Palaeoenvironmental setting (5400-2300 cal BC)

The palaeoenvironmental record for the region under study is particularly rich, both considering pollen records and anthracological analyses. More recently, pedo-anthracological analyses have started to approach the vegetation history of high mountain areas (Cunill 2010, Cunill et al. 2012). Many researchers like E. Allué, F. Burjachs, I. Euba, C. Mensua, R. Pérez-Obiol, R. Piqué, S. Riera, M.T. Ros or S. Vila have contributed to a better knowledge of the vegetation of this area during the Holocene. In this work, we will deal with the Early Atlantic (6900-4700 BC), the Late Atlantic (4700-3500 cal BC) and the subBoreal (3500-750 cal BC) periods. The so-called “Mid Holocene” phase (c. 5000-3000 cal BC) refers to the Late Atlantic and the beginnings of the subBoreal periods.

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Fig. 2.5. Results of the anthracological analyses (>100 NR) from archaeological sites dated between 5400-4500 cal BC (see references in the text).

Fig. 2.6. Results of the anthracological analyses (>100 NR) from archaeological sites dated between 4500-3200 cal BC (see references in the text).

Fig. 2.7. Results of the anthracological analyses (>100 NR) from archaeological sites dated between 3200-2300 cal BC (see references in the text).

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Anthracological analyses have been performed at a large number of sites, and it has been considered of interest to plot in maps the amalgamated results for settlement phase (for the location and typology of the sites see Figs. 2.8 to 2.12). Only those sites with more than 100 charcoal fragments identified have been considered as representative. The data have been grouped into three large chronological phases:

5400-4500 (roughly, the Early Neolithic), 4500-3200 (the Middle Neolithic), and 3200-2300 cal BC (the Late Neolithic). Ten sites have been considered for the first phase (Fig. 2.8): Balma Margineda (Leroyer

& Heinz 1992), Can Sadurní Cave (Antolín et al. 2013, Antolín et al. 2013); 120 Cave, Pau III Cave, Barranc d’en Fabra (Ros 1996), La Draga (Piqué 2000), La Dou (Mensua and Piqué, unpublished), Plansallosa (Bosch et al. 1998), Guineu Cave (Allué, Vernet & Cebrià 2009) and Fosca Cave (Antolín et al. 2010). For the second phase, six sites were available (Fig. 2.9): Sardo Cave (Obea et al. 2011), Can Sadurní Cave (Antolín et al. 2013), Ca n’Isach, Feixa del Moro, Gavà Mines (Ros 1996, Piqué 2010) and Vilars de Tous (Clop et al. 2005). And, finally, six more sites were available for the last phase (Fig.

2.10): Bòbila Madurell, Ca l’Estrada (Piqué unpublished), 120 Cave (Agustí et al. 1987), La Prunera (Ferré & Piqué 2002), Can Sadurní Cave (Antolín et al. 2013) and Serra del Mas Bonet (Antolín, López-Bultó & Piqué in press). It is clear that more analyses are needed in the southern and interior areas of the region under study. These blanks mostly reflect areas where archaeological work has not focused on these periods.

In-site anthracological analyses give a reliable approach to the arboreal component of the landscape of the studied regions, since availability is a key factor in the final composition of charcoal assemblages.

This is especially the case of cave sites, where R. Piqué noted a more opportunistic fuel gathering strategy (Piqué 2005), which means that the charcoal record probably yielded a representative spectrum of the immediate vegetation surrounding the site. The results of the anthracological analyses per site phase are presented in Figs. 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7. It is rather clear already in the Early Neolithic (5400-4500 cal BC; the final phase of the Early Atlantic) (Fig. 2.5) that ecological availability largely determines the spectrum of consumed taxa. Termo-mesomediterranean woodland is mainly exploited south of the Llobregat River (also observed in Ros 1996). At the north of the Llobregat River, in sites located at low altitudes with more Mediterranean influence, and at the North-East of the region supramediterranean vegetation dominates: deciduous oak (Quercus sp. deciduous) is the dominant taxon in the north, but the presence of evergreen oak (Quercus ilex/coccifera) is recorded also and it has some significance in coastal sites. However, oromediterranean taxa are relevant in high altitude sites located in the central Pyrenees (Obea et al. 2011).

A more extreme pattern is observed during the next period (Fig. 2.6), the Middle Neolithic (4500-3200 cal BC; roughly, the Late Atlantic phase, also known as the Mid-Holocene), when termo-mesomediterranean taxa become widely used in the littoral and pre-littoral areas, while supramediterranean and oromediterrenan taxa continue dominating the record of pre-Pyrenean and Pyrenean sites.

At the final phase, the Late Neolithic (3200-2300 cal BC; the first phase of the subBoreal period; Fig.

2.7), the consumption of termo-mesomediterranean taxa is maintained in the coastal areas while supramediterranean vegetation keeps its preferential role in pre-Pyrenean regions.

Though patchy, these results might be reflecting a tendency towards climate aridification during the Mid-Holocene, which would be especially noticed south (and west?) of the Llobregat River and the littoral and pre-littoral areas. A tendency towards the exploitation of more shrub taxa is observed north

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of the Llobregat River as well (Piqué 2005, Buxó & Piqué 2008). These changes will continue during the Bronze Age where a more significant role of Termo-mesomediterranean taxa is observed north of the Llobregat River (Ros 1996). In general terms, when we speak of supramediterranean taxa, deciduous oaks (Quercus sp.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) predominate in the record, while termo-mesomediterranean taxa are more diversified: evergreen oaks (Quercus ilex/coccifera), Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), mastic (Pistacia lentiscus), buckthorn (Rhamnus/Phillyrea) and wild olive trees (Olea europaea var. sylvestris) are frequently encountered. Among oromediterraena taxa, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris/nigra) and fir (Abies sp.) are the most frequently recovered taxa (for further discussion on these data see (Piqué 1998, Piqué, Barceló & Noguera 2002, Buxó & Piqué 2008, Obea et al. 2011).

Palynological analyses were also carried out in the region. Seven pollen cores from the coastline of the region under study have been analysed (for a recent synthesis, see (Riera, López-Sáez & Bosch 2004).

Two more cores have been analysed in the eastern Pre-Pyrenean region (Burjachs 1994, Pérez-Obiol, 1988, cit. Riera 2006) (for some overviews on off-site pollen records from this region see Burjachs &

Riera 1996, Riera 2006, Riera, Esteve & Nadal 2007). More recently, two pollen cores from the central Pyrenees have been published (Pèlachs 2004, Pèlachs et al. 2007, Miras et al. 2007, Miras et al. 2010) and several in-site analyses have been conducted in archaeological sites like Font Major Cave (Ballesteros 2009), Sardo Cave (Gassiot et al. 2012b), La Draga (Burjachs 2000), Plansallosa (Bosch et al. 1998) and Bauma del Serrat del Pont (Alcalde, Molist & Saña 2002), among others. Finally, pedo-anthracological data from high mountain areas has been presented in some works (Cunill 2010, Cunill et al. 2012).

In general, percentages of arboreal pollen are much higher in the northern coast (from c. 90% in the VIth millennium cal BC to c. 75% towards the IIIrd millennium). It must be said, though, that less wooded areas are detected in in-site palynological analyses at the eastern pre-Pyrenees (Bosch et al. 1998, (Betula sp.), hazel (Corylus sp.) and elm (Ulmus sp.), which had spread during the Climatic Optimum, throughout the first two chronological phases mentioned above (5400-4500 and 4500-3200 cal BC). In the final period, human intervention produces a noticeable reduction of these taxa and favour the spread of juniper (Juniperus sp.) and fir (Abies sp.). This confirms that vegetation change in coastal areas has comparable effects also in high mountain regions (Pèlachs et al. 2007).

In the coastal area north of the Llobregat River, deciduous oak forests predominated during the middle Holocene (Burjachs & Riera 1996, Riera 2006). However, between the Ebro and the Llobregat River, a mixed forest of evergreen and deciduous oaks is detected from the early moments of the Neolithic.

Maquis formations increase their significance towards the IVth and IIIrd millennium cal BC (Riera 1996, Riera, López-Sáez & Bosch 2004, Riera 2006, Riera, Esteve & Nadal 2007). The in-site pollen analysis from Font Major Cave (l’Espluga de Francolí, Conca de Barberà), which is located rather inland and half-way between the Llobregat and the Ebro rivers also shows a mixed forest of evergreen (dominant) and deciduous oak woodland (also with pine) (Ballesteros 2009).

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In general terms, anthracological and palynological analyses give rather parallel results. Termo-mediterranean vegetation is well represented in the southern half of the region and it increases its importance in younger phases. The coastal areas to the north of the Llobregat river witness the progressive expansion of evergreen termo-Mediterranean taxa, especially during the Middle and Late Neolithic. In the Pyrenean and Pre-Pyrenean regions, supra and oromediterranean taxa are identified and only towards the Late Neolithic, some significant changes can be observed.

2.5. Introduction to the studied region. The first farming communities of the the NE of the Iberian Peninsula (5400-2300 cal BC)

There has been quite a lot of discussion on the nature of early farming in Europe and, more specifically, in the Iberian Peninsula, and its relation to the spread of the Neolithic “way of life”. As it will be presented here, the degree (or lack) of “sophistication” of crop husbandry has been considered by many authors as one of the reasons for the rapid spread of farming across the Mediterranean, as well as the cause for the onset or the collapse of some societies. Wild fruit management has also entered in this discussion, especially as a way of demonstrating either the continuity with Mesolithic traditions or the insufficiency of farming techniques to provide enough food for the subsistence of Neolithic groups. This discussion has not always been based on direct evidences, but mainly on the elaboration of theoretical models that can explain the expansion and evolution of Neolithic groups. As will be shown, archaeobotanical studies are very scarce for this period and they mainly concentrate on the Early Neolithic phase, with the objective of documenting the earliest evidences of the practice of agriculture in the region. Nevertheless, the available archaeological evidence can be interpreted in rather different terms. The aim of this chapter is to review recent interpretations of the Neolithic in our region and propose a more coherent discourse, under the interpretative framework that has been presented in previous chapters.

I do not intend to review all the many theoretical approaches to the Neolithic in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula. They can be found elsewhere (for instance, Bosch 1991, Bosch 2005, García-Atiénzar 2007, Bosch & Santacana 2009). Instead, in the following chapter, a discussion of the relevant archaeological evidences and interpretations carried out for this period especially concerning plant food economy will be reviewed.