TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS IN HYDROLOGY
WATER UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION
TECHNIQUES IN DOMESTIC,
INDUSTRIAL, AGRICULTURAL, NAVIGATIONAL
AND ENERGY USES
by
Alberto T.J. Calcagno, Buenos Aires, Argentina
IHP-III Project 11.2
Unesco, Paris, 1987
A B S T R A C T
In order to evaluate experiences and develop and test procedures for the reduction or
elimination of the negative side effects of water resources development a study has been
undertaken on the water utilization and conservation techniques programmes conducted
by a number of international and regional governmental organizations. The present
report describes these programmes, analyses them with a view to elaborate trends and
contains in tabulated form conclusions and recommendations.
PREFACE
Although the total amount of water on Earth is generally assumed to have remained virtually constant during recorded history, periods of flood and drought have challenged the intellect of man to have the capacity to control the water resources available to him.
Currently, the rapid growth of population, together with the extension of irrigated agriculture and industrial development, are stressing the quantity and quality aspects of the natural system. Because of the increasing problems, man has begun to realize that he can no longer follow a "use and discard" philosophy -- either with water resources or any other natural resource. As a result, the need for a consistent policy of rational management of water resources has become evident.
Rational water management, however, should be founded upon a thorough understanding of water availability and movement. Thus, as a contribution to the solution of the world's water problems, Unesco, in 1965, began the first worldwise programme of studies of the hydrological cycle -- the International Hydrological Decade (IHD). The research programme was complemented by a major effort in the field of hydrological education and training. The activities undertaken during the Decade proved to be of great interest and value to Member States. By the end of that period a majority of Unesco's Member States had formed IHD National Committees to carry out th relevant national activities and to participate in regional and international co-operation within the IHD programme. The knowledge of the world's water resources as an independent professional option and facilities for the training of hydrologists had been developed.
Conscious of the need to expand upon the efforts initiated during the International Hydrological Decade, and, following the recommendations of Member States, Unesco, in 1975, launched a new long-term intergovernmental programme, the International
Hydrological Programme (IHP), to follow the Decade.Although the IHP is basically a scientific and educational programme, Unesco has been aware from the beginning of a need to direct its activities toward the practical solutions of the world's very real water resources problems. Accordingly, and in line with the recommendations of the 1977 United Nations Water Conference, the objectives of the International Hydrological Programme have been gradually expanded in order to cover not only hydrological processes considered in interrelationship with the environment and human activities, but also the scientific aspects of multi-purpose utilization and conservation of water resources to meet the needs of economic and social development. Thus, while maintaining IHP's scientific concept, the objectives have shifted perceptibly towards a multi-disciplinary approach to the assessment, planning, and rational management of water resources.
As part of Unesco's contribution to the objectives of the IHP, two publication series are issued: Studies and Reports in Hydrology and Technical Papers in Hydrology In addition to these publications, and in order to expedite exchange of information, some works are issued in the form of Technical Documents.
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The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
FOREWORD
Theme 11 of the third IHP phase deals with systems management for the reduction of the negative side-effects of water resources developments. The current literature seems to stress the negative aspects, often of poorly conceived projects. With proper planning for operational management, however, it is quite possible to counteract the potential negative effects or at least to minimize them. The IHP theme intends to compile and evaluate experiences, to develop and test procedures for reduction or elimination of negative side effects of water resources developments.
Sub-theme 11.2 caters for a survey by an IHP Rapporteur of on-going programmes in this field and on utilization and conservation techniques as conducted by a number of international and regional governmental organizations.
Following visits to Unesco, WHO, WMO, FAO, UNIDO and a number of regional agencies, and based on reports made available to him, IHP Rapporteur Ing. Alberto T.J.
Calcagno from the Comision Mixta Argentina-Paraguaya del Rio Parana, Buenos Aires, Argentina, undertook to compile the present report. Unesco is much indebted to the author.
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C O N T E N T S
I Introduction
II Utilization and conservation of water in the context of water resources management
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Mar del Plata Action Plan 11.3 The rational use of water resources
II.3.1 Assessment of water availability and use II .3.2 Utilization and conservation
11.3.3 Legislation and administration 11.3.4 Planning
11.3.5 Regulatory instruments 11.3.6 Economic instruments
11.3.7 Research and technology development 11.3.8 Training and education
11.3.9 Public information and participation
III Survey of on-going programmes
111.1 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 111.2 World Meteorological Organization
111.3 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 111.4 World Health Organization
111.5 Regional Economic Commissions
111.5.1 Economic Commission for Europe
111.5.2 Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
111.5.3 Economic Commission for Latin America 111.6 United Nations Industrial Development Organization
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IV Utilization and conservation techniques: trends and recommendations
IV.1 Introduction
IV.2 Supply side. Management of water sources IV.3 Water Utilization
IV.3.1 Domestic use IV.3.2 Industrial use IV.3.3 Agricultural use
IV.3.4 Non consumptive uses of water IV.4 Discharge side. Pollution control
V Conclusions and recommendations
References
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I. INTRODUCTION
1.- Project 11.2 -Water Utilization and Conservation Tecniques in Domestic, Industrial, Agricultural, Navigational and Energy Uses- , is one of the two projects included in Theme 11 -Systems Management for Reduction of Negative Side-effects of Water Resources Development- , which, in turn, is one of the four themes corresponding to Section III -Rational Water Resources Assessment and Management- of the Third Phase of the International Hydrologic Programme of UNESCO ( IHP-I I I ) .
2.- 11.2 Project consists of a review of existing programmes, standards and recommendations regarding the economical utilization of water, measures to prevent the waste of water and to ensure water resource conservation, based on a survey of existing programmes by FAO, UNIDO, Regional Economic Commissions, UNESCO's Major Regional Projects, etc.. Thus stated the scope of the project is extremely broad since, in the most general sense, economic utilization and conservation of water should constitute the fundamental goals of every measure or action undertaken in pursuant of a rational management of water resources.
3.- Utilization and conservation of water stands here for the set of techniques, structural measures and related policies required to achieve an efficient allocation, distribution, operation and utilization of water resources, as well as an adequate environment, health and pollution control. Together with the assessment of water resources availability and use and the remaining managerial activities dealing with administrative and non-structural measures, water utilization and conservation techniques and policies constitute the basis
for the rational development of water resources.
4.- The diagram on Table 1.1 depicts a scheme of the previous concepts which constitute the conceptual basis upon which the Final Report of project 11.2 has been organized. Chapter II is devoted to present the concept of water utilization and conservation in the context of the rational management of water resources.
I -1
TABLE I . 1
CONCEPTUAL BASIS FOR THE ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT
WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
W. RESOURCES ASSESSMENT
UTILIZATION AND
CONSERVATION
WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Economic Use
SUPPLY SIDE
Envi ronment, Hea1th and Pol 1ution Contro1
SECTORAL USE
DISCHARGE SIDE
Ef f iciency and
eff icacy in the
regu1 at i on and
d i stribu- t i on of the
resource
Eff icient use of water.
Minimi ze water use per unit of end product
Pol 1 ution
Contro1
Policy definition P 1 anni ng
ControI
Leg i s1 at ion Techno 1ogy
Regulations and Standards
Financial and economic instru ments.
Institutional arrangements.
Research
Pub lie partici- pat i on
Training and Educat i on
Internat i ona1 suppor t.
1-2
It was considered necessary to establish such general framework prior to any turther consideration on the specific object of the project since it should be made clear that water utilization and conservation techniques cannot be considered independently of the whole set of activities and measures -long-term planning, economic instruments, standards and regulations, research and technology. development, training and education, legislation and administration, public participation, etc.- included in a comprehensive management of water resources.
5.- Chapter III presents the review of on-going programmes of several of the organizations in the UN system more directly involved in water-related activities. Most of these organizations base their activities on an pluri-annual Programme of Work approved at fixed intervals of time by their respective head-bodies. Such programmes of work may be taken as an indication of the scope and degree of specialization of the water-related activities' of the organizations, but to a certain extent since in some cases, where technical co-operation services and/or financial assistance are the principal means of action, the actual contents of the programme is dependent upon the requests of the recipient countries.
6.- Chapter IV consists of a global review of existing recommendations and trends on techniques related to the utilization and conservation of water resources resulting from the review of the bibliography collected from several of the organizations visited, which is listed in the References Section of this report. Such a brief review does not intend, of course to present a thorough overview of actual state of technology development and research trends as well the complete set of recommendations arising from numerous general and specific technical meetings, either at the regional or international level. Its main purpose is to present a kind of listing of the principal issues to be considered in relation to water utilization and conservation techniques in the framework of minimizing negative seccondary effects.
7.- Chapter V summarizes the conclusions and recommendations arising from the material included in the previous chapters.
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II.- UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION OF WATER IN THE CONTEXT OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
I I.I INTRODUCTION
1.- The development of water resources has at its aim. in common with development generally, the enhancement of the conditions of human life and must be recognized as an integral part of the social and economic programmes of all countries. The goals chosen by Governments for their peoples, generally speaking, are not realizable in the absence of water adequate in quantity and quality.C713
2.- The approach to water resources management has evolved together with the social and economic development of the countries as the growing demands of water for sectoral use and waste products disposal increased the stress on the available supplies of adequate water quality. From supply oriented management when surface water availability exceeded the incipient requirements to the concept of rational use of water as now understood in the most developed countries
[533, there is a wide range of "attitudes" toward water resources management still co-existing all over the world.
3.- River flows constitute the bulk of usable surface water in most countries and have been the main source of water supply since the dawn of civilization. Their fluctuation during the year and within years leaded to human intervention by means of structural measures to adequate the water availability to the growing needs, either in time and space.
Dams, storage reservoirs, cannals, aqueducts, pipelines, etc., were, and still are, the engineer's response to supply requirements.
4.- Economic development has a twofold impact on water availability. On one hand, the increasing use of water, either consumptive - as for irrigation, industrial or domestic use, or not -such as for energy of navigational uses-, results in full use of existing sources and in the
I 1 -1
pressing need of new ones. Intensive exploitation of groundwater storage follows, in some cases leading to overuse. On the other hand, the corresponding increase of waste products from industrial, domestic and agricultural activities, affects seriously the water quality of the receiving bodies, restricting their actual or future utilization as supply sources.
5.- Thus water contamination, which in early times was a matter of concern mainly because of human health endangering and then', with industrialization and extensive irrigation practices , became also a matter of environmental concern, is nowadays in most developed countries, a significant threaten to the availability of water of adequate quality, even in the sources at present under exploitation.
6.- Under increasing shortage of water supply sources of adequate quality, actual water resources management practices aim to the economic use of water and the control of pollution, as two closely intexrelated goals. Economic use in the sense of an efficient utilization of water, minimizing its use per unit of end product. Pollution control in terms of a "low or non-waste" policy together with a highly controlled management of waste disposal either in land or water bodies.
7.- Industrialization, and the consequent expansion of associated urban areas, results in heavy unbalances in the distribution of the population in most developing countries.
As a consequence, there exist densely inhabited areas of intensive economic activity, usually linked to the relatively larger and more dependable water sources, which pose a major stress on their local natural resources, mainly soil and water. Conflict among water uses, groundwater overuse, surface and groundwater contamination - mainly of industrial origin - and flood hazard are likely to be the major water related problems of such areas.
8.- On the other hand, the remaining less developed regions, usually linked to inadequate and/or less dependable water supply sources, make their living on extensive agricultural practices and animal husbandry as their main economic activities. Again conflict between water uses, ground water depletion, surface and groundwater contamination - mainly related to irrigation - and flood and drought hazards are the
1 I - 2
main water related problems of these regions
9.- Water management approaches have been historically different in both situations. "Discharge oriented", in one case, where contamination and flood hazard posed the major problems, and "supply oriented", in the other, where water scarcity and soil degradation prevailed. T e c h n i c a l , economical, institutional, and financial constraints usually limit the response of developing countries to water problems to single-objective oriented s o l u t i o n s , which are effective at most in the short term. Such attitude needs to be changed urgently into an integral and rational approach to water resources m a n a g e m e n t , according to the experience derived from many failures and negative side effects produced all over the world where such a p p r o a c h was neglected.
10.- Economic utilization of water and pollution control are basic tools to avoid irreversible deterioration of water sources which may impair the future development of existing and potential areas. However it should be borne in mind that they cannot be considered independently of the whole set of managerial activities -long-term planning, economic instruments, standards and r e g u l a t i o n s , research and technology, training and e d u c a t i o n , etc.-, and of the institutional and legal framework existing in each country.
I 1.2 THE MAR DEL PLATA ACTION PLAN
11.- The integrated planning and development of water resources was the main theme of the United N a t i o n s Water Conference held at Mar del Plata, A r g e n t i n a , in 1977, and the concern is generally reflected throughout the Mar del Plata Action Plan adopted by the C o n f e r e n c e [ 1 2 ] . The Action Plan contains a set of resolutions and recommendations on a wide spectrum of activities in the field of water resources developemnt, covering such aspects as assessment of water resources; use and efficiency in the development and use for sectoral u s e s ; e n v i r o n m e n t , health and pollution c o n t r o l ; policy, planning, administration and institutional a s p e c t s ; education, training and r e s e a r c h ; natural h a z a r d s ; and regional and international c o o p e r a t i o n . Table 11.2.1 presents such reccommendations and resolutions organized by subject area.[40]
I 1-3
1 2 . - Chapters B and C of the Mar del Plata Action Plan, namely B.Water use and efficiency and C.Environment, health and pollution control, contain the bulk of recommendations related to economic use and conservation of water, together with those on the full utilization of such resources where possible to satisfy the growing requirements of the developing regions.
1 3 . - "In many areas of the world, water is wasted or used in excess of actual needs. Often water is not used efficiently for agricultural purposes owing to losses in transit, unsuitable irrigation systems or lack of institutional c o o r d i n a t i o n " [ 1 2 3 . Thus instruments to improve the efficiency of water use and the efficiency and efficacy in the regulation and distribution of the resources are the first aspects considered in the recommendations.
1 4 . - Here regulation and distribution are referred to in a wide sense to indicate the overall management of water sources. That m e a n s , inter alia, the optimal allocation of water resources to the various users through systematic planning, the optimization of storage operation and distribution systems and the conjunctive use of surface and groundwaters considering aquifers as storage and distribution e1ements.
1 5 . - Recommendations on the efficient use of water are included among those referring to each sectoral use:
community water supply and waste disposal; agricultural water u s e ; f i s h e r i e s ; industrial water u s e ; hydroelectric- power generation and inland navigation. These will be considered in detail in chapter III of this report. The same happens in relation to pollution control, which is analiaed together with environment and health control in chapter C of the Action Plan.
16.- It should be emphasized, however, that economic utilization and conservation of water are only two of the issues addressed by the Action Plan since they cannot be considered isolated from the rest of the activities involved in water resources management such as planning, policy definition, administration and legislation, water resources a s s e s s m e n t , education and training, technology development and so on. The whole set of structural and non structural measures involved in the more comprehensive concept of
I 1-4
"rational use of water resources" is considered below.
TABLE 11.2.1 - UNITED NATIONS WATER CONFERENCE MAR DEL PLATA ACTION PLAN
Reccomendations and resolutions by subject area
Assessment (R) a/
Use and ef f iciency
Env i ronment and hea1th
Po1i cy and planning and
management
1. Surface water
2. Ground- water
1. Instruments to improve
1. Environment and hea1th
2. Efficiency 2. Pollution and efficacy control
(regulat ion and
distribution) 3. Special 3. Demand
techniques (measurement in and
hydrology projection) 4. Community
supply (R)
5. Agriculture (R)
6. Fishery
7. Industry (R) 8. Hydropower 9. Inland
navi gat ion
1. National po1i cy
instruments 2. Institution-
aI arrange- ments .
3. Legislation
4. Pub 1ic par- ticipation 5. Appropiate techno 1ogy
a/ (R) indicates the existence of a resolution in the subject
I 1-5
area
Source: C 40]
TABLE I 1.2.1 - UNITED NATIONS WATER CONFERENCE MAR DEL PLATA ACTION PLAN
Reccomendations and resolutions by subject area (Continued)
Education and training and
research
Natural hazards
Reg iona1 co-operation
Internat iona1 co-operat ion
1. Public
information
2. Extension
3. Education 4. Training
5. Research
1. Flood 1 oss
management 2. Drought
1 oss
management (deserti i i - cation;(R)
1. Shared (R) water
resources 2. Specific •
reg iona1 recommen- dat i ons
j,. Technical co-operat i on
(TCDC) (R) 2. Research
3. Financing 4. Inst i tu-
t i ona1
ar rangements (R)
a./ (. R) indicates the existence of a resolution on the subject area
Source: [40]
I I - S
I 1.3 THE RATIONAL USE OF WATER RESOURCES
17.- While major structural measures to cope with supply of water and water-related services dominated the earlier stages of supply-oriented and resource-oriented water management, the emphasis turn gradually along with water resources development to non-structural measures (legislation, regulation, economic instruments, planning, supervision, public participation) which aim at a more efficient operation of the existing water schemes. The rational use of water concerns all sectors of the national economy and involves social as well as economically orientated conservation of water.
18.- Rational use of water concerns a "judicious blend of structural and non-structural measures" indicating that supply and demand management stages of development will have to run concur rent 1y. C8] As water demand has a double recourse to the natural medium by both abstraction and restitution actions, water utilization includes withdrawal, use and discharge as non-separable elements of an unique process. A systematic approach is therefore an indispensable element of water management so as not to dissociate the concept of water supply from the collection, cleansing and discharge of waste water which should be directed by the same rationality.
19.- The fact that supply systems may be located upstream of discharge points from water users should not preclude a co-ordinated and rational management. The uniqueness of water, its main specific property of renewability linked with its characteristics of utilization (successive and/or concurrent in time and space; and its characteristics of use ( i.e. use does not destroy this "good** but may destroy one or several of its functions and, as a result, may modify its utilization potential) are all factors which lead to the need of a systematic and integrated approach.C8]
2 0 . - As a consequence a number of developed countries have adopted water-use policies oriented towards a further development and effective application of interrelated measures and instruments, including the improving of legislation and administration, the co-ordinated use of all legal, administrative and regulatory measures, further refinement of planning in water use management including
I 1 - 7
comprehensive land-use planning and the re-allocation of funds and subsidies.
2 1 . - This systematic and integrated approach should also be implemented by developing countries within the scope of their national policies on water management either to improve the operation of existing water schemes or to assure that adequate measures are taken in the less developed regions to avoid impairing the future developement of their water resources, excluding the possibility of irreversible deterioration of potential sources.
I 1.3.1 ASSESSMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AVAILABILITY AND USE
2 2 . - To improve the management of water resources, greater knowledge about their quantity and quality is required. There is a need for regular and systematic collection of h y d r o m e t e o r o 1 o g i c a 1 , hydrological and hydrogeo1ogica1 data together with a system for processing the quantitative and qualitative information for the various types of water b o d i e s . C 1 2 ] More else, keeping an adequate inventory of water availabality is one of the desirable prerequisites for the quantification of water-user rights, for the formulation of water quality standards, for the adjustment of economic incentive systems and for the development of many other administrative m e a s u r e s . C 9 ]2 3 . - On the other hand systematic forecasting, comprehensive planning and inmediate decision-making requires comprehensive and up-to-date information on the utilization of water in the context of the changing environmental situation. Thus systematic collection , processing, compilation and control of data on the use of water is needed. This includes extensive water quality monitoring of surface and groundwaters.
I 1-8
I 1.3.2 UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION
2 4 . - Utilization and conservation stands here for the set of technological and structural measures and related p o l i c i e s , required to achieve an efficient allocation, distribution, operation and utilization of water resources together with an adequate environment, health and pollution control. Together with the assessment of water resources availability and use,and the remaining managerial activities dealing with administrative and non-structural m e a s u r e s , water utilization and conservation techniques and policies constitute the basis for rational development of water resources.
2 5 . - Surface and groundwater management is a key issue towards the conservation of water sources and the optimal allocation of supply water for all its concurrent uses.
Surface waters constitute the main source of supply for most uses and a wide range of technologies had been developed for optimizing the design, implementation and operation of the neccesary water systems. As water demand increased with growing economic a c t i v i t i e s , groundwater utilization became s i gni f icant.
26 .- While in most countries groundwater accounts for a small proportion of usable water resources in terms of volume, it is of considerable importance because of the regular flow it p r o v i d e s , its, in general, good water quality and its availability near the area of need. As water demand increases, groundwater contribution to the total supply of water will enlarge, leading to a full exploitation of the aquifers. Since it is not possible to draw unlimited amounts to keep reserves within prescribed values, adequate management of groundwater sources is necessary to avoid over-exploitation and its consequences regarding water table depletion, saline intrusion and interferences with linked surface waters.
2 7 . - Aquifers integrate a storage and distribution system by themselves and interact with the natural and man-made systems of surface distribution and storage of water. Consequently conjunctive exploitation of surface and groundwater resources is a prerequisite to achieve an efficient management of water sources. System analysis techniques and simulation models are now well known tools in that area. Extensive use of this
I 1-9
tools should also be encouraged to improve efficiency and efficacy of storage and distribution systems.
2 8 . - Coordination between water resources management and land-use planning is an essential requisite towards a basin wide approach to the rational management of watersheds, in order to enhance water resources availability, distribution and storage and to prevent water pollution originated in land-use practices. Similarly a basin wide approach should be on the basis of integrated river management and the systematic planning of water distribution, accounting for the consumptive and non-consumptive uses of water.
2 9 . - Improved efficiency in the utilization of water resources should be pursued in relation with all of the sectoral uses of water. More efficient abstraction and distribution systems and the reduction of process water needs by means of adequate technologies (i.e.: water re-use and recycling, low quality water use where appropiate, etc.) are the present trends towards the economic use of water.
3 0 . - Water contamination has a double effect on water resources by inducing environmental and health hazard and by restricting the availability of water supply sources of adequate quality. Thus pollution control techniques become part of th set of techniques to be considered regarding the economic utilization and conservation of water resources. Low waste processes and adequate disposal of wastes are at present the basic tools for control of pollution either for domestic, industrial and agricultural uses.
11.3.3 LEGISLATION AND ADMINISTRATION
3 1 . - L e g i s l a t i o n in m a n y c o u n t r i e s , t h o u g h o f t e n c o m p l e x , lags b e h i n d m o d e r n w a t e r m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s and t e c h n i q u e s a n d p e r p e t u a t e s a n u n d e s i r a b l e f r a g m e n t a t i o n of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s a b i 1 i t i e s . P r o v i s i o n s w h i c h r e g u l a t e w a t e r m a n a g e m e n t a r e o f t e n c o n t a i n e d in d i f f e r e n t laws and
r e g u l a t i o n s . It is t h e r e f o r e d e s i r a b l e t h a t s u c h p r o v i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g w a t e r r e s o u r c e s m a n a g e m e n t , c o n s e r v a t i o n and p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t p o l l u t i o n , be c o m b i n e d in a u n i t a r y legal
I 1 - 1 0
instrument, if the constitutional framework of the country permi ts. C 12]
3 2 . - Water use policies cannot be implemented successfully unless there is adequate water legislation, with the ultimate objective of ensuring, as far as possible, the most economic and equitable use of water, thereby taking in account any environmental consequences. Regarding water utilization and conservation tecniques, modern trends in legislation tend to promote:
aJ the consideration of water as a unique resource which constitutes in general a public good. Thus any distinction between types of water is being abandoned and all waters are declared to be public and their use subject to authorization.
b) that all aspects of quantity and quality are treated at the same 1 eve 1.
c) the promulgation of legal provisions to ensure the equitable and rational use fo water resources so that it can be conditioned, limited, temporarily restricted or permanently controlled by fixing the flow, the characteristics and the objectives of use.
d) the understanding that the utilization of groundwater should be linked to binding provisions when groundwater aquifers or large groundwater resources are endangered by over exploitation and in need of protection.[8]
3 3 . - In many countries, water interests have been divided among numerous agencies without adequate co-ordination and without adequate links to the other aspects of national planning. The Mar del Plata Action Plan recommends to adapt the institutional framework for efficient planning and use of water resources and the use of advanced technologies where appropiate. Institutional organization for water management should be reformed where appropiate so as to secure adequate co-ordination of central and local administrative authorities.C12]
3 4 . - Administrative procedures and structures vary according to a country's historic and political tradition. Generally three levels of authority responsible for the efficient implementation of water use policy can be identified : the country's central or federal government; the regional authorities, either administrative units or agencies operating on an ad hoc basis, and the local authorities consisting of municipalities and/or associations of water users. In ECE countries regional administrative agencies
11-11
PHI - I I I / 1 1 . 2
c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a r e a s c o v e r i n g a s c l o s e l y a s p o s s i b l e d r a i n a g e b a s i n s is t h e m o d e l s o u g h t t o w a r d s i n c r e a s i n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y of w a t e r u s e a n d the c o n s e r v a t i o n of w a t e r r e s o u r c e s . T h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n of w a t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in t e r m s of d r a i n a g e b a s i n s h a s b e e n p u s h e d a s t e p f u r t h e r by a n e m e r g i n g a w a r e n e s s of t h e u n i t a r y c h a r a c t e r of t h e o v e r a l l e n v i r o n m e n t . [ 8 ] .
3 5 . - To improve the administrative control on the economic utilization of water and its conservation, it is a common understanding that several measures could be implemented at the national level, where appropiate, like:
a) the establishment of a unified system of collection, processing, compilation and control of data on the use of water.
b) Reinforcement of collection of internal data on the practice of water management planning and control of water use and disposal in different economic sectors as well as on the management of water utilization and resources conservat i on.
CJ Improvement of the scientifical and technological bases for standardization and of the application of standards for water withdrawal, consumption and disposal.
d) Improvement of conditions and methods of control and supervision to promote the concept of rational use of water and to reduce water pollution. C8]
I I.3.4 PLANNING
3 6 . - In the past, and even today in regions where water availability exceeds actual needs, planning was understood as guaranteeing to the greatest extent possible the satisfaction of the future demand. However, as supplies tend to become limited, as conflicts between water uses and users are more frequent, as larger water schemes require more investment, more time for preparation before realisation and produce considerable impacts on larger areas, and as the protection of water resources against pollution and over-exploitation becomes a neccesity to ensure their optimal utilization, the need for comprehensive and integrated long-term planning has been rea1i zed.
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3 7 . - Water resources planning must be a continuous process that aims to meet the requirements of all sectors of water use having regard to water quality and environmental issues.
Such a process involves a number of steps or targets which may be summarized as follows [ 6 8 ] :
a) Identification of existing water resources and their present uses for all purposes, evaluating the quality of existing and potential surface and groundwater resources.
b) Estimates of future demands for water for all purposes, both in the medium term (5-10 years) and in the long term
(20-30 y e a r s ) .
c) Formulation of alternative ptans to develop the resources of "a country or region to match the forecast demands, where possible, or, where not possible, to introduce new means of augmenting the resources.
d) Adoption and implementation of the optimum development pi an.
eJ Continuous monitoring and periodic review and adjustment, where appropiate, of the adopted plan.
3 8 . - Water demand forecasting, under the assumption that water supply is not limiting, involves a twofold analysis: a projection of the structure and dimensions of the economy in the future and a projection of water requirements per unit of end pvoduct. A reliable data base on the physical, hydro 1ogical, economic and political aspects linking water resources development to the over all national development strategies is of utmost importance.On the other hand it is also neccesary a sound knowledge of the existing and potential technological trends towards the implementation of more efficient water utilization and waste reduction techniques.[70]. Water forecasts should take n account water resources conservation methods, the possibility of reuse and recycling of water, the impact of economic instruments in combination with regulative measures, etc.
3 9 . - External effects related to water abstraction, use, consumption and discharge, are not without influence on the way in which water demands are satisfied. It has , therefore, been recognized that forecasting and planning of water demand make it possible, as early as the preliminary stage of a water management project, to take measures to eliminate or substantially reduce the damage caused by water s h o r t a g e s C 8 ] . Thus the concept of integrated water resources and demand planning has evolved to constitute nowadays a key tool towards the rational management of water resources.
1 1-13
4 0 . - Water resources planning and its implementation cannot be achieved unilaterally. Water use is closely linked to the use of other equally important resources, such as land, while water supply services are part of broader integrated programmes of urban, sectoral and regional development.
Consequently, the organization responsible for centralized planning should ensure that a balance is achieved between national, regional and sectoral aims and priorities when formulating any national water policies and, where appropiate, a national water plan. In any case the scope and responsibility of either centralizaed or decentralized planning should be clearly defined by the government C 6 8 ] .
4 1 . - Planning agencies should recognize that the approach for planning, evaluation and decision making should be objective oriented and inter-disciplinary, so that a wide range of solutions including structural and non-structural alternatives can be evaluated expeditious1y to select the most appropiate one for a given solution. System analysis techniques have the potential for significantly expediting and improving the water resources planning process, as well as offering a greater degree of objectivity and flexibility [ 6 8 ] . From a methodological viewpoint, the computational methods for analysing alternative planning and management options and the preparation of a synthesis can be distinguished as consisting of two categories: simulation and optimization. Selection of one of these methodologies, or a combination of both, depends on the nature of the problem, the possibilities of participation of the decision maker, and the amount of detail required.
I 1.3.5 REGULATORY INSTRUMENTS
4 2 . - R e g u l a t i o n s and o r d i n a n c e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a n i m p o r t a n t tool t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t s for p r o m o t i n g and i m p l e m e n t i n g a f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d w a t e r - u s e p o l i c y . U s u a l l y s u c h r e g u l a t i o n s r e s u l t f r o m legal p r o v i s i o n s or from g o v e r n m e n t a l d e c r e e s to g u i d e in t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of w a t e r - u s e p o l i c i e s . S u c h r e g u l a t i v e i n s t r u m e n t s m a y t a k e the f o r m of s t a n d a r d s , c r i t e r i a , g u i d e l i n e s , r u l e s , n o r m s , l i m i t a t i o n s , p e r m i t s or
1i c e n s e s [ 8 J .
1 1 - 1 4
4 3 . - G e n e r a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s for w a t e r u s e , d i s c h a r g e a n d the a m b i e n t a q u a t i c e n v i r o n m e n t had b e e n s p e c i f i e d by m a n y c o u n t r i e s , e v e n t h o u g h m a n y d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e i n h e r e n t in e s t a b l i s h i n g s u c h s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . T h i s is d u e to t h e i n a d e q u a t e k n o w l e d g e of p o l l u t a n t ' s e f f e c t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in small s u s t a i n e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , on h u m a n h e a l t h and on a n i m a l and p l a n t l i f e . T h e s e e f f e c t s m u s t be w e i g h e d w i t h o t h e r , o f t e n c o n f l i c t i n g , e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l a s p e c t s . T h u s in s o m e c a s e s it has b e e n d e s i r a b l e to e s t a b l i s h s p e c i a l s t a n d a r d s for c e r t a i n a r e a s s u c h as n a t u r e r e s e r v e s or a r e a s of s p e c i a l n a t u r a l or c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t [ 4 9 ] . S i n c e u n d i s t u r b e d n a t u r a l s y s t e m s a r e a n e c c e s i t y for the e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t of n e i g h b o u r i n g s y s t e m s and g u a r a n t e e i n g the e x i s t e n c e and t h e long t e r m d e v e l o p m e n t of m a n h i m s e l f , s t a n d a r d s m u s t be s e t for n a t u r a l s y s t e m s to p r o t e c t n a t u r e a g a i n s t o v e r e x p 1 o i t a t i o n C 1 6 ] .
4 4 . - Q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s for v a r i o u s t y p e s of w a t e r u s e h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d , to p r o v i d e s a f e g u a r d s a g a i n s t t h e h a r m f u l 1 e f f e c t s of t h e m o r e c o m m o n a n d w i d e s p r e a d p o l l u t a n t s . At t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l level t h e W H O D r i n k i n g W a t e r S t a n d a r d s s e r v e a s the b a s i s for the n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s of m a n y c o u n t r i e s . F u r t h e r e m p h a s i s is n o w b e i n g p l a c e d on the m o r e t o x i c p o l l u t a n t s a n d t h o s e w h o s e e f f e c t m i g h t o n l y be o b s e r v e d a f t e r m a n y y e a r s of e x p o s u r e . D i s c h a r g e s t a n d a r d s h a v e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d in a n u m b e r of c o u n t r i e s , s o m e t i m e s in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h g e n e r a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s or o t h e r c o n t r o l m e c h a n i s m s . T h e r e is a g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t in t h a t w a t e r q u a l i t y l e v e l s s h o u l d be set a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y . A l s o , in '"that s u c h l e v e l s s h o u l d b e a d a p t e d to t h e e x p e c t e d a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e w a t e r , to the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the w a s t e w a t e r , to the c a p a c i t y of the r e c e p t o r and to t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s for w a t e r t r e a t m e n t . A t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s e x p r e s s i n g e f f l u e n t s t a n d a r d s in t e r m of p o l l u t i o n load c a n be s e e n C 8 ] .
4 5 . - N o r m s d e f i n i n g l e v e l s of w a t e r u s e , c o n s u m p t i o n and d i s c h a r g e per c o n s u m e r or per u n i t of end p r o d u c t t a k i n g in a c c o u n t w a t e r q u a l i t y a r e a p p l i e d for v a r i o u s u s e s , i n c l u d i n g the p r e p a r a t i o n of f o r e c a s t s , t h e s e t t i n g of t a r g e t f i g u r e s for i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e s , and the m o n i t o r i n g and o p t i m u m r e g u l a t i o n of w a t e r r e s o u r c e s . C o o l i n g w a t e r , i n d u s t r i a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l w a t e r s u p p l y n o r m s a r e r e c e i v i n g p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n d u e to its i m p o r t a n c e in p l a n n i n g , in s t i m u l a t i n g p r o g r e s s and h e l p i n g to a c h i e v e w a t e r s a v i n g C8J.
I I -15
4 6 . - In many countries, administrative instruments allow for direct regulatory control through such practices as permits and licenses, standards and approvals, control and stop orders, water quality criteria, etc.[8]
I 1.3.6 ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS
4 7 . - Economic instruments in water management are understood as constituting a system of economic measures designed to encourage actions oriented towar'ds the rational utilization of water resources and their protection against pollution, contamination and depletion. They include charges for water abstraction from surface water, groundwater or from water supply systems; charges for effluent discharge into public sewage systems and surface water; charges for insufficiently treated effluents in proportion to their quantity, concentration or pollution load; fines for exceeding established conditions of effluent discharge; compensation of damage caused by water pollution based on the principle that the polluter p a y s ; grants and subsidies alloted by governments for investments in pollution abatement projects;
loans with low-interest rates for the installation of appropiate treatment technology; reduction of taxes in connection with the construction of industrial waste-water treatment plants; funds to stimulate innovation of technology suitable for efficient water use.C8]
4 8 . - Economic incentives and instruments may have a number of effects on the economic and social sectors. In the economic field this could include higher productivity per unit of water; use of more efficient technologies in industry and agriculture, with lower water demand and costs, ad consequently higher profits; interaction between the degree of pollution of water resources and their rational use ; and the degree of comprehensive management of water resources. In the social field the effects could comprise: degree of pollution of water resources and their use for human consumption; difficulties for enterprises that use excessive amounts of water and are not able to compensate for the increased costs of water, which might have consequences for employment; rise in the level of prices because of the added cost of pollution control.[8]
I 1-16
I 1.3.7 RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
49.- The Mar del Plata Action Plan calls to accord high priority to research programs that provide the knowledge necessary for the sound management of water resources and that promote greater efficiency in water use, particularly in agriculture and industry. Also that the results of long and short term applied research should be adopted and utiliaed in order to solve specific problems and thus forge a closer relationship between research and d e v e l o p m e n t . C 1 2 h Research and the development of adequate techniques and technologies should therefore contribute considerably to a more efficient use of water and to an intensified control of water po11ution.
5 0 . - Continued improvement of appropiate techniques for the optimization of water sources management is needed . These should include the assessment water resources, particularly with limited or scarce data; weather forecasting, system analysis and simulation techniques for planning and management, for the optimal allocation of water resources and for the operation of storage and reservoir systems; remote sensing; water pollution and water quality modelling; ground water management; etc.
5 1 . - Technology development may take a variety of forms. In particular it is possible to distinguish between technologies that use less or no water; technologies with low water consumption; water make-up and purification technologies;
special water production technologies (desalination of sea water or brackish w a t e r ) ; technologies for sewage and waste water treatment; and technologies for recycling, re-use or multiple use of water. In general all the uses of water for domestic, urban, industrial and agricultural purposes are affected by these various technological deve1opements.C8D
5 2 . - The development of appropiate technologies is also of concern mostly in developing countries. Such technologies involve the use of local raw materials and resources, local experience and low capital costs. The Mar del Plata Action Plan recommends to encourage the widest possible diffusion of acquired knowledge on the development of appropiate technology, to establish and expand enterprises and to productively apply the appropiate technologies that have been
I 1-17
d e v e 1 o p e d . A 1 so to p r o m o t e t h e u s e of local a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s . C 1 2 ]
I 1.3.8 T R A I N I N G A N D E D U C A T I O N
5 3 . - T r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s s h o u l d be i m p l e m e n t e d to g i v e w a t e r m a n a g e m e n t p l a n n e r s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s i n v o l v e d in w a t e r r e s o u r c e s d e v e l o p m e n t a n d u t i l i z a t i o n ; to p r o v i d e p r o f e s s i o n a l , t e c h n i c a l a n d s k i l l e d m a n p o w e r in h y d r o l o g y , h y d r o g e o 1 o g y , h y d r a u l i c s , s o c i a l , b i o l o g i c a l a n d h e a l t h s c i e n c e s ; and to p r o v i d e m a n a g e r s for w a t e r r e s o u r c e s s y s t e m s , o p e r a t o r s for w a t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n and for t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s and m o n i t o r s for w a t e r q u a l i t y i n s t a l l a t i o n s . E x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s a t t h e f a r m level s h o u l d a l s o b e o r g a n i z e d . C 1 2 ]
1 1 . 3 . 9 P U B L I C I N F O R M A T I O N A N D P A R T I C I P A T I O N
5 4 . - In o r d e r to e n s u r e m a x i m u m a t t e n t i o n to t h e p r o p e r u t i 1 i z a t i o n , p r o t e c t i o n and c o n s e r v a t i o n of w a t e r it is of d e c i s i v e i n p o r t a n c e t h a t al1 c i t i z e n s be m a d e a w a r e of f u n d a m e n t a l m a t t e r s r e l a t i n g to w a t e r . F o r t h a t r e a s o n e d u c a t i o n and r e s e a r c h h a v e to b e e f f i c i e n t l y s u p p l e m e n t e d by t h e p r o v i s i o n of b r o a d i n f o r m a t i o n to the p u b l i c . E f f e c t i v e p u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n a i m s a t t h e c r e a t i n g of a g e n e r a l a s well as p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the c r u c i a l w a t e r i s s u e s . G i v e n a g e n e r a l f e e l i n g of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the local r e s o u r c e s , p e o p l e will be a w a r e of the i m p o r t a n c e of t h e p r o t e c t i o n and c o n s e r v a t i o n of w a t e r . [ 1 2 ]
5 5 - M o r e o v e r , as c l e a n and s a f e w a t e r is b e c o m i n g a n i n c r e a s i n g l y s c a r c e c o m m o d i t y , the g e n e r a l p u b l i c is t a k i n g m o r e a n d m o r e i n t e r e s t in p r o b l e m s of w a t e r m a n a g e m e n t , d e s i r i n g and e v e n d e m a n d i n g to take p a r t in w a t e r p o l i c y d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g and p l a n n i n g . H o w e v e r the c o m p l e x i t y of w a t e r s u p p l y a n d u t i l i z a t i o n s y s t e m s a s well a s t h e p r o c e d u r e s
I I - 1 8
involved in water management planning, raises a number of difficulties for public participation in decision-making.
This calls for appropiate forms of legislation and organization in conformity with the socio-political systems of the country.C8]
5 6 . - Some of the following types of public participacion have already been employed: councils of citizens and water users for a river basin, in towns, provinces or the whole country;
referendum or ballot; associations of citizens or water users; public meetings, courses and lectures; information diffusion through press, radio , television and other media to engage public opinion. As all citizens and water users are interested in the rational use and conservation of water, all sectors of the public should be involved at all levels in such considerations and decision-making. They should also be informed about the problems and solutions for water use and conservation. The public should participate at all stages of study, development and planning of water use and conservation, as it can make significant contribution both to the identification of targets and to the development, adoption and implementation of plans.C8]
I 1-19
Ill SURVEY OF ON-GOING PROGRAMMES
1.- The activities of the United Nations system of organizations in the field of water resources development are wide-ranging in scope and nature. Their involvement has grown during the past three decades and continues to grow, both in terms of the magnitude and complexity of the problems addressed. Table IV.1 presents a general delineation of the interest of the organisations in the various development sectors.C40]
2.- These organizations have formal arrangements for co-operation and colaboration with each other in many programmes, including water, in order to further their respective roles and increase and ensure complementarity in their efforts to assist developing countries. Such complementarity is also stressed by the means of action employed by the organization in fullfilling with their objectives. These include: technical co-operation, in terms of project execution, technical advisory services and training; resource transfers in the form of financing (loans and g r a n t s ) ; and supporting measures , realized mainly through the regular programmes of the organizations, in the form of studies and publications, research, conferences, seminars, workshops, symposia,etc.t40]
3.- Most of these organizations base their activities on a pluri-annual programme of work duly approved by their respective decision head body at fixed intervals of time, together with the corresponding allocation of funds per program. Such programme of work constitutes a general framework for orienting the activities of each agency according to its specialization and the relative employment of the above mentioned means of action. Thus, in the case of programmes that are carried on mainly through technical co-operation services or financial assistance, the degree of involvement of the agency with the programme is dependent upon the requests of the recipient countries.
I I I - 1
TABLE 11 I.I - INVOLVEMENT OF THE ORGANIZATIONS OF THE UNITED NATIONS SYSTEM IN WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
Use and management areas Organizations;
with main
concern in the indicated area
Organisations;
with interest in app1ied aspects of the
indicated area
A) COMMON MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS
1. Water planning, policy 1egis1 at ion and
administration
UN/DTCD FAO UNDP WB ECA ECE ECLA ECWA ESCAP
UNESCO WMQ WHO UNEP UNICEF UN I DO 1LO IAEA 2. Water resources
assessmet
3. Education and training 4. Water and human
env i ronment.
5. F1ood contro1 (Flood loss management)
6. Drought management (desertification
contro1)
WMO UNESCO IAEA FAO
UNESCO ILO UNEP
UNDRO WMO ESCAP
UNEP FAO ECWA UNESCO
UN/DTCD WHO UNDP WB ECA ECE ECLA ECWA ESCAP UNEP
A 1 1 others All others
UNDP WB FAO ECE UN/DTCD ECA UNESCO ECWA ECLA
UN/DTCD ECA ECE ECLA ECWA ESCAP WMO UNDP WB WFP
I FAD UNDRO 7 Technical co-operation
among developing countr i es
UNDP Ail others
a/ Source [40]
I I I - 2
TABLE I I I.I - INVOLVEMENT OF THE ORGANIZATIONS OF THE UNITED NATIONS SYSTEM IN WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
(cont i nued)
Organizations)USE with interest
Or gani zationtsJ AND MANAGEMENT AREAS
concern in the indicated area
with main in app1ied
aspects of the indicated ares
B) DEVELOPMENT AND USE FOR SECTORAL PURPOSES
1. Agriculture and
fisheries (irrigation and drainage - fresh water
FAO WB WFP I FAD
UNDP UNESCO WMO ILO UNEP UN/DTCD ECA ECE ECLA ECWA ESCAP IAEA 2. Community water
supply and sanitation
WHO WB UNICEF UNDP
FAO UN/DTCD ECA ECE ECLA ECWA ESCAP ILO UNEP UNESCO WMO UNCHS
3. Industrial water use UNIDO WB UN/DTCD FAO UNDP ILO ECWA ECE
4. Inland navigation 5. Hydropower
ECE ESCAP ECLA ECA ECWA UN/DTCD WB UNDP UN/DTCD
WB UNDP ILO FAO WMO ESCAP UN/DTCD ECWA ECLA ECA UNIDO
a/ Source [40]
I I I - 3
4 . - T a b l e IV.2 p r e s e n t s the listing of the o r g a n i z a t i o n s in the U n i t e d N a t i o n s s y s t e m w h i c h c a r r y on p r o g r a m m e a c t i v i t i e s in the field of w a t e r r e s o u r c e s . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d that the d e g r e e of i n v o l v e m e n t in the field v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y a m o n g the d i f f e r e n t a g e n c i e s . T h e t a b l e a l s o i d e n t i f i e s the o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h o s e c u r r e n t p r o g r a m m e of w o r k is d e s c r i b e d in t h i s r e p o r t . T h i s set i n c l u d e s the m a j o r i t y of the o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h d i r e c t i n v o l v e m e n t a n d m o r e a c t i v e p r o g r a m m e s in w a t e r - r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s .
5 . - T h e f o l l o w i n g p r e s e n t s a brief r e v i e w of o n - g o i n g w a t e r r e l a t e d p r o g r a m m e s of the s u c h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s in the U.N. s y s t e m . In m o s t c a s e s the m a t e r i a l used for the p r e p a r a t i o n of the r e v i e w has b e e n c o l l e c t e d from the o f f i c i a l s d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d in the m a n a g e m e n t of w a t e r r e l a t e d p r o g r a m m e s at the h e a d q u a r t e r s of the o r g a n i z a t i o n s . In o t h e r s p u b l i s h e d i n f o r m a t i o n has b e e n u s e d for this r e p o r t . In all c a s e s the p r o g r a m m e s r e f e r r e d to s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d as n o t c o n s t i t u t i n g the e x h a u s t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n of the c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o g r a m m e of w o r k .
T A B L E I I I.2
O R G A N I Z A T I O N S OF T H E UN S Y S T E M I N V O L V E D IN W A T E R - R E L A T E D A C T I V I T I E S
A ) S P E C I A L I Z E D A G E N C I E S
U n i t e d N a t i o n s S c i e n t i f i c and C u l t u r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n <P)
W o r l d M e t e o r o l o g i c a l O r g a n i z a t i o n (P)
F o o d and A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n of the U n i t e d N a t i o n s (P)
W o r l d H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n IP) W o r 1 d B a n k and
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Fund for A g r i c u l t u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t ,
B ) U N I T E D N A T I O N S
D e p a r t m e n t of I n t e r n a t i o n a l and S o c i a l A f f a i r s
I I 1-4
Department of Technical Co-operation for Development Economic Commission for Europe (P)
Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific (P) Economic Commission for Latin America (P)
Economic Commission for Africa
Economic Commission for Western Asia
Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coord inator
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (P)
United Nations Environment Programme
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements United Nations Children's Fund
United Nations Development Programme World Food Programme
C) OTHER ORGANIZATIONS
International Atomic Energy Agency
(P) Programme described
Source: The United Nations Organizations and Water C40]
I I I.I UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION
6.- UNESCO activities in the field of water are focussed on the improvement of the capacity of the Member States to assess, plan and manage their water resources through the improvement and utilization of scientific knowledge concerning the water resources system itself and its relationship to human activities and the natural environment through the adequate training of specialized manpower and education of the general public. The International Hydrologic Programme tlHP) occupies a central place within the whole UNESCO water-related programme. The I HP is co-ordinated by an
Intergovernmental Council which reports to UNESCO General Conference.[40]
I I 1 - 5
7.- The IHP Programme was launched in 1975 in accordance with the decisions taken by the General Conference at its 17th and 18th sessions (17C/Reso1ution 2.323 and ISC/Resolution 2.232) and its preparation was largely based an the experience gained during the International Hydrological Decade (1965-1974). In August 1981, the UNESCO/WMO International Conference on Hydrology and the Scientific Bases for the Rational Management of Water Resources adopted the outline plan of the on-going third phase of the IHP (1984-1989).
Since then the objectives of the IHP have been gradually expanded to cover the scientific aspects of multi-purpose utilization and conservation of water resources to meet the needs of economic and social development. Thus the IHP's objectives have shifted perceptibly towards a mu1tidiscip1inary approach to the assessment, planning and rational management of water resources.
8.- Also since 1981 UNESCO has placed particular emphasis on the rational utilization and conservation of water resources in rural areas through its Major Regional Projects in Africa, the Arab States and Latin American and the Caribbean.
INTERNATIONAL HYDROLOGIC PROGRAMME - PHASE III (1984-1989)
9.- The I HP—III plan identifies seventeen themes which have been grouped under four sections as follows:
Section 1: Hydrological processes and parameters for water projects.
Section II: Influence of man on the hydrological eye 1e.
Section III: Rational water resources assessment and management.
Section IV: Education and training, public information and scientific information systems.
The following presents a detailed listing of I H P - I I I p r o j e c t s c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e s e c t i o n a n d t h e m e s c o v e r e d , i n c l u d i n g a b r i e f b a c k g r o u n d of the s e c t i o n s a n d the t h e m e s c o n s i d e r e d :
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Section I: Hydrological Processes and Parameters for water pro jects
10.- Section I covers scientific studies of natural hydrological processes, synthesis of current knowledge. The activities include studies of all types of water resources and studies of all elements of the hydrological cycle and, in particular, the improvement of methodologies such as mathematical modelling, remote sensing, nuclear methods, water balances and inventories, experimental and representative basins and their application to description of hydrological processes and parameters needed for water projects. The themes covered are:
1) Investigation of elements of the hydrological cycle and determination of water balances.
2) Methods of investigation of surface and groundwater regimes and for the determination of hydrological parameters for water projects.
3) Interaction between climatic variablity and change in hydrological processes.
4) Hydrology of particular regions and land areas.
5) Application of special technologies for the study of water resources.
Section 2: Influence of man in the hydrological cycle
11.- This section covers scientific studies of the influence of man on the hydrological cycle, including water quantity and quality. Activities of man are considered to include direct actions such as land-use changes, consumptive use of water, physical operations on river systems, addition of contaminants of various kinds, as well as those of a more direct nature, such as, for example, man-induced climatic changes. These studies include the effect of changes in the hydro1ogicva1 cycle on social, environmental and ecological aspects relative to water resources. The themes included under this section are:
6) Method of assessing changes in the hydrological regime due to man's influence.
7) Environmental impact studies of water projects.
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8) Specific influences of man on the hydrologic regime.
Section III: Rational Water Resources Assessment and Management.
12.- This area considers water resources assessment beyond the inventorying of available water resources, including the evaluation of socio-economic and environmental aspects as well as the institutional opportunities and constraints to approach such assessment. Also planning and management aspects are considered, regarding the efficient utilization of water resources. Integrated water management, areal distribution of resources, including interbasin transfers, conjunctive use of surface an-d groundwater s, integrated operations of reservoir storage and release, competitive uses, international co-operation, etc, are aspects to be considered. The themes included under this section are:
9) Methodologies for water resources assessment.
10) Methodologies for integrated planning and management of water resources.
11) Systems management for reduction of negative-side effects of water resources development.
12) Development and presentation of information for planners and decision-makers concerning the implications of modern water resources planning and management approaches.
Section IV: Education and training, public information and scientific information systems.
13.- Education and training activities include two main programmes: hydrology education for the training of specialized personnel and general water resources education with emphasis on the integrated aspects of water resources management. Public information studies will present alternative concepts and procedures for raising the level of public awareness so that public can be profitably involved in the proper' utlization, protection and conservation of water resources. Scientific information systems studies will place emphasis on the methodological principles for the establishment of such systems at national, regional and global levels. The themes included in this section are the f o 1 1 o w i n g :
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13) Promotion of formal education and training in the field of water resources.
14) Preparation of guidance material to be used for the establishment of training courses in hydrology and water resources management, addressed to various cathegories of personne1.
15) Improvement of teaching methods in hydrology and water resources management.
16) Comparative methodologies for public and the promotion of public participation in utilisation, protection and conservation of water
17) Scientific information systems: to the flow and utilization of scientific and
infomation in the field of water resources.
18) Methods for the effective transfer of knowledge and technology related to water resources, and for the evaluation of their impacts in developing countries.
information the proper resources.
faci1itate techni ca1
MAJOR REGIONAL PROJECTS FOR THE RATIONAL UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATIONS OF WATER RESOURCES IN RURAL AREAS
14.- The Major Regional projects for the rational utilization and corservation of water in rural areas constitute one of the ways through which UNESCO promotes and supports technical co-operation among developing countries at the regional level. At present such projects have been implemented covering rural areas of Africa, the Arab States and Latin America and the Caribbean. A similar project for rural areas of Asia and the Pacific has been launched at the beginning of 1986
15.- The aim of the major regional project is to find the most appropiate ways of developing and conserving water resources, to meet the economic and social needs of the rural population. This will necessitate undertaking research concerning the adaptation of new and imported technologies suited to available resources and local conditions, to give priority to the development of technologies resulting, as much as possible, from local resources and experiences; to make an inventory of traditional systems for the collection and distribution of water and to improve them with appropiate techniques.C9]
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16.- Thus a wide range of activities are carried on through these regional projects, including aspects such as rural health and sanitation, soil conservation, the improvement of traditional technologies and transfer on new ones, training and public information, water structures maintenance, soil erosion control, rain water collection, subsurface dams and reservoirs, salt water treatment,fog trapping, low scale hydropower and improved traditional irrigation techniques.
The programme aims to the mitigation of drought situations and the management of water in areas of water scarcity, like in the North East of Brazil, in Africa south of the Sahara, and in the Arab States.
1 7 . - As an example of typical activities within these projects it follows the draft programme of activities for the period 1984-1986/87 as included in the Final Report of the Regional Meeting on the Major Project for the rural areas of Africa, south of Sahara.C133:
1.1 Earth dams adaptability survey in rural areas 1.2 Demonstration of the use of ferrocement tanks for rain-water harvesting.
1.3 Demonstration of sub-surface dams utilization for water -conservation.
1.4 Demonstration and use of infiltration ga11er ies.
1.5 Transfer of soil restoration and conservation techniques from one region to another.
1.6 Training: preparation of technical manuals and short-term training on ferrocement technicques.
2.1 Study and popularization of individual sand f i1ters.
2.2 Study tours.
2.3. Rainfed agricultural development: control of rainwater runoff for crops.
2.4 Tree crops development for soil conservation.
2.5 Training for production and installation of water lifting devices and hand pumps.
2.6 Training fo water resources management and deve1opment.
3.1 Transfer of technology on large well projects.
3.2 Water lifting devices utilizing animal, wind, solar and other power/energy systems.
3.3 Groundwater collection: use of underground galleries for farming.
3.4 Compilation of bibliography on rural water supp1y.
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