 1 0 1 1 0 7 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 3 1 1 5 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 6 1 2 8 1 2 9 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 4

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7 I I . 3 . 3 . 3 . C onjunction………. I I . 3 . 3 . 4 . Interjection……….. I I . 3 . 3 . 5 . S i m i l a r i t i e s a n d D i f f e r e n c e s………….. C onclusion………... C h a p t e r I I I : A r a b i c V e r s u s E n g l i s h S y n t a x : I l l u s t r a t i o n a n d C o m p a r i s o n I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . I I I . 1 .Syntax ……….……… I I I . 2 . A r a b i c Versus English S yntax ………. I I I . 2 . 1 . S entence S tructure………... I I I . 2 . 1 . 1 . A r a b i c / E n g l i s h S i m p l e S e n t e n c e………. I I I . 2 . 1 . 1 . 1 . Affirmative S entence………... I I I . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . N e gative S entence……….... I I I . 2 . 1 . 1 . 3 . Imperative S entence…………..….. I I I . 2 . 1 . 1 . 4 . Ex clamatory S entence……….. I I I . 2 . 1 . 1 . 5 . S i m i l a r i t i e s a n d D i f f e r e n c e s…… I I I . 2 . 1 . 2 . C o m p o u n d S e n t e n c e………..….. I I I . 2 . 1 . 3 . C o m p l e x S e n t e n c e………..….. I I I . 2 . 1 . 4 . S i m i l a r i t i e s a n d D i f f e r e n c e s..………….. I I I . 2 . 1 . 5 . A r a b i c / E n g l i s h Q u e s t i o n T y p e s………… I I I . 2 . 1 . 5 . 1 . Y e s -No Questions………... I I I . 2 . 1 . 5 . 2 . Interrogative W ord………... I I I . 2 . 1 . 5 . 3 . Negative Questions…………... I I I . 2 . 1 . 5 . 4 . Tag Questions………... I I I . 2 . 1 . 5 . 5 . S i m i l a r i t i e s a n d D i f f e r e n c e s…… I I I . 2 . 2 . A r a b i c / E n g l i s h P h r a s e s……… I I I . 2 . 2 . 1 . N o u n P h r a s e……….... 1 3 6 1 3 8 1 3 9 1 4 2 1 4 5 1 4 6 1 4 6 1 4 7 1 4 8 1 4 9 1 5 0 1 5 2 1 5 5 1 5 7 1 5 9 1 6 0 1 6 1 1 6 2 1 6 3 1 6 4 1 6 5 1 6 6 1 6 7 1 6 8 1 6 8

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I I I . 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . Noun P hrase as Adjective…… I I I . 2 . 2 . 1 . 2 . Determiners in Noun P hrase…

I I I . 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . P o s s e s s i v e F o r m s i n N o u n P hrase ………. I I I . 2 . 2 . 1 . 4 . S i m i l a r i t i e s a n d D i f f e r e n c e s… I I I . 2 . 2 . 2 . V e r b P h r a s e……….. I I I . 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 . A r a b i c / E n g l i s h V e r b Inflection……… I I I . 3 . 2 . 2 . 2 . A r a b i c / E n g l i s h P a s s i v e F o r m s I I I . 3 . 2 . 2 . 3 . S i m i l a r i t i e s a n d D i f f e r e n c e s I I I . 2 . 2 . 3 . A d v e r b P h r a s e………

I I I . 2 . 2 . 3 . 1 .Adverb P hrase of P lace………… I I I . 2 . 2 . 3 . 2 . Adverb P hrase of Manner…… . I I I . 2 . 2 . 3 . 3 . Adverb P hrase of Time……… .. I I I . 2 . 2 . 3 . 4 . A d v e r b P hrase of P urpose…… I I I . 2 . 2 . 3 . 5 . S i m i l a r i t i e s a n d D i f f e r e n c e s… I I I . 2 . 2 . 4 . A d j e c t i v e P h r a s e……… I I I . 2 . 2 . 5 . P r e p o s i o n a l P h r a s e……… I I I . 2 . 2 . 6 . S i m i l a r i t i e s a n d D i f f e r e n c e s……… C onclusion……… C h a p t e r I V : S o c i o - C u l t u r a l C o n t e x t i n E F L W r i t i n g Introduction……… ……..….. I V . 1 . Nature of Writing……… I V . 2 . E f f ective Writing……… I V . 2 . 1 .P rocess………. I V . 2 . 1 . 1 .P rewriting……… …. I V . 2 . 1 . 2 . Drafting……….. 1 7 0 1 7 1 1 7 2 1 7 3 1 7 3 1 7 5 1 7 5 1 7 7 1 7 8 1 7 8 1 7 8 1 7 9 1 8 0 1 8 0 1 8 1 1 8 2 1 8 3 1 8 4 1 8 8 1 8 9 1 9 1 1 9 1 1 9 1 1 9 2

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9 I V . 2 . 1 . 3 . R evising………. . I V . 2 . 1 . 4 . Editing………. I V . 2 . 1 . 5 .P ublishing……… I V . 2 . 2 . St yle……… I V . 2 . 2 . 1 . W o r d Choice……….. I V . 2 . 2 . 2 . S entence Fluency……… .. I V . 2 . 2 . 3 . Voice……… I V . 2 . 2 . 4 . Conventions……… I V . 2 . 2 . 5 . O r g a n i z a t i o n . . . I V . 2 . 2 . 5 . 1 . C h r o n o l o g i c a l O r d e r . . . I V . 2 . 2 . 5 . 2 . O r d e r o f I m p o r t a n c e . . . I V . 2 . 2 . 5 . 3 . C o m p a r e a n d C o n t r a s t . . . I V . 2 . 2 . 5 . 4 . C a u s e a n d E f f e c t . . . I V . 2 . 3 . S t r a t e g i e s . . . I V . 3 . T e a c h i n g W r i t i n g a t U n i v e r s i t y . . .

I V . 3 . 1 . Students’ Attitudes towards W riting... I V . 3 . 2 . C o n t e x t o f C l a s s r o o m W r i t i n g . . . I V . 4 . U s e o f L 1 C o n t e x t i n L 2 W r i t i n g . . . I V . 5 . C o n t e x t i n E F L W r i t i n g . . . I V . 6 . C o n t e x t o f C u l t u r e i n E F L . . . I V . 6 . 1 . H u m a n C u l t u r e . . . I V . 6 . 2 . T e x t a n d C o n t e x t a n d C u l t u r e S h a p i n g . . . I V . 7 . R e l a t i o n s h i p o f L a n g u a g e a n d C u l t u r e . . . I V . 8 . C o n t e x t o f C u l t u r e i n E F L W r i t i n g . . . I V . 8 . 1 . W o r d s a n d C o n t e x t . . . I V . 8 . 2 . W o r d s a n d t h e i r A s p e c t s . . . I V . 8 . 2 . 1 . F o r m . . . I V . 8 . 2 . 2 . M e a n i n g . . . I V . 8 . 3 . Words in S entences……….

I V . 8 . 4 . P ragmatic and Meaning of Words………

I V . 9 . Background Knowledge……… 1 9 3 1 9 4 1 9 4 1 9 5 1 9 6 1 9 7 1 9 9 1 9 9 2 0 0 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 0 3 2 0 5 2 0 5 2 0 7 2 0 8 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 4 2 1 5 2 1 6 2 1 8 2 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 6 2 2 9

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I V . 9 . 1 . Cultural Background Knowledge………

I V . 9 . 1 . 1 . Teacher’s S chemata………. I V . 9 . 1 . 2 . Learner’s S chemata………. I V . 9 . 2 . I n t r o d u c i n g t h e C u l t u r a l B a c k g r o u n d Knowledge of the TL………. I V . 1 0 . S o c i o - c u l t u r a l P h e n o m e n o n i n C l a s s r o o m Discourse… ………. C onclusion……… ……… C h a p t e r V : F i e l d W o r k Introduction……… ……….

V . 1 . S ituation, P opulation and S ampling………. V . 2 . Observation ……… ……….. V . 3 . Method of Investigation ……… ……… V . 4 . Data C ollection ……… V . 4 . 1 . Questionnaire……… …. V . 4 . 2 . J udgment Test……… ……... V . 5 . Data Treatment……….. V . 5 . 1 . Questionnaire……….. V . 5 . 2 . J udgment Test……….

V . 5 . 2 . 1 . Samples of Students’ Intralingual Errors ….

V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . M o r p h o l o g i c a l E r r o r s………

V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 1 . F a u l t y O v e r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n……….……..

V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . S election of Incorrect Elements….

V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 2 . Omission of R equired Elements…. V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 3 . A d d i t i o n o f U n n e c e s s a r y E l e m e n t s

V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . I n c o m p l e t e A p p l i c a t i o n o f R u l e s………

V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 1 . S election of Incorrect Elements….

2 3 0 2 3 1 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 4 2 4 0 2 4 0 2 4 5 2 4 6 2 4 7 2 4 7 2 4 8 2 5 0 2 5 0 2 6 9 2 7 3 2 7 3 2 7 3 2 7 3 2 7 4 2 7 4 2 7 4 2 7 5

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V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 2 . Omission of R equired Elements…. V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 3 . A d d i t i o n o f U n n e c e s s a r y E l e m e n t s

V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . S y n t a c t i c E r r o r s………..

V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 1 . I g n o r a n c e o f R u l e R e s t r i c t i o n…………. V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 1 . S election of Incorrect Elements…. V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 2 . Omission of R equired Elements…. V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 3 . A d d i t i o n o f U n n e c e s s a r y E l e m e n t s V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 4 . Misordering of Elements………....

V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 2 . F a l s e H y p o t h e s i z e d C o n c e p t…………..

V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 1 . Omission of R equired Elements… V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 2 . A d d i t i o n o f U n n e c e s s a r y E l e m e n t s V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 3 . M i s o r d e r i n g o f C e r t a i n E l e m e n t s

V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 3 . L e x i c a l E r r o r s………..

F a l s e H y p o t h e s i z e d C o n c e p t s………..

V . 5 . 2 . 1 . 4 . S e m a n t i c E r r o r s………..

V . 5.2.2. Samples of Students’ Interlingual Errors ………… V . 5 . 2 . 2 . 1 . S y n t a c t i c E r r o r s……….

F a u l t y O v e r g e n r a l i z a t i o n……….

V . 5 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . S election of Incorrect Elements…... V . 5 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 2 . Omission of R equired Elements….... V . 5 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . A d d i t i o n o f U n n e c e s s a r y E l e m e n t s . V . 5 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 4 . Misordering of Elements…….……..

V . 5 . 2 . 2 . 2 . S e m a n t i c E r r o r s……….

F a u l t y O v e r g e n r a l i z a t i o n………....

V . 6 . R esult Discussions ……….

V . 6 . 1 . Questionnaire R esults Discussion……….

V . 6 . 2 . Judgment Test R esult Discussion………..

C onclusion……… …….…………. 2 7 5 2 7 5 2 7 7 2 7 7 2 7 7 2 7 8 2 7 9 2 7 8 2 7 8 2 7 8 2 7 9 2 7 9 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 3 2 8 5 2 8 5 2 8 5 2 8 5 2 8 6 2 8 6 2 8 7 2 8 9 2 8 9 2 9 2 2 9 2 2 9 3 2 9 4

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C h a p t e r V I : P e d a g o g i c a l I m p l i c a t i o n s a n d R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s

Introduction………..…..

V I . A . 1 . Checklist……….…..

V I . A . 1 . 1 .Students’ W eak Foundation……….

V I . A . 1 . 2 . Linguistic Environment………..

V I . A . 1 . 3 . T e a c h i n g a n d Learning Method……….

V I . A . 2 . Checklist R esult Discussion (C LR D)……….

V I . B . 1 . L i m i t a tion of the Stud y……….…… V I . B . 2 . R e s e a r c h / P edagogical Implications……… V I . B . 2 . 1 . I m p l i c a t i o n o f C o n t r a s t i v e a n d E r r o r

A n a l y s i s i n EFL Writing……… V I . B . 2 . 1 . 1 . I m p l i c a t i o n o f C o n t r a s t i v e a n d E r r o r

Analysis in EFL W riting………..

V I . B . 2 . 1 . 2 . I m p l i c a t i o n o f E r r o r A n a l y s i s i n E F L

W riting……….

V I . B . 2 . 2 . I m p l i c a tion for S yllabus Designers……….… .

V I . B . 2 . 2 . 1 . D e s i gn for a New W riting S yllabus…… V I . B . 2 . 2 . 2 . D e s i gn for a New Grammar S yllabus… V I . B . 2 . 2 . 3 . Design for Group W ork……… .. V I . B . 2 . 2 . 4 . D e s i g n f o r T e a ching S tyle……… V I . B . 2 . 2 . 5 . D e s i gn for a Good W riting P romotion… V I . B . 2 . 2 . 6 . D e s ign for an adequate Feedback………

V I . B . 2 . 3 . I m p l i cation for EFL Teachers………

V I . B . 2 . 3 . 1 . O r g a n i z a t i o n o f S e m i n a r s a n d

C onferences………

V I . B . 2 . 3 . 2 . C o o r d i n a t i o n : U n i v e r s i t y / S e c o n d a r y

S chool………

V I . B . 2 . 4 . I m p l ication for EFL S tudents………

3 0 0 3 0 0 3 0 1 3 0 2 3 0 3 3 0 4 3 0 6 3 0 7 3 0 8 3 0 9 3 1 0 3 1 0 3 1 1 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 4 3 1 4 3 1 5 3 1 6 3 1 6 3 1 7 3 1 8

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V I . B . 2 . 5 . I m p lication for EFL C ontex t……… . V I . B . 2 . 5 . 1 . I m p l i c a t i o n o f L 1 i n E F L W r i t i n g

C lassroom……….

V I . B . 2 . 5 . 2 . I m p l i c a t i o n o f L 1 C u l t u r e C o n t e x t i n

EFL W riting C lassroom……… ………

V I . B . 3 . R ecommendations………

V I . B . 3 . 1 . R ecommendations on Teachers’ Teaching

S trategies……….

V I . B . 3 . 2 . R e c o m m endations on Grammar Teaching…… . V I . B . 3 . 2 . 1 . R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o n G r a m m a r U s e I n I m p r oving S tudents’ W riting……… V I . B . 3 . 2 . 2 . R ecommendations on Teacher’s G r a m m a r Knowledge……… V I . B . 3 . 2 . 3 . R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o n H o w t o I m p r o v e S tudents’ W riting……… …… C onclusion……… …… G e n e r a l C o n c l u s i o n………. S elected Bibliography………. A p p e n d i c e s……… . A n n e x e s 3 1 9 3 1 9 3 2 0 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 4 3 2 6 3 2 8 3 2 9 3 3 0 3 3 3 3 3 9 3 5 1

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LIST OF TABLES

Table I.1. Surface Strategy Taxonomy of Errors... Table I.2. Different types of transfer... Table II.1. Arabic subject/object relative pronouns... Table II.2 Arabic imperfect/perfect tense aspect prefix and suffix... Table II.3. Sample Arabic verb paradigm... Table II.4. Sample Arabic pronoun paradigm... Table II.5. Sample Arabic conjunction paradigm... Table III.1. Arabic intero-negative particles... Table IV. Students’ Division in Faculty of Economic and Management

Sciences...

Table IV.1. Informants selected for the questionnaire... Table IV.2. Learners’ attitude about their writing in English... Table IV.3. Learners’ attitude about English writing as compared to Arabic

Writing...

Table IV.4. Learners’ opinion about position of English writing among

other skills ...

Table IV.5. Learners’ attitude towards writing in English... Table IV.6. Learners’ possible errors in grammar... Table IV.7. Learners’ possible errors in morphology... Table IV.8. Learners’ possible errors in syntax... Table IV.9. Learners’ ignorance of committed mistakes... Table IV.10. Learners’ behaviour in writing: translation from Arabic Language

Varieties to English...

Table IV.11. Learners’ behaviour in writing: translation from CA to English... Table IV.12. Learners’ behaviour in writing: translation from AA to English... Table IV.13. Learners’ translation of grammatical structure from CA to

English...

Table IV.14. Learners’ use of English/Arabic, Arabic English dictionary... 58 77 104 111 120 124 137 165 242 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264

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Table IV.15. Learners’ use of English/French, French English dictionary... Table IV.16. Learners’ use of English/ English dictionary... Table IV.17. Learners’ need of the teacher’s explanation in Arabic... Table IV.18. Learners’ need of the teacher’s explanation in English... Table IV.19. Taxonomy of intralingual morphological errors... Table IV.20. Taxonomy of intralingual syntactic errors... Table IV.21. Taxonomy of intralingual lexical errors... Table IV.22. Taxonomy of intralingual semantic errors... Table IV.23. Taxonomy of interlingual syntactic errors... Table IV.24. Taxonomy of interlingual semantic errors...

265 266 267 268 276 280 282 284 288 291

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 01: Students’ questionnaire………..… Appendix 02: Students’ social and economic background……….. Appendix 03: Learners’ intralingual morphological errors……….. Appendix 04: Learners’ intralingual syntactic errors………... Appendix 05: Taxonomy of students’ phrasal errors……… Appendix 06: Taxonomy of students’ sentential errors……… Appendix 07: Examples of learners’ intralingual lexical errors ………. Appendix 08: Examples of learners’ intralingual semantic errors……….. Appendix 09: Error Analysis: Scope of Study……….. Appendix 10: Students’ morpho-syntactic error sources with examples……….. Appendix 11: Students’ lexical and semantic intralingual errors with examples Appendix 12: Teachers’ checklist……….……… Appendix 13: Scores in teachers’ checklist……….. Annexes: Students’ written papers

351 355 356 361 365 366 367 369 371 372 374 375 376

XVI

17

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

A: Adjective Ac.: Active

AIE: Addition of Incorrect Element AA : Algerian Arabic

Ad.: Adverb

Adv.P.: Adverb Phrase Adj.P.: Adjective Phrase CA : Classical Arabic

CAH: Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis Cap.: Capitalization

CC.: Coordinating Conjunctions CCS.: Compound Complex Sentence CS.: Compound Sentence

Co.S.: Complex Sentence C.L.R. : Check List Results

C.L.R.D. : Check List Result Discussion EFL : English as a foreign language EA: Error Analysis

EFL: English as a Foreign Language E.T.R. : Evaluation Test Results

E.T.R.A : Evaluation Test Result Analysis

18 FHC : False Hypothesized Concepts

FLL : Foreign Language Learning FLT: Foreign Language Teaching Fr.: French

G : Gerund

IP : Infinitive Phrase

IRR : Ignorance of Rule Restrictions J.T.R: Judgment Test Results

J.T.R.D: Judgment Test Result Discussion L2 : Second / Foreign Language

Mean. : Meaning

ME : Misordering of Elements Ms. : Misspelling

MSA: Modern Standard Arabic N : Noun

NP : Noun Phrase

ORE : Omission of Required Elements P : Passive

PP : Prepositional Phrase PP : Present participle Punct. : Punctuation

Q.R. : Questionnaire Results

Q.R.D : Questionnaire Result Discussion SC : Subordination Conjunction

19 SS : Simple Sentence

SIE : Selection of Incorrect Elements S/V : Subject Verb

T : Tense

TL : Target Language VP : Verb Phrase WO : Word Order

WWC : Wrong Word Choice

20

PHONEMIC SYMBOLS OF CA (CLASSICAL ARABIC) &

AA (ALGERIAN ARABIC)

A) Consonants:

/ b / ( )as in / bent / ‘a girl’ (Voiced bilabial plosive)

/ f / (ف) as in / ftah / ‘he opened’ (Voiceless labio-dental fricative) / m / ( ) as in / msaħ / ‘he cleaned’ (Voiced bilabial nasal)

/ t / ( )as in / tefa:ħ / ‘apple’ (Voiceless alveolar plosive) / d / ( ) as in / di:n / ‘religion’ (Voiced alveolar plosive) / s / ( ) as in / sri:r / ‘bed’ (Voiceless alveolar fricative) / n / ( ) as in / nsi:m / ‘fresh air’ (Voiced alveolar nasal) / z / ( ) as in / za:weʃ / ‘bird’ (Voiced alveolar fricative)

/θ / ( ) as in /θmania / ‘eight’ (Voiceless dental fricative) / ð / ( ) as in / ði:b / ‘wolf’ (Voiced dental fricative)

/ ʃ / ( ) as in / ʃ ta / ‘ winter’ (Voiceless post-alveolar fricative) / t ʃ / (ش as in / tʃi:na / 'Oranges' (Voiceless post-alveolar affricate) )ت / ჳ / ( ) as in / ჳbel / ‘ mountain’ (Voiced post-alveolar fricative) / dჳ / ( ) as in / dჳuw / 'weather' (Voived post-alveolar africate) / r / ( ) as in / raaş / ‘head’ (Alveolar trill)

/ l / ( ) as in / la:kin / ‘but’ (Alveolar lateral) / k / ( ) as in / ketba / ‘writing’ (Voiceless velar plosive) / g /(ڤ) as in / ga:3 / ‘all’ (Voiced velar plosive)

/ χ / ( ) as in / χ a:tem / ‘ring’ (Voiced uvula fricative) /ɤ / ( ) as in / ɤa:li / ‘expensive’ (Voiceless velar fricative) / q / ( ) as in / qdi:m / ‘old’ (voiceless uvula plosive)

21

/ ħ / ( ) as in / ħulm / ‘dream’ (Voiceless pharyngeal fricative) / / ( ) as in / ajn / ‘eye’ (Voiced pharyngeal fricative) / h /( as in / hrab / ‘he fled’ (Voiceless glottal fricative) ھ) / / ( ء ) as in / usra / ‘family’ (Glottal stop)

B) Semi- vowels / Weak Consonants نــــي لا فورح

/ w / ( ) as in / warda / ‘ flower (Voiced alveolar lateral) / j / ( ) as in / jed / ‘hand (Voiced palatal semi-vowel)

C) True Emphatics

/ ş / ( ) as in / şaab / ‘he found’ (Voiceless alveolar emphatic fricative)

/ է / ( ) as in / էaja:ra / ‘plane’ (Voiceless valorized stop) / ɖ / ( ) as in / ɖaw / ‘light’ (Voiced valorized stop) / ð / ( ) as in / ð / / ð olm / ‘injustice’ (Voiced valorized fricative)

D) Vowels

/ I / as in / qIşşa / ‘a story’ Front high spread

/ æ / as in / hæ:mi / ‘hot’ Front mid-open unrounded / a / as in / rma / ‘he shoot’ Back low unrounded / α/ as in / rα:ħ / ‘he left’ Back mid-open unrounded / o: / as in / no:r / ‘light’ Back mid-open rounded / u / as in / ru: ħ / ‘soul’ Back high rounded

22

ABSTRACT

Subject:

Algerian Arabic Varieties S peakers’ Errors in English Writings “A C ontrastive Error Anal ysis S tudy”

The present doctoral thesis aims at investigating the main causes behind the grammatical errors the Algerian students at university tend to make in their written production. Based on the contrastive error analysis procedure, the focus is made on the contrast and comparison of the two basic morpho-syntactic systems of English and Arabic to predict and explain the unnatural word combination as well as the morphological errors extracted from a selected sample of 260 essays written by students at the Economic and Management Faculty in Tiaret University. Students’ incorrect shift of various grammatical structures and word formation errors clarify clearly the evidence of Arabic interference into English as a result of the structural differences between the systems of both languages. This would put the stress on the hypothesis that learners’ already acquired knowledge affects their performance in L2.

Key Words:

Error analysis - Contrastive analysis س Grammar س Syntax - Morphology - Interlanguage Language interference and transfer

23

GENERAL

24

“As you begin to take action toward the fulfilment of your goals and dreams, you must realize that not every action will be perfect. Not every action will produce the desired result. Not every action will work. Making mistakes, getting it almost right, and experimenting to see what happens are all part of the process of eventually getting it right.” Jack Canfield (2010) T o p i c : T h e m a i n o b j e c t i v e o f t h e E n g l i s h c o u r s e s o f t h e s y l l a b u s d e s i g n e d t o t h e s c i e n t i f i c s t r e a m s i n t h e A l g e r i a n u n i v e r s i t y i s t o h e l p l e a r n e r s i m p r o v e t h e i r r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g s k i l l s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r o g r a m m e w h i c h h a s b e e n r e s e a r c h e d , d o c u m e n t e d a n d o r g a n i z e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a c a d e m i c r u l e s . T h e n e e d t o u s e E n g l i s h p r o p e r l y w i t h s o m e d e g r e e o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i s c l e a r l y f e l t a m o n g u n i v e r s i t y l e c t u r e r s w h o s e e i t a s a s u i t a b l e i n s t r u m e n t t o e x p l o r e d i f f e r e n t d o m a i n s , m a i n l y t h o s e w h i c h c o n c e r n s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y . S t u d e n t s f i n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o l e a r n t o c o m m u n i c a t e i n E n g l i s h w i t h p e o p l e f r o m d i f f e r e n t l i n g u i s t i c a n d c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s a n d f o r d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s . T h e y m a y a l s o n e e d i t f o r a c q u i r i n g s o m e k n o w l e d g e i n s o m e d o m a i n s s u c h a s m a t h e m a t i c s , s o c i a l s t u d i e s , s c i e n c e , e c o n o m i c s a n d b u s i n e s s w h i c h a r e w o r l d - w i d e l y u s e d . T h u s , b e s i d e s l e a r n i n g t o s p e a k t h i s l a n g u a g e , t h e y a r e r e q u i r e d t o p r o d u c e s p e c i f i c w r i t i n g f o r m s s u c h a s e s s a y , c o m p o s i t i o n , s u m m a r y , a n d r e s e a r c h p a p e r . H o w e v e r , t h e t a s k t o d o s o m a y n o t b e s o e a s y b e c a u s e d i f f e r e n t o b s t a c l e s c o n f r o n t b o t h t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s w i l l i n g t o a t t a i n t h o s e o b j e c t i v e s . Students’

25 w r i t i n g e r r o r s d e m o n s t r a t e c l e a r l y t h e e v i d e n c e o f t h e i r l a c k o f p o t e n t i a l t o w r i t e f r e e l y i n a l a n g u a g e w h i c h i s n o t t h e i r s . E x p e r i e n c e s h a v e a l w a y s p r o v e n t h a t a g r e a t n u m b e r o f t h e m n o t o n l y f a i l t o c r e a t e c o r r e c t s e n t e n c e s i n i s o l a t i o n , b u t a l s o c a n n o t a r r a n g e t h e m t o b e c o m e o r g a n i s e d t e x t s . T h e m a i n r e a s o n b e h i n d t h i s p r o b l e m m a y l i e i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n A r a b i c a n d E n g l i s h g r a m m a t i c a l s y s t e m s . T h i s m a y i n c l u d e d i f f e r e n t w o r d -f o r m a t i o n a n d s e n t e n c e s t r u c t u r e s . T h e -f i e l d r e s e a r c h o -f t h i s s t u d y i s p u r e l y l i n g u i s t i c w h e r e a c o m p a r i s o n i s d r a w n b e t w e e n A r a b i c a n d E n g l i s h g r a m m a r s s o a s t o i d e n t i f y t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s w h i c h m a y i n d i c a t e a p l a u s i b l e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e s o u r c e o f e r r o r s in students’ EFL different writings.

M o t i v a t i o n : T h e i n c e n t i v e b e h i n d t h i s r e s e a r c h w o r k d e r i v e s f r o m o u r c u r i o s i t y a n d d e s i r e t o e x p l a i n a n d p r e d i c t students’ grammatical e r r o r s a n d t h e i r b e h a v i o u r i n w r i t i n g . T h i s w i l l b e a t t e m p t e d t h r o u g h a c a r e f u l c o m p a r i s o n a n d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n A r a b i c ( L 1 ) a n d E n g l i s h ( L 2 ) , T h i s r e f l e c t i o n w a n t s t o s e e i f c o n t r a s t i v e a n d e r r o r a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e s , s u g g e s t e d i n t h e p e r s p e c t i v e d r a w n i n a p r e v i o u s w o r k o f m a g i s t e r , c a n b e e f f e c t i v e i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h o s e e r r o r s d r a w i n g o u t l e s s o n s f r o m t h e w e a k n e s s e s , g a p s o f s t udents’ process of writing, would then i m p r o v e d i d a c t i c o b j e c t i v e s i n c l a s s r o o m s i t u a t i o n s a s e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f T i a r e t U n i v e r s i t y .

T h e m e :

T h e u s e o f E n g l i s h h a s s p a r k e d t h e i n t e r e s t o f e d u c a t o r s i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s . T h e r e i s a c l e a r f a c t t h a t t h i s l a n g u a g e h a s b e c o m e

26 a n i m p o r t a n t i n s t r u m e n t f o r t r a n s f e r r i n g a n d e x c h a n g i n g k n o w l e d g e a n d s k i l l s b e c a u s e o f i t s w o r l d w i d e u s e . H o w e v e r , t h e p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e o f m o s t A l g e r i a n s t u d e n t s i n E n g l i s h , m a i n l y i n w r i t i n g , h a s b e e n e x p l a i n e d a s a m a j o r c a u s e o f f a i l u r e i n t h e a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t i n A l g e r i a n u n i v e r s i t i e s . T h e i r l a c k o f t h e n e c e s s a r y v o c a b u l a r y a s w e l l a s t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h e y f a c e i n g r a m m a r l e a d t h e m t o f a i l i n c o n v e y i n g a c c u r a t e w r i t t e n m e s s a g e s . T h e e a s i n e s s a n d t h e d i f f i c u l t y t h a t t h e s e s t u d e n t s f i n d i n t h e i r l e a r n i n g e n t e r p r i s e a r e d e t e r m i n e d , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , b y t h e s i m i l a r i t y a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e s y s t e m s o f L1 ‘A rabic’ and L2 ‘English’. Accordingl y, there might be some similarities bet ween t h e s e t w o l a n g u a g e s , y e t , a s d e m o n s t r a t e d b y s o m e l i n g u i s t s , t h e y d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h e f o r m , m e a n i n g a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g r a m m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s . T h e c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e g r a m m a t i c a l s y s t e m s o f t h e t w o l a n g u a g e s h a s y i e l d e d a p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x p l a i n i n g a n d p r e d i c t i n g students’ snags in writing. According l y, t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e m a t e r i a l s a r e t h o s e t h a t a r e b a s e d u p o n a s c i e n t i f i c d e s c r i p t i o n a n d c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e l a n g u a g e t o b e l e a r n t w i t h t h e n a t i v e l a n g u a g e o f t h e l e a r n e r . T h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h w o r k a i m s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e m a i n c a u s e s b e h i n d t h e g r a m m a t i c a l e r r o r s t h e e c o n o m i c s c i e n c e s t r e a m u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s a t I b n K h a l d o u n T i a r e t U n i v e r s i t y t e n d t o m a k e i n t h e i r w r i t t e n p r o d u c t i o n . B a s e d o n t h e c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e , i t f o c u s e s o n t h e c o n t r a s t a n d c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e t w o m o r p h o - s y n t a c t i c s y s t e m s o f E n g l i s h a n d A r a b i c t o p r e d i c t a n d e x p l a i n t h e u n n a t u r a l w o r d c o m b i n a t i o n a s w e l l a s t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l e r r o r s . I t i n v e s t i g a t e s f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g students’ w r i t i n g i n E n g l i s h . T h i s w o u l d b e b a s e d o n a v a r i e t y o f d i m e n s i o n s namely the students’ L2 writing ability, their writing strategies and t h e i r L 1 m e t a l i n g u i stic knowledge impact responsible for students’

27 f a u l t y i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t t h e r u l e s o f L 2 . T h u s , e r r o r a n a l y s i s a p p r o a c h i s a l s o u s e d i n t h e s t u d y t o p r e d i c t t h e s e i n f e r e n c e s a n d r e i n f o r c e t h e p o i n t s l e f t u n p r e d i c t e d b y t h e c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s a p p r o a c h . I t s u s e i s a l s o m e a n t t o d i a g n o s e t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f e r r o r s , t h e i r s o u r c e s , d e s c r i p t i o n , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , n a t u r e a n d c a t e g o r i e s . O b s e r v a t i o n s : T h e s t u d y c l a r i f i e s i s s u e s r e l a t e d t o t h e e r r o r s t h e e c o n o m i c s c i e n c e s t r e a m s t u d e n t s m a k e i n t h e i r w r i t i n g a s s i g n m e n t s . T h o s e e r r o r s w h i c h a r e s p o t t e d i n t h e i r w r i t t e n w o r k s , m a i n l y a t t h e m o r p h o - s y n t a c t i c l e v e l , a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i r i g n o r a n c e o f t h e i m m e n s e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e l i n g u i s t i c s y s t e m o f A r a b i c ( L 1 ) a n d t h a t o f E n g l i s h ( L 2 ) . T h i s r e f l e c t s t h e i r l a c k o f c o m p e t e n c e w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s t h e m a n d h i n d e r s t h e i r w r i t t e n p e r f o r m a n c e . M o s t s t u d e n t s v e r y o f t e n t r a n s l a t e t h e f o r m s o f w o r d s a n d t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n s e n t e n c e s t o L 2 ( E n g l i s h ) i n t h e s a m e w a y t h e y a r e p r o c e s s e d i n L 1 ( A r a b i c ) . T h e i n c o r r e c t s h i f t o f v a r i o u s g r a m m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s a n d w o r d f o r m a t i o n e r r o r s s h o w t h e e v i d e n c e o f A r a b i c E n g l i s h i n t e r f e r e n c e s a s a r e s u l t o f t h e i g n o r a n c e a n d d i s r e s p e c t o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s o f t h e t w o l a n g u a g e s . T h i s w o u l d b r i n g t o a n o n - s e n s e o r a c h a n g e o f m e a n i n g b e c a u s e , m o s t o f t h e t i m e , t h e s t r u c t u r e o f L 2 n e i t h e r h a s a s i m i l a r f o r m i n L 1 , n o r i n d i c a t e s t h e s a m e m e a n i n g n o r i s i t s i m i l a r l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e s y s t e m o f L 2 . T h i s w o u l d s t r e s s t h e h y p o t h e s i s that “Processing mode of learners affects their performances in

L 2.” S chumann (1998: 247)

R e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s :

T h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d e m p i r i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e i s s u e s related to students’ English writing errors intends to draw a clear

28 p i c t u r e o f L 2 c o m m o n w r i t i n g s t r a t e g i e s s t u d e n t s g e n e r a l l y u s e a s w e l l a s t h e s o u r c e o f t h e i r e r r o r s . R e m e d i a l s t r a t e g i e s a r e a l s o s u g g e s t e d t o a v o i d t h o s e e r r o r s a n d i m p r o v e students’ writing a b i l i t i e s . T o s e t f o r t h i n a c o h e r e n t s t u d y o f t h e s t a t e d p h e n o m e n o n , a m a i n r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n i s a s k e d :

Is L1 ‘Arabic interference’ the princip al cause of students’ E n g l i s h w r i t i n g p r o b l e m s ? T h i s q u e s t i o n i m p l i e s t h r e e s u b - q u e s t i o n s : 1 ) I s t h i s i n t e r f e r e n c e d u e t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t e x i s t b e t w e e n t h e g r a m m a t i c a l s y s t e m s o f A r a b i c a n d E n g l i s h ? 2 ) I n a d d i t i o n t o L 1 i n t e r f e r e n c e , a r e t h e r e a n y o t h e r k i n d s o f e r r o r s s t u d e n t s u s u a l l y m a k e ? 3 ) D o e s L 1 s o c i o - c u l t u r a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l c o n t e x t w h e r e s t u d e n t s l e a r n t o w r i t e h a v e n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o n t h e i r w r i t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e ? T h e s e q u e s t i o n s a r e a s k e d i n o r d e r t o : * I n v e s t i g a t e t h e s o u r c e o f h i n d r a n c e s t h a t s t u d e n t s f a c e i n w r i t i n g . * F i n d o u t t h e c a u s e s b e h i n d t h e s e s n a g s . * S u g g e s t s o m e p o s s i b l e r e m e d i a l w o r k s a n d s o l u t i o n s t o o v e r c o m e students’ deficit in writing.

F o r t h i s p u r p o s e t h e f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s e s a r e s u g g e s t e d a s t e n t a t i v e a n s w e r s t o t h e a b o v e i n q u i r i e s .

29 H y p o t h e s e s :

L1 ‘Arabic interference’ is, to a l arge extent, the main cause

o f students’ English writing problems.

1 ) T h e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t m a y e x i s t b e t w e e n t h e g r a m m a t i c a l s y s t e m s

o f A r a b i c a n d E n g l i s h i s t h e p r i n c i p a l c a u s e o f t h i s i n t e r f e r e n c e .

Learners make faulty inferences ‘thinking’ of the different

g r a m m a t i c a l r u l e s o f L 2 ( E n g l i s h ) .

2 ) O t h e r t h a n i n t e r l i n g u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e e r r o r s , t h e r e a r e o t h e r k i n d s

o f e r r o r s , t h o s e r e f e r r e d t o a s i n t r a l i n g u a l e r r o r s w i t h i n t h e t a r g e t l a n g u a g e i t s e l f . T h e s e e r r o r s f a l l i n two types: ‘syntactic errors’ including sentences, phrases or clauses, and ‘morp hological errors’ i n c l u d i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n o f w o r d s , s u c h a s w o r d i n f l e c t i o n s a n d d e r i v a t i o n s . 3 ) T h e s o c i o - c u l t u r a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s w h e r e s t u d e n t s l e a r n t o w r i t e a l s o h a v e n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o n t h e i r w r i t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e . M e t h o d o l o g y : T h e m e t h o d o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o n s i s t s i n a n a n a l y t i c a l s t u d y o f a s a m p l e g r o u p o f s t u d e n t s a t t h e E c o n o m i c & M a n a g e m e n t S c i e n c e s F a c u l t y i n T i a r e t U n i v e r s i t y w h e r e d e f i c i e n c i e s i n students’ writings were spotted during our three years’ teaching at t h e d i f f e r e n t d e p a r t m e n t s o f t h e f a c u l t y . T h e t h r e e m e t h o d s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e :

1 ) A q u e s t i o n n a i r e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o s t u d e n t s a t t h e f a c u l t y o f

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w r i t i n g i n L 2 ( E n g l i s h ) ; i . e . , t h e d i f f e r e n t w a y s t h e y u s e t o w r i t e i n t h i s l a n g u a g e .

2 ) A students’ written evaluation/judgment test (composition)

a n a l y s e d a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e m o r p h o - s y n t a c t i c s y s t e m s o f L 1 a n d L 2 . T h e a i m i s t o i d e n t i f y , d e s c r i b e a n d c o n t r o l t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f g r a m m a t i c a l e r r o r s , f o r m u l a t e i n s i g h t s a b o u t t h e m a n d g a t h e r e n o u g h e v i d e n c e t o c o n f i r m o r i n f i r m t h e h y p o t h e s e s d r a w n a b o v e . 3 ) A t y p e o f o b s e r v a t i o n a l a n d v a l i d a t i n g p r o c e d u r e t h r o u g h w h i c h 2 5 t e a c h e r s f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l a n d u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l s w e r e a s k e d t o s t a t e t h e c o m m o n c a u s e s behind students’ weakness es in d i f f e r e n t E n g l i s h w r i t i n g s . P R O C E S S : T h i s r e s e a r c h w o r k i n c l u d e s a g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d s i x c h a p t e r s : T h e G e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n i s d e v o t e d t o t h e a i m s o f t h e r e s e a r c h a n d t o a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t . C h a p t e r o n e i s a t h e o r e t i c a l r e v i e w . A l a r g e p a r t o f i t i s d e v o t e d t o t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t s w h i c h a r e d i r e c t l y o r indirectly related to the notion of ‘error’. It deals with contrastive a n a l y s i s a n d e r r o r a n a l y s i s , a s i m p o r t a n t a p p r o a c h e s i n d e s c r i b i n g and identif ying students’ errors. It also gives a t echnical review of “error” in the context of its origin and influence on L2 learning p r o c e s s . I t e x p l o r e s t h e s c o p e o f e r r o r a n a l y s i s ( E A ) i n t h e t a r g e t language acquisition and sheds light on students’ behaviour in learning. S everal examples of students’ errors are introduced with t h e i r p o s s i b l e c a u s a l f a c t o r s s o a s t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e p h e n o m e n o n .

31 C h a p t e r t w o p r o v i d e s a c o m p a r i s o n a n d i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s o f A r a b i c a n d E n g l i s h . I t i s m e a n t t o d e s c r i b e A r a b i c a n d E n g l i s h m o r p h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s i n o r d e r t o i d e n t i f y t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e p r o c e s s o f c o m p a r i n g b o t h s y s t e m s i n v o l v e s t h e a n a l y s i s a n d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f m o r p h o l o g y : t h e i n f l e c t i o n , d e r i v a t i o n a n d c o m p o u n d i n g o f d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f s p e e c h . T h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s c o v e r t h e f o r m , m e a n i n g a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m o r p h e m e s . C h a p t e r t h r e e i s a c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s s t u d y o f A r a b i c a n d E n g l i s h s y n t a x , c o m p r i s i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n s a n d e x a m p l e s p r o v i d e d f o r d i f f e r e n t c a s e s . I t p r o v i d e s a c o n t r a s t i v e s t u d y o f t h e s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s i n c l u d i n g d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e i t e m s s u c h a s t h e f o r m , t h e m e a n i n g a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w o r d s i n s e n t e n c e s s o a s t o c h e c k w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e s t r u c t u r e o f L 2 h a s a s i m i l a r f o r m i n L 1 , i t i n d i c a t e s t h e s a m e m e a n i n g a n d i s s i m i l a r l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e s y s t e m o f L 1 . T h e s t u d y a l s o d e a l s w i t h p o i n t s l i k e s e n t e n c e t y p e s , p a r t s o f s p e e c h t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e m i n i m a l e l e m e n t s o f s e n t e n c e s a n d a n a l y z i n g q u e s t i o n s u s i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t a u x i l i a r i e s o r i n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s . C h a p t e r s t w o a n d t h r e e p r o v i d e a n a n s w e r t o t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n a b o u t w h e t h e r o r n o t L 1 i n t e r f e r e n c e i s d u e t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e g r a m m a t i c a l s y s t e m s o f A r a b i c a n d E n g l i s h . C h a p t e r f o u r i s a b o u t c o n t e x t i n F L l e a r n i n g , i n g e n e r a l , a n d w r i t i n g i n p a r t i c u l a r . I t d e a l s w i t h p o i n t s l i k e t h e n a t u r e o f w r i t i n g , L 1 i m p a c t o n L 2 w r i t i n g , c o n t e x t o f c u l t u r e a f f e c t i n g students’ acquisition of L2 writing, students ’ background k n o w l e d g e , a s w e l l a s L 1 c o n t e x t i n L 2 a c q u i s i t i o n . A l l t h e s e p o i n t s a r e s t u d i e d t o p r o v i d e a n a n s w e r t o w h e t h e r o r n o t L 1 s o c i o

-32 c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t w h e r e s t u d e n t s l e a r n t o w r i t e h a s n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s on students’ performance. C h a p t e r f i v e s t u d i e s t h e r e s u l t s a n d a n a l y z e t h e c o l l e c t e d d a t a o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I t d e a l s w i t h t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t h e f o r m o f d a t a a n d d a t a a n a l y s i s , w h i c h a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f o r m o f t a b l e s , g r a p h s , a n d s t a t i s t i c f i g u r e s . T h e y a l s o s t a t e t h e f a c t s a s t h e y a r e o b s e r v e d a n d p a v e t h e w a y t o t h e p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of students and teachers’ data results through the three methods of i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n c l u d i n g t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , t h e v a l i d a t i o n t e s t a n d t h e c h e c k l i s t . T h i s i s t o a n s w e r t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n n u m b e r t h r e e a b o u t t h e o t h e r p o s s i b l e k i n d s o f g r a m m a t i c a l e r r o r s s t u d e n t s u s u a l l y m a k e i n a d d i t i o n t o L 1 i n t e r f e r e n c e . C h a p t e r s i x m e a n s t o r e a c h c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m w h i c h p o s s i b l e r e m e d i a l w o r k s a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s c a n b e s u g g e s t e d . I t i s w h e r e t h e m a i n l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d y a r e s e t o u t a n d f o l l o w e d b y p e d a g o g i c a l a n d r e s e a r c h i m p l i c a t i o n s . I t e n d s w i t h s o m e c o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k s a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t h i s w o r k m a y o f f e r a t t h e l e v e l o f d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f E n g l i s h w r i t i n g s . I t i s h o p e d t o b r i n g e x t r a c h a n g e s , a d j u s t a n d i m p r o v e c o u r s e c o n t e n t s e l e c t i o n a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o c e d u r e s

that ma y increase students’ motivational force to enhance their

i n n a t e d r i v e s a n d d e v e l o p t h e i r w r i t i n g q u a l i t y . F i n a l l y , a g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n o n t h e f i n d i n g s a n d f u t u r e p r o s p e c t s i s s u p p l i e d . I n a g r e e m e n t w i t h m y s u p e r v i s o r , t h e M L A s y s t e m o f r e f e r e n c i n g a n d b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n h a s b e e n i m p l e m e n t e d i n t h i s t h e s i s f o r m a n d c o n c e p t i o n .

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CHAPTER

ONE

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Chapter I: Theoretical Review: Cross-linguistic Influence and Learner’s Errors

Introduction

I.1. The Notion of Error I.2. Error and Mistake

I.3. Approaches to the Study of Errors

I.3.1. Contrastive Analysis Approach I.3.2. Error Analysis Approach

I.4. Description of Errors I.5. Sources of Errors

I.5.1. Intralingual Errors

I.5.2. Interlingual (Interference) Errors

I.5.3. Developmental Errors I.6. Classification of Errors I.7. Error Categories I.7.1. Omission I.7.2. Addition I.7.3. Selection

I.7.4. Ordering

I.8. Significance of Learners’ Error

I.9. Interlanguage as Learner Language I.10. Psycholinguistic Aspect of Interlanguage

I.10.1. Language Interference and Transfer I.10.1.1. Negative Transfer

I.10.1.1.1. Phonological Interference I.10.1.1.2. Lexical Interference I.10.1.1.3. Grammatical Interference

I.10.1.2. Positive Transfer

I.10.2..Avoidance I.10.3. Overuse I.10.4. Fossilization

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Introduction

Since the late sixties, a considerable number of researches have been conducted in the field of L2 acquisition. The complicated process of language learning has attracted continuing interest from researchers in Linguistics, Psychology, and Education. The major psychological task has been the investigation of how learners acquire L2 as well as the exploration of their cognitive processes in learning so as to predict and then explain encountered flaws, and finally think of and suggest the suitable material to be used in teaching.

The application of the linguistic and psychological theories to the study of L2 learning have extended to the discussion of learners’ errors as originated from learners’ incomplete competence in L2 grammar or L1 interference. Such errors are related to two known approaches: the contrastive approach, deeply rooted in behaviourism and structuralism, claims that the principal obstacle to L2 acquisition is the interference of the L1 system to the L2 system, and thus suggests a scientific and structural comparison of the two languages in question in order to predict and describe the confronted issues. The error analysis approach which claims that contrastive analysis is unable to predict a great number of errors, assumes that errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the target language.

“An error in learning L2 in speech as well as in writing is the use of a linguistic item such as a word, a grammatical item, a speech act in a way a native speaker regards as showing faulty or incomplete learning.”

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The first chapter aims to give a theoretical review of “error” in the context of its origin and influence on L2 learning process. It explores the scope of EA in target language acquisition and sheds light on learner’s behaviour in learning. Several examples of learners’ errors are introduced with their likely causal factors so as to better understand the phenomenon.

I.1. Notion of Error

Error is the most natural thing attached to human beings. A child learning his native language, an adult native speaker, or a foreign language learner; they all make errors both in comprehension and production.

In the foreign language process, error has, most of the time, been regarded as a negative thing indicating failure and obstructing progress and, thus should be avoided. The idea of ‘error’ as an effect to be avoided was supported by the ‘behaviourism approach’ that sees this phenomenon as “bad habits” formed as a result of ineffective teaching and, therefore claims that if they are repeated they become habitual. For behaviourists’ learning theory, old habits hinder or facilitate new habits; that is why errors are unwanted. This approach maintains that errors would never be committed in the first place if it were hoped to achieve a perfect teaching method.

A different conception from the behaviourists’ is the one which considers ‘error’ essential to the learning process, for without it there is no progress. This conception finds a more realistic attitude towards errors which are no longer a reflection on the teaching methods, but are rather indicators that learning is taking place, i.e., the evidence that language acquisition is working. So, errors are no longer bad, but as

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natural as those that occur in learning a first language, and a learner errs because he is evolving in a new language system through which he is testing his knowledge of the new encountered data.

Chomsky’s idea that a child generates language through innate universal structures is based on the conception of trial and error. The infant is born with an innate predisposition to acquire language; i.e., he possesses an internal mechanism of unknown nature which enables him to construct a grammar of a particular language. Yet, his grammar will be corrected progressively and the error he makes promotes his progress and improvement in learning. The child slowly but surely learns to produce what is acceptable speech in his native language (Brown, 2000: 217).

L2 learning may not be the same process with L1 in trial and error nature. The learning process might be obstructed if the learner does not make errors which might enable him to benefit from the various kinds of their feedback. So, error is seen as something positive, not a problem. For most applied linguists, it is the most important source of information about the nature of a learner’s language knowledge. By predicting, describing and classifying his errors in linguistic terms, it is possible to draw an image on the features which cause learning difficulties. Thus, errors are indispensable since making them can be a device the learner uses in order to learn (Selinker, 1992:150). For Dulay, Burt, Krashen (1982:138) “People cannot learn a

language without first systematically committing errors.”

The investigation of errors can be at the same time diagnostic and prognostic. It is diagnostic because it can tell us the learner’s ‘state of language’ (Corder, 1973: 270) at a given point during the learning process and prognostic because it can tell course organizers to reorient language learning materials.

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Another conception considers error to be the result of the social-cognitive interaction. This means that error carries a cognitive process as well as a social and cultural component which make it vary in different societies.

I.2. Error and Mistake

A distinction, however, is made between an error which results from incomplete knowledge, and a mistake which is caused by lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness or some other aspects of performance. Corder states that

“an error is a result of a learner’s lack of competence; a mistake however,

occurs when this learner fails to perform their competence.”

(1967: 9)

For Crystal (1992:125), errors which reflect systematically the level of competence achieved by a learner are contrasted with mistakes, which are performance imitations that a learner would be able to correct.

Mistakes are very often described as lapses. A mistake refers to a sort of performance error; it is a failure to make use of an unknown system. Everybody makes mistakes in both native and second language situations. Native speakers can recognize and correct such mistakes (lapses) which are not the result of the deficiency in competence, but the result of imperfection of producing speech (Brown, 2000: 217). For James (1998:83) an error cannot be self corrected; whereas a mistake can be corrected especially if the deviation is pointed out to the speaker.

Errors are deviances that are due to deficient competence, i.e. the knowledge of the language, which may or may not be conscious. These errors which are systematic result