The wild and the domesticated. Hazelnuts, acorns and other wild plant resources among early farmers among early farmers

Wild plants would not only be part of human diet in the past but they would also be necessary for animal feeding and building purposes, among other uses. Some of these practices would require much labour investment and organization and their study is basic for the understanding of past societies.

Despite this, most of the work that has been done on early farming societies has focused on (domesticated) crop husbandry. Partly, this is due to the difficulties of studying wild plant management among prehistoric groups: the scarce archaeobotanical evidence (due to the lower chances of fruits of becoming charred (Willerding 1971)), the lack of specific tools, the use of systems of storage that are not properly identified in the archaeological record, etc.

J. O’Shea defined several types of systems where a mixed management of wild and domestic resources could take place. This systematization was constructed on ethnographic observations in North America

37

(O'Shea 1989). Simple systems would be those where only one community would be involved. These can be of regular type, which means that wild resources would be gathered on a regular basis, as part of the year-round activities. On the other hand, they can also be of episodic type, where decisions would be made on a year-to-year basis according to the production obtained from farming activities. These systems are flexible and endurable, as long as the territory of the group is well-defended and predictably productive.

Complex systems involving more than one community can exist as well. In such cases, two models are presented, one where specialized communities exchange their products (hunted game for grain, for example); or one where several communities put their labour force together for large hunts or massive gathering of plant products. Such systems are less stable because they involve more than one community.

Simple regular systems seem to be the most appropriate for our context of analysis. This type of model was observed in ethnographic work carried out in Methana (Greece) (Forbes 1976). Here, gathering was practiced mainly by women (but also by men) and usually not as a specific task but something which was done while carrying out of other activities (caring of grazing livestock, checking the state of crop fields, etc.). The inhabitants of the investigated villages used to eat wild vegetables as much as their own crops. This percentage only decreased in recent times. This model suits an intensive exploitation of the surrounding environment of a village and goes in accordance with intensive mixed farming practices.

Early farming communities exploited wild plant resources as much as cultivated ones. As formerly stated, it must be kept in mind that the present distinction between wild and domesticated might not have existed in the past (Ingold 1996). Early farmers mostly inhabited dispersed farmsteads, they lived in the wild. Growing plants would only entitle the establishment of the conditions for their growth.

Considerable labour investment could have been put to the preferential proliferation of high yielding wild plants, such as hazels, oaks or several grasses and wild legumes. Some authors (Guinard &

Guinard 2001) have proposed that cultivars might have been grown around economically valued wild trees. If apple trees or hazels were found in a clearance or a potential arable area, why would farmers cut them down? The possibility that they were kept inside the fields must be considered and tending of these trees must have probably taken place. This would have occurred if new fields were not burned, as commonly assumed, but just tilled and the organic matter left on the ground, which has a number of benefits for the crops (see Guinard & Guinard 2001). Some taxa may have entered into cultivation at this point, such as opium poppy or marian thistle (Guinard & Guinard 2001). At this point, one fact must be taken into consideration. Many Mediterranean woodland species are resprouters, therefore fire and tilling might not be sufficient to open new arable land. The complete extraction of the roots would be necessary.

Some information is available for two of the main gathered fruits during the Neolithic in the North-East of the Iberian Peninsula (Zapata 2000, Buxó & Piqué 2008): acorns and hazelnuts. In the following lines we will focus on the processes of labour that may require their systematic harvesting, processing and consumption.

38 2.2.2.1. Acorns  

As stated by several authors (e.g. Salkova et al. 2011), acorns are nutritionally comparable to cereals.

They contain carbohydrates, fats and fibres, as well as proteins, amino acids and vitamin A. Mason did a major work of compilation of historical and ethnographic examples of the processing and use of acorns in the world and she also did ethnographic research, together with M. Nesbitt, in Turkey (Mason 1992, 91-93; Mason & Nesbitt 2009). Some ethnographic references to the Iberian Peninsula are also known (García-Gómez, Pereira-Sieso & Ruiz-Taboada 2002). I will mainly deal with the European/Mediterranean examples from Mason’s work. It is noted by all these authors that acorns are usually interpreted as a minor resource or as a famine food (Mason 1992, 48, García-Gómez, Pereira-Sieso & Ruiz-Taboada 2002). According to S.Mason, little serious discussion of their processing requirements or their taphonomy has been carried out.

According to historical and ethnographic references, acorns were frequently gathered but not always for human consumption, since they were much appreciated for pigs, but also for other animals. Records of the use of acorns for feeding livestock in the XXth century in the Iberian Peninsula report the use of acorns of Quercus ilex and Quercus suber for pigs; but acorns from Quercus coccifera, Q. faginea and Q. pyrenaica would be better given to goats, sheep and cattle (Martín 1960). It is not clear, according to S. Mason, whether they were gathered from the trees or from the floor. Both methods were recognized as having been used by elderly people from the province of Toledo, in central Spain (García-Gómez, Pereira-Sieso & Ruiz-Taboada 2002). Knocking of the branches to make acorns fall can be quite destructive but, at the same time, this process can be beneficial, since it acts as some sort of pruning and more light will reach undamaged parts in the next years. This technique also reduces the competition of ground-feeding animals and insects. Nutritional differences between the obtained products in each case should be mild, as long as harvesting is carried out when the fruits are ripe. Green acorns are also known to have been gathered. In Turkey, acorns are mostly picked from the floor, which is the way for locals to know that they are sweet enough. In some cases, cupules are extracted in the field and only acorns are taken to the site (Mason & Nesbitt 2009). Oak yields are not constant year after year (Salkova et al. 2011) and so this has to be foreseen in the management strategies (a relatively large number of trees has to be tended or at least considered for harvesting to make sure that the production will cover the needs of the household or the community).

Storage is an essential step if wild fruits management was part of a risk-reduction strategy. Acorns would be gathered in autumn, when other resources would be available, so if one wanted to consume them when no other resource was left, this had to be calculated and optimal storage would have had to be practiced. Mason reports some references from Abu Zacaría Iahia Al-Awam, an Arab author from al-Andalus who lived in the tenth century. This author specifies that special care must be taken to dry acorns before storing them. That could be done by spreading them in an airy sunny position or by smoking them over a fire. Some studies suggest that parching/roasting is essential to prevent from any insect infestation (Mason 1992, 186) and recent experimental work in England confirmed that roasted acorns store much better, rottening being the main problem (Cunningham 2011a).

Several methods of preparation of acorns are recorded in Europe (Mason 1992, 82 and 86-88), especially destined to remove their tannins (which have a bitter taste and are slightly toxic). The method that is used depends on several factors: availability of time and labour force, of fuel, of the instruments for boiling, etc. Sweet acorns, e.g. from Quercus ilex, can be eaten raw. They can be peeled manually

39

(with a knife) (Mason & Nesbitt 2009).Washing acorns or burying them in soil, boiling them in water or milk, drying and parching them before turning them into flour are several of the methods that were used.

Acorn flour could be used to produce bread. In Sardinia, shelled acorns were boiled in water, then crushed and red clay was added (clay absorbs the tannins). Boiling could take several hours. The resulting substance was solid enough to be cut into slices. According to Al-Awam, shelling of acorns could be done by placing them in a bag and hitting it carefully with a mallet. Roasting of acorns is also reported. The use of acorns also as a source of oil has been recorded in NW Africa and in the Iberian Peninsula. Acorns are smashed and cooked in water. Then the oil floats to the surface of the water and it is recovered with a small bowl or a spoon (García-Gómez, Pereira-Sieso & Ruiz-Taboada 2002).

Experimental processing by S. Mason (1992, 188) showed that leaching and roasting increase the content in proteins of acorns, while the cooking of bread decreases fat contents. More experimental work is needed on this field.

According to S. Mason, roasting of acorns is more common with sweet types of acorns, which are eaten in small quantities, as a snack. Most archaeologists consider that this is the main cause for the charring of acorns. Mason considers that this practice might only happen in sites where acorns were a less important element of the diet (Mason 1992, 192).

Historical records tend to emphasize the importance of acorns in the Western Mediterranean, especially, reaching a considerable percentage in the human diet, particularly among poor people (Mason 1992, 83).

2.2.2.2. Hazelnuts  

Hazelnuts are rich in oils (50-66%), proteins and calories, as well as in vitamins (especially B1 and B3 and minerals (phosphor, iron, calcium and potassium) (Boada 2005).

Available information of historical or ethnographic records on traditional management of hazels is scarce. Most of the information presented in this chapter is based on the work of A. McComb and D.

Simpson (1999) in Ireland.

According to McComb and Simpson (McComb & Simpson 1999) the ideal moment for gathering hazelnuts is when the seed is formed but the shell is not fully ripe. Unlike oaks, hazels are shrubs and this makes fruits more easily available to human and other animals. Thus, strategies to avoid loss of product due to competitors must have been applied. After harvesting, the fruits can be sundried. In order to maximize the harvest, collection should be carried out in several days during the period of maturation, since fruits ripen at different frequencies.

Hazelnuts are easily stored. Recent experiments have concluded that over 50% (and sometimes up to 80%) of the harvested product stays edible after 5-8 months of storage in pits and baskets (Cunningham 2011a). Losses must have been already considered by farmers in the past and probably more than what was strictly necessary would have been collected.

Hazelnuts can be eaten in raw state but several authors have highlighted the benefits of roasting (Zapata 2000, Holst 2010). Several roasting techniques are known through ethnographic examples (for an

40

overview, see Holst 2007). This process adds labour input to the costs of obtention of the product but there are other advantages, like the fact that heat can kill insect larvae and so improves the durability of the fruits. Besides that, they are less likely to be attacked by fungi, especially if gathered in unripe state.

Taste may also be improved and fruits become easier to break and grind. Processing of the fruits can also reduce the volume of the final product up to 50% (Holst 2010). Hazelnuts could have also been eaten crushed, ground, soaked and mixed with other foodstuffs. Processing would also contribute to their digestibility if large amounts were to be consumed (McComb & Simpson 1999).

As can be observed in both cases (acorns and hazelnuts), gathering wild fruits was probably a well-planned regular practice that could have implied the tending of wild plants and the construction of storage structures. Significant investment of labour could have been paid to their culinary processing, which, according to Stahl, should be interpreted as a sign of their perception as staple foods (Stahl 1989).

2.3. The social significance of an intensive mixed economy: a hypothetical