Bien que plusieurs recherches aient été menées au sujet des prédicteurs de la réussite en formation auditive, la plupart les ont étudiés de manière isolée et ont négligé certains autres facteurs potentiels, comme les expériences musicales informelles, la connaissance de la notation musicale et l’oreille absolue. Ceci fait en sorte que nous ne comprenons pas encore très bien comment ces facteurs influencent la réussite en formation auditive au Cégep. Pour corriger ce problème, deux cent soixante étudiants en musique de niveau collégial (n = 260) ont été recrutés dans des cours de formation auditive et ont été invités à remplir un questionnaire visant à documenter les éléments ayant caractérisé leur parcours musical : expériences musicales informelles, instruments appris, leçons individuelles, expériences collectives, répétitions individuelles d’instrument, oreille absolue et connaissance de la notation musicale. Ces données ont été combinées avec les renseignements apparaissant dans les dossiers scolaires des étudiants (moyenne générale au secondaire, résultats aux tests de classement en théorie musicale) afin de prédire la réussite du test de classement en formation auditive. Les analyses ont montré que les expériences musicales ne contribuaient pas directement à la réussite du test de classement en formation auditive, mais plutôt par l’intermédiaire des connaissances en théorie musicale, les habiletés de lecture musicale et l’oreille absolue. En revanche, les résultats suggèrent que ces trois habiletés musicales s’acquièrent à travers les apprentissages formels, notamment l’apprentissage d’un instrument de musique employant la notation musicale ainsi que les cours de musique collectifs. En outre, ce modèle permet d’expliquer la plupart des différences observées entre les groupes d’instrumentistes.
Mots clés : formation auditive; facteurs de réussite; expériences musicales; expériences informelles, éducation musicale
Abstract
Although there has been much research on predictors of aural skills, most studies have investigated them in isolation and have overlooked several other important factors, such as informal music experiences, notation knowledge, and absolute pitch. As a result, we still do not fully understand how background factors influence aural skills grades at the college level. This paper addresses this issue. Two-hundred and sixty (n = 260) music majors filled out a questionnaire characterizing their musical background from early childhood to college: informal music experiences, instruments learned, individual instrument lessons, collective music experiences, instrument practice, absolute pitch, and notation knowledge. The music background data were analysed in coordination with academic and music achievement to predict aural skills performance on a placement test. Multiple regressions revealed that the influence of music experiences on aural skills were mediated mostly through music theory, notation knowledge, and absolute pitch. These music skills were more likely to be acquired in formal settings, such as individual instrument lessons involving music notation and enriched collective music programs. Most aural skills differences found among instrumentalist groups were attributable to music background, but better aural skills performance in pianists were not fully accounted for by the background factors investigated.
Keywords: aural skills; success factors; music experiences; informal music experiences; music education
Introduction
The purpose of this research is to investigate the background factors that influence aural skills performance, and to better understand their contribution to overall competence. Although there has been much research involving predictors of sight-singing and melodic dictation performance, most studies have overlooked potential factors or investigated them separately. Current literature does not provide a full explanation of the contribution that various factors make to aural skills, or the relationships between them. Our research will address these issues. Academic achievement
Examination of previous academic results is an integral part of the admission process in many music programs. The literature has shown quite clearly that general academic achievement is a powerful predictor of final grades in most school subjects (Hattie, 2009). Aural skills are no exception. Several studies have found that aural skills achievement at college-level was predicted by various measures of high school grades, including general grade point average (Harrison, 1990; Harrison, 1991; Harrison, Asmus & Serpe, 1994; Lehmann, 2014), and specific course grades (Arenson, 1983; Chadwick, 1933; Emig, 1978; Ernest, 1970; Ottman, 1956; Roby, 1962; Rodeheaver, 1972). These positive relationships suggest that ear training, as soon as it is integrated into a music curriculum, becomes a school subject like any other.
Music achievement
Since general academic achievement does not fully explain future music achievement, placement tests are widely used in college music programs for main instrument, sight-singing, dictation, and music theory. Research has reported that aural skills final grades are mainly related to placement test scores in aural skills and in music theory (Arenson, 1983; Bergby, 2013; Emig, 1978; Lehmann, 2014; Ottman, 1956; Rodeheaver, 1972). Although they are generally implicit in traditional placement tests, measures of general musical aptitude have also been linked to aural skills performance, namely rhythmic skills, melodic memory, and musicality (Arenson, 1983; Chadwick, 1933; Dean, 1937; Harrison, 1987a; Harrison, 1987b; Harrison, 1990; Harrison, 1991; Harrison et al., 1994; Lueft, 1974; Ottman, 1956; Roby, 1962; Rodeheaver, 1972; Schleuter, 1983). Even if music placement tests remain the most powerful tool to predict future success in ear training, they do not explain how students acquired their music skills.
Music experiences
Much research on sight-singing and melodic dictation have included one or more measures of music experiences. However, the choice of variables differ widely between studies and the contribution of music experiences to aural skills performance has rarely been investigated while taking into account other important predictors. As a result, many positive associations have been reported in unstructured ways making it difficult to know how musical experiences are related to aural skills.
To our knowledge, only one study has clearly demonstrated that music experiences could bring a unique contribution to the prediction of aural skills grades. Using structural equation modelling, Harrison et al. (1994) studied the effects of music aptitudes, academic achievement, music experiences, and motivation for music on aural skills among 142 college music freshmen. Their predictive model explained 73% of the total variance in aural skills grades by the end of the first semester. Half of this impressive model was based on music aptitudes while the other half was shared equally between academic achievement and music experiences. Although these results suggest that music experiences could be as important as academic achievement, the findings are limited. Only one measure of music experiences was used—the number of years of individual instrument lessons—while music experiences encompass a much wider range of factors. Moreover, equation modelling did not explain how music aptitudes might be acquired.
Types of music experiences
Few studies have reported differences depending on the instruments learned. Some instrumentalists, such as pianists, were more likely to perform well in aural skills (Arenson, 1983; Brown, 2001; Harrison, 1990; Harrison, 1991; Thostenson, 1967). Positive associations have also been found between aural skills, choral and orchestral experience (Emig, 1978; Furby, 2008; Rodeheaver, 1972).
Music expertise
Most studies found positive associations between aural skills, the amount of individual instrumental lessons (Brown, 2001; Dean, 1937; Emig, 1978; Harrison, 1990; Rodeheaver, 1972; Thostenson, 1967), and the number of years of music practice (Harrison, 1990; 1991). Rodeheaver (1972) established interesting links between aural skills at college-level and many
informal music experiences, such as time spent listening to music, singing with parents at home, and concerts attendance; however, these results have not been replicated to date.
Other potential predictors
Notation knowledge
Some research has reported links between instrumental sight-playing performance and sight- singing performance (Kopiez & Lee, 2008; Mishra, 2014). However, notation knowledge was never used as a predictor of aural skills. Since some college music students do not have a formal music background and may not be proficient in music notation (for example, students in jazz guitar, bass guitar, voice, and drums), we wanted to know if this could explain differences in aural skills performance.
Absolute pitch
Although the music community usually thinks that absolute pitch helps aural skills, little research has measured its actual effect. Brown (2001) found that students with absolute pitch scored significantly higher on a sight-singing test, while Brodsky, Kessler, Rubinstein, Ginsborg & Henik (2008) found that it was only beneficial to the speed of execution.
Study aims
All factors presented above have been positively associated with aural skills performance, but most have not been studied simultaneously. In addition, previous research has overlooked many potential factors, such as music experiences, notation knowledge, and absolute pitch. We therefore do not know the extent to which they contribute to overall aural skills competence. Our research aims to extend previous knowledge by studying simultaneously most of the common success factors related to aural skills, and by including variables that have been neglected in the literature, such as those related to informal music experiences, notation knowledge, and absolute pitch. Given the strong correlations between aural skills placement tests and the grades students get later in their music program, we decided to focus our investigation on an aural skills placement test. The main research question is: how do background factors influence aural skills performance at college entrance?