Brief notes on the social implications of

UNITED NATIONS

AFRICA.l'J INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMI C DEVELOPl\illNT A1'ID PLANNING

DAKAR

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE GREEN REVOLUTIOlT IN NORTH AFRICA

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IDEP/REPRODUCTION/287 Page 1.

I . BRIEF NOTES ON THE SOCI.AL IMPLICATIONS OF "THE GREEN REVOLUTION"

IN MOROCCO

At first sight, this country offers fairly advantageous

natural conditions for agricultural development better than those of

.,_,fH.:.geria, and even more so than those of Turiisia. There are coa.stal

plains which are mostly fertile and wide, where the climate derives from the Atlantic and gives mild winters. There is a narrow coastal strip of land sui table for growing carly vegetables which 2,ro sent to the European market towards the end of winter, bofore thoso of ^t~~o other countries of the Maghreb. There are also t1'lO proper ¹¹rivors", the Sebou and the Oum er R¹bia which, at thëir lowest, registor

flmrs of between 60 and 70 cubic metres per second though in no way comparable with thoso of the real wadis of the Cheliff or of the Medjerda. In the last few years, an F.A.O. team has undertaken a vast study of the development of the Sebou river basin, in the north of tho country, which provides valuable information regarding the

natural as well as the economie and social conditions of this basin.l / Hmvever, a closer look revoals that extensive stock-farming, which has for long been the major activity in the country has, as Julien

Couleau~xplains

brought about an impoverishmont of tho forost3 and pasture lands and eventually the sail, v·rhose organic content is constantly docreasing, and which 'is more and more subject to erosion and sometimes turning into desert. Couleau has rightly shawn that the stock-farming and agricultural systems used wero quito suitable for this particularly pastoral country which is as yot sparsoly

1/

Soc, inter alia2 tho studios by Grigori Lazarov and Hubert Béguin publishod in the "Bulletin Economique et Social du Maroc" (BESM) botween 1964 and 1968.~

y

^{La pa,ysannerie marocaine,. C .N .• -R.S. ··Paris9 1968.}

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·Page 2.

populated "but constituted sorious obstacles to modornization and ... . :P:le_._:i,~i!<?.Ù~if:i,q~j;:i,g.n. _q:L t:r:aditiQnaL .agriculture ...

It is truc that sorne form of modornization, foreign in origin, that of French colonization to "be precise, had "beon introducod at tho

"boginning of tho century. It roachod the country rather lata in comparisbn with its introduction in Algeria and Tunieia and conse- quently had a_less unfavourable impact on rural society. It affocted nearly one mil,lion hectares and 5,000 farmers, and did not bring about large-scala development of vinoyards, having concentratod (apart from grains which are always dominant and mochanized too fast) on the gro-vring of early vogetablos, citrus fruit crops and even groon peas

and vegeta"bles for canning. Howovor, the efforts mado to improve irrigation at Sidi Slimane and in tho Haouz plains in particula~,

have boen mostly for the bene fit of the sottlors who~ œ1 tLo o-ths-'- hand, have done nothing to dovolop oithcr cas~ crops (cott~n, ~;_:·c l. ' t

beetroot), or fodder crops -vrhich arc nocossary for intensive stock- breoding.

Tho success of white settlemont was mostly due to intensive financial aid from tho state; plots of land wore sold undor tho settlc- ment schema somotimes far ridiculously l ow priees, markets 1-roro guaran- tood in tho mothor country and the priees woro thosc of tho .F'rench market whilo Moroccan wages woro very much lower than thoso in Franco. Although tho sottlors¹ productivity was two or throe times highor thru1 that of tho fellah, thoir oxpondituro was 6 or

7

times groater . They were not lacking in onto:rpriso or teclmical kno-vd odeo but ono must not .~orgot that thoir succoss was duo to tho fact thGt they ownod largo farms, had capital re sources and marketing st:Pueturos -vrhich the fellahs did not possess. Tho Moroccan authoritios "both undor the Protoctorato, after 1945 (in conjunction with tho peasantry moderniza- tion soctors croated "by Jacques Borquej}and Julien Couleau) and after

j}

At tho timo Jacques Barque wroto ¹¹modornization will "be total or will not take place at all ^11, I tried to oxplain t o him that,

"by definition, modornization impliod a continuous procoss which is nov0r completed.

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Indepondonco, were very much improssod by tho modern soctor. They thus attomptod, as in Tunisia9 to oxtcnd at loast a :part of this soctor to includo tho fellahs without having carofully l ookod at the costs or the overall requirements for its dovol opmont.

Shortly aftor Independance, Moroccan country lifo 1ms bascd on tho co-existence of widoly difforontiatod social groups, much moro so than in Algeria or Tunisia. The idyllic picturo of the :Moroccan fellah generally possessing an adequate sized farm which was current at the time of the French protectorate is now more and moro erroneous. In the

1 964

census, the distribution of ¹¹welk"

land (privately ownod) ~;as according to J. Couleau, as follows :-

13%

large and medium owners; those with more than

4

hectares, altogethor owning

65%

of the arable lands.

27%

of farmers owning botwoon

1

and

4

hectares.

27%

owning less than

1

hectare.

33%, th~ ¹¹Khamrno ¹ s or landless labourers owned nothing -recent estimates givo

4 o%

^{as landless labourers).}

The last two categories takon togethor show that

6e:P/o

of tho Moroc- can rural population vms entirely or almost ontirely lanÇI.loss, and that a good

25% ,

those with 1 to 4 hectares bolonged, :_with a fow exceptions (with irrigation, kitchon gardening or fruit crops) t o tho catogory of ¹¹microfundiaries^11, hardly managing to <?ke a living out of their farm. According to a study carriod out in

1 9 . 63

under tho Sebou projoct,

4o%

of rural familios were landlo~s, half the land~ w~s ownod by

2 . 8%

^{of tho rural popul}ation and throe-quarters by

7·5% .

Although figures which can be compared with those of other countrios are lacking, it is quito cloar that in Morocco, thore is a dofinito class of big landowners, generally absentee, like ^~at of

IDEP/REPRODUCTION/287 Page

4·

the ¹¹Fassi" bourgeois; or of large-scale modern farmers sucb as the citrus fruit pla ta ti on mmers of the Sobou· valle;y ~"l'bosc in- fluence and economie and political power are far beyond that of

tbeir .LÜgerian or even Tunisian counterpa:.. ts.

On the otber band, the lands belonging to the settlers

. -

were not subjected to "socialization" measures sucb as tbose wbicb took place in Algeria or Tunisia. A part of the land belonging to tbose settlers who bave left were sold to :Moroccan big landowners, often actually paid for in France~ tbus increasing land concentra- tion. Anotber pa t was first con~rolled by a state organization wbicb farmed it out to interested managers. From state control whicb soon became bu.r'o:.1Ucratic <1nd made ::Lossos, the control passed to provincial level whicb gave less ba~ results. Similarly, state lands held in permanent usufruct by the ~arming community were en- trus,ted to the governors and collective tribal lands .were control- led by the department of "collectivities". The citrus fruit plantations were entrusted to Agrupak a state company~ which also controlled the handling and packing stations.

The devolution of control to big landowners, of lands \ibicb were formerly collectivities or which the fellahs simply wanted to have, gave rise to serious tensions wbich sometimes lod to armed conflicts as occurred at Gharb in Decemb.er 1970. Menziés haà.. pro- mised to transfer ownership to bis labourers, (who bad collected the money to purcbase i t back cheaply) of an es tate whicb be bad obtained as a concession and wbich original"ly vras marshy and almost unproductive. These lands could be regarded as state pro- per·ty and in 1970, i t was proposed to parcel them out. However, Si Nijjai, a big land owner who was minister of agriculture soon after Independance and who bad maintained contacts with the ministry, obtained from the authorities a (verbal or written)

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IDI~/REPRODUCTION/287 Page

5·

agreement to acquire the ownership. He immediately nrr~nged for these l~nds to be ploughed by tractors. The labourers formerly employed on these lands then attempted to stop the trcct0rs working.

Mokhaznis ·(policemen) were sent to protect them Rnd the peasants attached the former with sticks. The following day, the policemen came oack and fired: apparently six people were killed.

Here also, under employment is a dominant feature cf Moroa- can country life₉ giving rise to w~ges which are r.:ucl le~. ~l' "cùr.D

those in Algeria or even Tunisia and which J. Couleau reckons ~o

vary generally between IF and 2F 50 per day for the fellah togotbor wi th a few monthly contracts amounting to about 50F. Only at he.rvest

t±me are '\.rages rela ti v ely good₉ ·· varying between 6 and 12F per day but with a maximum o: 200F for the two-months ol harvest (figures for

1965 - 67) . ·

Even then, adds Couleau: "if all fRmily heads cculù.

be guaranteed a mimimum of 1F per day throughout the year₉ the situa- tion wculd. be infinitely better. " 1F per day, 300F or

55

dollars per worker per year would only make it possible to survive if the ramily "receives sorne marginal income: farm-yard or gathered products, looking after herds of animals₉ etc." We must mention that the

minimum legal wage of

4F

is not usually paid except on modern farms. Agricultural under-employment is estimated at half the total of agricul tural I•Wrkers number

3. 5

millions or

70%

of the "•working"

population or population "of working age". However₉ agriculture pro- vides hardly a third of the national product

(25

~o

35%

depending on climatic conditions). 22% of the total of unemployed are found in the towns to which must be added the buge under-employment in the over-developed tertiary sector. The

1960- 64

plan proposed to crc~to

80,?00 jobs every_year b~t only 4,000 were oreated in industry: un- employment get increasingly worse despite increasing ewigration. The Rif area used to send workers to Algeria but this bas stopped

-----. --- ^{... --~-- ···--- ····-·. ·---- . ---··· -·---~- . -...}

(except for a small number duFing harvest time). They mostly go to Europe whenever this is possible.

IDEP/REPRODUCTION/287 Page 6.

J. Couleau writes ¹¹sometimes the owners of large estat·es who allow pa~t of their land to lie fallow to enable their herds to graze ••• their income can be very_high •••• they avoid the obligation of reciprocal and egali tarian,,11s-e of common pasture lands and re- serve for t heir own herds the grazing of the stubbles from their own .crops. " On studying the Prérif area where share-cropping or short

term leasehold farming is predominant, we were struck by the scar- city of olive plantations, t4e area being such that the climate and the visits of soil erosion are reasons enough for investments of this nrJture which are more common in the typical areas of "peasantry"

farming.

Increasing over-population leads to arable land becoming an tncreasingly scarce factor and the rent for land which, under the tradi.tion;Ü shél.re-cropping system, amount~d to a fifth of the crop or under the system of token rent, to a loaf, can now reach, in fertile areas, a third or even half of the crop. The fe.rmer operat- ing at the margin, who rents land for a year, bas no more incentive to improve. the L1-nd than the share-cropper or Kbammés. And wh en the landlord owns enough land to enable him to save a part of the ground rent, he ;prefers to invest in urban construction, trade, pur- chases of land or herds of animals.

A few Moroccan farmers have, since before Independence, tried

· to follow th~ steps of the settler and modernize through mechaniza- tion. They very often started by mechanizing the harvest which in- creased unemployment wi thout raising production. '11 e consider i t more economical and urgent to mechanize ploughing and land work in general for, if it is carried out early and properly, more water can be

collected and favour.B.ble conditions can be created for developing the potentialities for achieving the Green Revolution. But a number of

i~oroc.::an farrners bave introduced mechanization vTi thout intensifica- tion, or for example, without even using fertilizers. Consequently, the modest yield obtained was not sufficient to pay for the costs of

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IDEP/REPRODUCTION/287 Page

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amortization, running and servicing of the tractors and other mechanized equipment. Hadj Omar ben Abd el Jal il ₉ wh en he was Minister of Agriculture, asked me in 1957, to find out why many

"Moroccan settlers" who, after having "extensively mechanized"

their farms, were forced to sell their _herds little by little in order to cover their deficits.

The changeable nature of the climate which causes the crops to suffcr and affects the herds, occasionally gives rise to short- ages which sometimes leads to starvation. In such circumstances, many farmers₉ in order to survive, have to sell their lands for a morsel of bread, or more exactly₉ for a handful of barley, which facilitates land concentration into the bands of those who have sorne spare cash and can put i t to "profitable" use·.· J. Couleau quotes the example, in 1945, of an hectare of land in the Tadla area being given in exchange for 20 li tres or 13r.kgs of barley •

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In 1966 and 1967, following a less severe drought_, a pumber of farmers in the Tadla region were forced to sell to townspeople, lands which were soon going to be brought un~er irrigation. Thus, it is townspeople, traders and sometimes civil servants, who bene- fit from the appreciation in value which public expenditure brings to these lands.

The social structure of the rural community, with its diverse forms of association (about a hundred of them), hinders modernization. Each crop-year₉ a number of farmers exploited on the basis of such associations break up and, to set them up again with new partners,it involves lengthy negotiations which takes

time, delays and sometimes prevents sowing taking place. If one

In 1847, in the ~rdennes, my grandfather was forced to sell 25 ¹¹areas¹¹ (one ",are-u being equal to 100 sq. metres) of land for 60 litres of vetch.

IDEP/REPRODUCTION/287 Page 8.

member of the associa.tion do es not fulfil his oblign tions ~ the wh ole crop may be compromised; and the conflicts ~ the ¹¹chikaia" are equally a waste of time. In addition~ the traditional agreement wbich

divides the crop into

5

components (land~ seeds, team of animals, work and miscellaneous expanses) does not make provision for the use of fertilizers, hormone weed-~illers and tractors. It favours the maintenance of feudal practices in a society where the system of exchange economy has penetrated quite far. The Khammé₅ once the fields have been ploughed, becomes a bouse-boy when there are so many improvements to be carried out on the land: small hydraulic deviees, drainage, store-removal, transplanting and fighting soil erosion. However, ¹¹Khamessat" is decreasing while paid employment or piece-work is increasing.

In the Moroccan countryside~ pove:;:-ty finally reac..J. ... e:::; _ oaè..- ful proportions and is on the increase. J. Couleau speaks of "one million rural familias provided with the most meagre agricultural resources, or lacking in such resources." The picture one gets from a Uorth. African market (souk) in the Rif area, where ¹¹micro- fvndium11 is the standard practice, is one of almost non-existent income and I dare not repeat the figures which I have come across.

Many ¹¹microfundiaries ¹¹ are unable to survive on the ir farm of sorne ten "ares" except by growing "ldf¹¹ or InJia hemp) g. drug whose production is allowed (in the fOl':no::.." Sp:1: ü~~: z0;-.-Î r·J.t -';lv 2'"..J? of wbich is prohibi teè.! :Bet1-reen 1936 and 1945, ~oroccan grain produc-

tion reacbed 370 kgs per head of population and the country was oxporting 220,000 tons por ennum. :Betwee':l 1 ?56 e.nd 1965 ₉ out:put had fallen to 220 kgs and in 1966-68, imports were of the order of 800,000 tons per year. :Between 1936 and 1945, for every 100

inhabitants there were 34 sbeep and 99 goats; between 1956 and 1965, 22 sheep ;:~nd 52 gonts and the nuQber of cattle per inhabi tant bad f.:ülen by 3 71~~

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IDEP/REPRODUCTION/287 Page 9.

Malnutrition which reaches dramatic proportions in drought years increases at an alarming rate among the poor people in the countryside and in the slum areas. Thus "the most neglected groups of people are not in a position to make the necessary productive effort for a rapid èrowtii in-agriculture." A report by the World Realth Organization around 1967 and which stressed the gravity of the situation with regard to malnutrition among

4o%

^{of the Moroccan}

people has not been published. Such censorship is not likely tn contribute towards an improvement of the situation.

"Thus a wide corner of the veil which hides the real facts

regarding the life of the poor people of the countryside is uncovered

••••• society neglects its poor~ it does not provide it with employ- ment and similarly attempts to despoil it, to tnke away its means of defence against the great of the rich •••••• agriculture~ understood to mean a productive activity producing agricultural goods~ fills in only 25% of the available time: we then ask ourselves~ not with- out feelings of anxiety9 what use can the remaining 75% of the time be putto ••••• Thus at the lower level of the social scale of the rural areas~ there is a concentration of an amorphous mass of un- productive people ••• The big farmers~ those who have the means t• invest ₉ refuse to do so preferring to speculate on a herd of sheep or to buy more land." These quotations from J . Couleau bring no surprise to those 1<rho have travelled widely aoress the M•roccan countryside bet-vmen the ye ars 1923-67 wi th out noticing any vi si ble

progress~ the landscape remaining unchanged apart from settler farming and a few isolated cases such as the Sebou citrus fruit

plantations~ the market g~rdening of the coastal areas and the irri- gated lands

)J

The recent increase in the number of h~"~rses9 donkeys and mules until they were attacked by-African horse-sickness~

shows the extent to which farm lands were reduced to dust bowls.

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ITIEP/REPRODUCTION/287 Page 10.

Since Independence₇ the Moroccan government has however made great efforts though too often these were aimed in the wrong direction. Thus the ploughing campaign which Moatti and Rainaut qualify as a· "thcoretically correct idea (increase and improve ploughing in order to raise the yield) failed because not enough attention 1vas paid to the methods of achieving i t¹¹• The f rmers were not prepà.red₇ for even a short timo, to forget the boundaries

of.their land, a fact which nearly prov.oked serious rioting. The crop rotation which was recommended favoured fodder crops at tha expensc·of crops which were essential ·for the survial of tho SüJalJ.cr f.,.rme.rs at a. time when their animals were doing loss 1vork.

But the main rcason for failure wasvthe opposition of thOL'-3 inf:iuentiaf · peoille who v-rere losing the ir tenents and the profits to be derived from agricultural and stock-breeding associations as well as from piece-work. In 1960₉ about hc.lf the land in Morocco was still cultivated under the system of association or traditional netayage (Khammessat). In appointing m~nagemunt committees to look after the intercsts of the pGasants, the latter chose tho load- ing ci tizens to represent them, wh:lch sho1vs that feu al relations were still ~redominant. The ploughing campaign failed to genorat0 communïty spirit, to lay th0 foundations of th0 co-oper~tive move- ment ~üch i t -vras hoped to establish. Hore also ₉ progress in agri- culturu was being sought through ffi0Chnnizction. Ever since, a number of ¹¹microfundia¹¹ hire tractors, thus running th(j risk of up- setting their financial equilibrium which is always precarious.

The National Irrigations Office (O.N.I .) which launched a scheme of agricultural extension and attempted a reform of the land tenure system has shown₉ in the case of beet-root cultivation in thG arca of Sidi-Slimane ( w:hic_h_ b.~~

..

b_e~n ~o~e succossful th an at

According tô T. Bencheikh₇ B.E.S.M. 1968 and 1.\:. Naciri₉ in revue de Géographie du Maroc (R.G.M.) 10.11, 1967.

,

IDEP/REPRODUCTION/287 Pagu 11 .

Béja in Tunisia) 9 thc..t th0 :Moroccan :f.::rmer is not basicLlly opposed to progress when reasonable m0asures arG pro:uosod tc l:i:n, Ir1portant progress has also boen achioved undor othor cultivation ~rooments

such as cotton in tho T~dla region whero bo0troot was also later introducod. Tahiri 9 whilo he 1ve1s tha dir0ctor of 0 .l'LI . 9 said that

"without a reform of the land tenure systorn₉ O.N.I. runs tho risk of bt:lcoming a body which wast0s its tim.s in koeping itsulf in exis- tence9 a sedative which rend<::rs the disease inactive but does not remove i t . ¹¹ The reply of the authori ti'"'s to this ₉ after a change in policy in 1961 ₉ was the removal of this diroctor in D0cember 1962.

Sinc0 then₉ big Gfforts (or at least publici ty) hEwe been made on lc.rge irrigation .fii·ojecli::. ·vwic:O. ca 1 olt; u.o.y l:'l J \ . - h "~;: or.c::

million hvctar0s cf L.nrl o.s aga.in.st tl::.0 2î0₉00Ç of thu p1.~'-'sco;.1t

timo

)J

This has beon used to justify the: :'-ncroa::;e in -:;axes on sugar₉ paid mostly by the poor9 which along with toa, constitutes their onl;y luxury in the food lino. At the so.me time ₉ the tradi tional agricultura.l land tax (the terbib) which WQS mostly pc.id by tho rich who own most of the land 9 was abolishGd. Th8 new agricultural tax counts for only 1o% of dir8ct taxation wheroas the "terbib" in 1951 yielded

4 0Po .

^Thus9 the fact is neglected that the construc- tion of a high dam implies that 407~ of the expensos involved have to be paid for in foroign oxchange •

Since 1938₉ in collaboration with our lato colloague

Trintignac₉ we hc..rl n""vortheloss shown the g0noral economie superio- rity of small hydraulic plants. But the high dam may sorve as a protext for l and concentration 9 for a redistribttio~ of ~lots which

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^{150,000 irrigated unrler the control of the Regi}onal Offices and 60,000 by means of small hydraulic plants.

IDEP/REPRODUCTION/287 Page 12.

can be carri0d out in favour of semi-influential people, in an attempt to develop a group of petty bourgeois l andownors₉ while the numbor of landless continuos to rise. A number of plots in the Tadla arec have boen attributed to toWLspoople. In addition₉ ex- perts h~ve recommonded th~t they should be given preferably to young couples ₉ but tradition and tho aut:.nori tic:.s :1cù·c Lû3::..s 0ad on raisi.ng th0 é:.ç.8 lililit even up to 50.

Actually₉ tho more important economie studios give priority to the improvement of non-irrigatod farming₉ more profitable in the short run than tho investments in irrigatod crops: which brings us b&.ck to the importance of rural impro~rement operations similar to those advocated for Algeria. This is all the more urgent if we

considor the fact th~t betwecn 20₉000 and 25₉000 hectarvs of forests are LL.JstroyGd 0ach ycar . Even if thG re-afforesti-:.tion of 10 to 15? 000 hvctE.rds iu cnrrL.!è. out> tl::0so l md::" :'r"' sor n ir1noverü'1hGd by th0 farmors who9 not beine instructod₉ do not understand its importance . Not cnough strass h<ts boen laid₉ in the ov0rpopulatod areas such c.s the Ri.f₉ on fodder crops of the broad-bean varioty.

It can be said that 8Vvry action with regard to agricul- tural extension has so far failod miser~bly. As far back as 1963 ₉ in a study on tho Third-Viorlli₉ A. Tiano has emphasized that : "the agricultural policy of Ind0pendent lVIorocco is eithar disappointi:ng or uncortain. It will not o ₁Jossibl.;; to chango the tradi tional agricul tural system of .Morocco unLJss an attompt is mc:de to change rural soica.l structures ^11• This is v0ry mvch tho case since tho tradi tional s ector accounts for 80 to 857o of value adde in tho lVloroccan <-"6Ticul tural se:ctor ~nd as mucü as 951o in stock-farrning

A great deal hë:ts be8n said about land reform in Morocco in the yoars 1960-629 particulu.rly whon i!Jeports of the departure of French sottlGrs from Algeria raised tho hope of the fellahs to have a part of tho land formerly owned by the Frech sottlors in Morocco;

"TO have seen thCt.t nothlng of tho sort happened. In January 1962₉ a

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IDEP /IlliPRODUCrJl::J.Jli /28 7

Page 13 ^o

seminar organiz.:;d by ·the Union of Moroccan stuclents in Paris o.ttem- tod to ciefin0 tho condit ions for successful agrarian reform in Algeria'and f.10dhi ben Barka omphasized thc.t the 1960-64 Fivo Year Plan el aboratod

by

Abdemahim Bouabid containeù a real policy of

"agrarian roform" but that the royal govarnmont hu.d repl::.ccd it by

"agricui tural reform^{11 o} And Medhi ben Barka concluded: "FüH.lly ₁ both in Morocco and Algeria, it is not an agr arian roform th'1.t v:o

have t o nchievo but ;~. renl agr arian rt::volut i::m", Ben B. :rl: .. in -;;_l-:J

end pa.id with his l ifo for his rovolutionary stanùo

Tho Three-Year Plan of 1965-67 criticized the preoeding one wllich had to a l~rgG "'xtent failad, partly bocause of the fe.ct that i t was not compatible vri th tho change in poli tic al oriontntion vrb.ich occurred soon after that first plan was elnboré~tcd. The Thro0-YG~~r

Plan l aid stress on profitability and short-torm 0floctivon8ss. To ..den Cheikeh judiciously omphasized that h0 vr"'s attempting t o _l)roject the past onto tho future, that this "tochnocratic" and administrative ~lan impl ivd that tho distribution of incomo in tho country was "right":; henco, thé. t one could dr[~W on the oxam,~ -le of th:::J dovelop0d countri.::s o In thu moantime, tho lntifunuü1rius 'i<er(:; 0~:­

panding their est'-~tes and, assurvd of suppo.r·t 'frolli tl...o new E07·.Œn- ment; they could l egitimately show themselvos. At the "Collot:,;u...: dos chênos" (conference) vrhich they organi zed in the spring of 1964, they challongod any policy which att0mptod to l imit tho siz"' of ostatcso In any case, with parliamcnt ronderod inactive thoro wr,s no moro talk of such projects, not even in a mild formo In tho explanation of the aims of the l c..st Five Year Plan 1968-72, landlords wuro r·3as- sured that "the registration of agricul tural lands vnsuro..., t~10

securi ty of ownorship by f(',rmc:rs." Ex".ctl;:,r the ~ ï,.:. txu.,:-;

told' to the settlers ••hen I mado my first stuJ.y in 1923 L

: ·'""- ...

..._. .... -k-"'L)

IDEP/REPRODUCTION/287

P~'-eo 14.

Between 1956 and 1966₉ 24,000 hectares of le~d have been divided into 2₉700 plots and distributed. But these new farms set

,

"l:l:P on the allottvd li:mds prov0d to be very marginal and th<:;ir dov<Jlop- ment prospects r omain poor. Many of the al lattees are townspeople who romain absentee l andlords and leave it to their share-croppers to cultiv~t0 the land; the proposed co-operative movement is still very weak. Only a few c.otton-growing settlers in the Tadha e.re<1 have obtained any intor0sting results₉ but they are unablv to in- tegrate into the traditional rural society. Henceforth₉ tho stnte provides tho nocessary equipment for the astates and claims only a part of tho cast from tho owner .

This policy is a complete failure throughout Morocco9 says Abdol Aziz Belalf/ since tho rato of growth of agriculture did not rise above 0.6% per annum between 1960 and 1966 whilo that of popula- tion was creeping above the 3% level 1 And yet₉ since 1952₉ Morocoo devotes a third of its budget to ~ricultural development ! The National Office for Rural Modernization was supposed to extond dry farming but "it never had a policy nor a programme, with a structure tao l o.rge for the to.sk i t h2.d to perform". It has been merg0d wi th the O.N.I . and these frequent amalgamations, changes in policy and of diroctors are certainly not conducive to progress. The policy is still one of increo.sing m0chanization which increases underemployment. On the basis of tho re sul ts obtainGd from experimonts ₉ i t h:~s lé'..ur1.~h ... :J.

a campéügn of utilization of fertilizes and original stock so~.:;ds

which have recently expanded to caver 350₉000 hectares. In good years with adequate rRinfall as in 1968₉ it has beon possible to harvest an addi tünal two million quintals of grain₉ finally catching up₉ after 27 years₉ with the harvest figure of 1941 (with a popula- tion which h~~s more than doubled in the meantime).

1)

^B.E.S.M.9 April - Junv₉ 1969.

1

'

IDEP /REPRODUCTION /28

7

Pnge

15 .

Such a campaign.serve.s even fur.ther the interest of' the big

f~rmers'to the extent that th~y make use of it t o uxpl oit further, and in a· new w2-y? tho small fellahs r.ll around tn ... ,tJ anC.. whom "tuey doa:inc:. Lù. ·Jlhe: tax cor.cossi on gr ant,_,d to the foll<:1.hs wl:.cn the ir yi-..;ld ^WèNS l0ss than 4 quintals/hectarG hê.s b0on abol ishod. And an additional oblig2.tion is placed on tho moncy loss f0llahs in that ho llas t o purchase originu.l stock soeds and furtilizGrs <~s p~:r.t of the r_gr-..;emont if h-.; wt::.nts to resort t o "pi•Jce->wrk" or t:o pl oughing wi th trac tors bel onging to th"' work centres. Since thE: fel lc..h may not unùor ctLnd tho importance of using those seeds nnd fertilizers which in any c~'.se are of rnuch less use in drought years ~ émd in particul .r i f ho h<s an urgent neod for mo"l.Gy, to rtJr:;ol: 3 his b<.;.g of fert i l izer to the big farmer , to the l0ading man of thù villngo? V.Jry ol't'-'n for h,_lf tho official priee which h-..; will hc.V<J to pay

in full at tboe: vnd of thv crop season. Thus on the othvr side of the Sahara? we corn-..; Lcross tho s: .. rnu sort of usury pro.ctices found in Sen0gal . Thore ~ro othGr farrns of usury? in particul~r, tho l oan of grains b;...foro thv !1.TVO ·t which is p<.,iJ. b(..,ck in kind aftorwards?

only a fow rnonths l at-::r , wi tD a ,₁uanti ty of grains which is vory oftoa double tho arnount borrovrùd.

M. Pascon therefore rightly stresses th0 general l o.ck of agricul tural ext ension activitios c~rri-..;d out arnong the Moroccan peasantry so l ong as such obstacl0s ^8.S um1:.'y? tb0 J.l_;~~r:1oss cf fertilizors t ight crodi t a.nd the srnal l sizo of fè:rrns, poor market- ing facili tLs ote., continuo t o oxist. M. Naciri points out th:::.t

1Cf/o of grain farrnoro cultivate butwoen

0. 5

^and

1. 5

^{ha. of l and and}

produce rnainly b~rley, rnc..izo, sorne hard wh8at and alrnost no soft wheat. No policy of supervised creùi t vlill succeod in modernizing pr op0rly· thosu subsistenco rnicro-f<1rms which aro incr0asingly ov0r burdenod wi t h the p.r0ssure of popule.tion unless poople L.::éwe the countrysido for tho shanty-t owns. It wil l be still more difficult for tho Green Revolut ion t o mc..ke a st<..rt there sinoe i t der.ives i ts

IDEP/~PRODUCTIGN/287 Pege 16.

effoctivonass mc.inly from th0 cul tivation of soft who at . ï11aize is genorally cultivdvd in o:r0as which arc too clry for its yield to improvo substantially with tho usu of hybrid seeda.

Tho m~rkoting structures and thJ co-opor~tive silos set up by tho sGttlers₉ benofit fully from the priee support given by the

st~te9 but they nre reservod mainly for the use of the big f~rmers.

Tho small f~rmGrs sell the main bulk of thvir crop to town-traders whü pay cash but at th0 sam0 timo tdœ adv ~ntU(?J o·" tho fr~:r'Tiers.

Thoir scEÜGs may not -.vei5h truv cmd the fellah is vory often chei:!.ted when volume is conv0rted to weight. Tho grain office9 through its agent in the m~rkot, gré~ts an ~dvance end th~ difference which depends on tho specifie weight and the amount of impurities (diffi- cult to undorstand) is pa.id later: tho fellu.h howover has urgent debts to sGttle. Lnstly₉ priee support bon~fits thoso at tho top in the chain of middlomon₉ says M. Naciri .

After a good h~rvost as in tho spring of 1969, the farmer was sclling on the freo mnrkot of Marrakosh, one quintal of hard

who~t

^{for 35 DR} 1/and onG quintal of bnrley for 15 DR while the offic,_, was paying

44

and 25 DR respcctivoly for thvso grains. On tho othGr hand₉ aftor a draught, as in 1966, market priees may go up as high as and aro somotimGs moro tnan double official priees. But in this c~Lo, tho poor fellah, if ho hns had to sell almost the wholo of his small crop at harvest time in ordor to pay off his debts₉ very ofton finds himself as a buyor in the market .

"Before your arrival"9 Sé.id a Moroccan farmor to me in 19~·,

"wo ate well in tho good yuc..rs₉ wo bought more eni evoryone, tro.ders as well us craftsmen, bonofitted; even the "maghzen", who received more moncy in taxes. Sinco your nrrival, Gvon a good harvust brings ruin to us since priees drop too far and we cannot find custom0rs." In 1970-71 ₉ the situation is no longor the same CJ.nd yet the poor fellah is askGd to pay his taxes and his arrears

1/

^{Ono Dirham is oquivaLmt t o just ov0r one franc.}

,

' XDEP/REPRODUCTION/287 Page

17 ,

of debt he is luckly if he can even fill a few "matmoras" or under- ground grain stor0s in preparation for the ye~rs of bad harvest . But the traders in cloths~ ready-made clothes and shoos h~ve not boen able~ in 1968-69~ a year of good harvest ₇ to sell off as much as they ho.d hopod, of t~1e stock which they had had piled up durir"g thG drought yoars.

Hero₇ wo are thus faced with a situa~on where two social groups hc.::.vu an incrGasingly widening gap

be ~een

them. On the one hand, there is the large estate which is under-exploited, the land- lord being an absentee. On the othor hand, 6o% of the peasants huvo no land or cultivate micro-farms, are without resources and unable to cross the starvation line, except for the young who emigrate₇

eith~r to Europe for thoso who are lucky₇ or to the shanty-towns for thosc who are unfortun~te.

Taking natural conditions ëS the only criterion~ on0 can say that tho Green Revolution c~n make great stridos in Morocco, bcaring in rnind thc.::.t largo areas of land r0ccivc rainfall or arc irrigatod. But the introduction of new varieties, instcad of being carried out by a siTI5le authority supplivd with ade~uate resources₇ as the wheat projoct in Tunisia~ is here entrusted to old-fashioned governrnent institutions whose efficiency have sof9r proved to be very much lack- ing. The spr0ad of the Green Revolution may thus prove to be slower than in Tunisia de~pite .tb.e~count~;y's better __ potentiàlities, taki!).g into account the respective sizes of the two countries.

From the social point of view~ we have seen that the gulf sepc.::.rating the rich and the poor and which is even more markod here than in tho other countries of the Maghreb, y increase even furth8r. Tho use of high-yield varieties will spread more rapidly among the more modern farmers, th ose who are rich. Conse ~uently ₇ i t will tcmd to increase land-concentration₇ a movement which may receive the additional backing of sorne people well in with those in authority.

IDEP/REPRODUCTION/287 Page 18.

In the areas newly bought under irrigation, the fellahs who had sottled there for a number of years, using small and very often deficient hydraulic plants, foeder dams and ditch-canals h~vo

apparontly been thrown out, unù.er various pretexts, when mod~rn

networks of irri~ation and large dams were built. The recent in- cidents in the Gharb plain show that this may bocome more widespread as the proposed developments on the Sebou River and its tributaries are carrivd out. The refusal bs the Moroccan government to publish the repor~ on tho development project prepared by the "Sebou-projdct"

team whîch proposed modernization structures with safeguards for the interest of small farmers, is characteristic in this r~s~~ct.

While travelling across south0rn Iran in SGptomber 1970₉ we camo acr~ss small farmers in the Dezful arca who had be0n thrown

out of their lands brought under irrigation, in order t o make room for a big American financed company which hud obtained concession to operate a huge agro-industrial complcx based on irrigated culti- vation through the installation of high dams. Our attention h~s be~n

drawn to the installation, in Morocco, in the Middle. Atlas w0st of Azron, a pastoral zono ·-vrhich is still poorly cul tivatod, of a ranch covering 10₉000 h8ctarcs for tho bre0ding of becf cattlo of the Santa Gertrudis breud₉ wi th foreign capital (.t\Jnorican and French) as well as local funds . Once again, poasants havo bo0n thrown out, there have beon protests, and the property, fencod 'with barbod-wire, is apparently "guardod" by arm0d men. ·

Another Amorican concession of 15,000 hectares appoars to have beon granted over lands on tho Oulmés Plateau, for tho mo- chanized cultivation of grains. On those lands, by planting apple trees which are well suitod to the local climato, one could have devoloped a valuable production which would hRve provided in- creased employment. The local people who used to have grazing rights over these lands, are now not evon allowod passncu i:.ccr,JLE' them. In the mo..rkot places where news travel fast, j)Oopl- tu.lk much about tho se "new settlers". fith the peasantry for l ong

I~EP/REPRODUCTION/287 Pago 19.

accept eviction 'which does not even create employment ? .:Ln February 1938~ on lands along the edge of the El Hadjeb Chiff~ old Beni M'tir fellahs were complaïning of h.:·ving been practically robbed of their lands by se:tters on the _plateau south of Meknés. And they concluded:

"if only they had employed us as labourers₉ but with thei:!:' "combine"

harvest.::Jrs •••.••• "

The under utilizdtion of irrigation networks is widespreud as shown in the study by

Moni qu~:J

Schmidt on the Abda DoukkalaJ/

Even be :fore ü-rlt:i"i:tt-iëin-wc.~s lntroduced₉ th8 suppression of the crop rotation syst~m had rêducec. the 3ri0ld. :..n t:;r3.i:-J. __:,.~',1 'C' 1: ' é ,~'-_i, _,__ : n

per h~.:Jctar8 an"à-tli"'--extension of cul tiva.tion h .... d reduced tne amount of grazing la:rid. However~ "agricultural _production in 1964 is hardly larger tDan in 1944~ wheroas in tho s;;;.mJ space of tiluo ₉ rural popu- lation hc.s risen by 13.4Jo. Irrigation started in 1954 and it was _proposcd to bring 759000 h0ct~r0s und~r irrigation by 1975. But

"in 1960~ six years c.fter Wu.ter l'ras m ... d8 available e:.nd in spite of huge invl38tm~nt s ~ 1 ~ 700 hocta.res are irrigatGd out of the 13,000 equipp0d for irrigation in tho Boulaouane notwork. The cultivation plan proposod to the fellahs is hardly followed and ccreals remain thG main crop9 the yield bein5 hardly any high~r or moro r0f-ular •••

In 1964~ only 4~ 500 hoc tares out of the 14₉ 000 uqulJ!J!vl. .'or ü'riga- tion are actually irri₀ ated. Gross production is not adequ~te to pay for the cô.pital ctnd rur~ning costs of the farm •••

··50o

^{of the}

fc..rmers o1m. less than 1 hêctare and have no wo;rking çapita}. at all •• the difficulties exp~rienced in trying to got the trnditional farming

communiti.;s to understnnd a system as revolutionary as mod.:Jrn irri- gation •••• the mnss _poverty of the population₉ its in~bility to break out of the vicious circle of poverty r -t-he --mas-sive ₉ ·effuctive und

.1/

"Problème do développumcnt agricole d·c..ns L.J ;.ériw?-tr2 -~...-:.--;

Abda DCU!kkala9 " Revue Tiers-Monde 1970.

IDEP/~PRODUCTICN/287

Page 20

continuous nid it roquir0s from outside •••• A few big landowners own mor~ than 100 hectares •••• hesit~te to modernise th~ir farms sinco without havi~ to work or invest,. they can·exact a substan- tial l ana rGnt from th~ir associations •••• a third or a half of the crop •••• thero is no organized move n~nt to mobilize this mass of small farmers und landless fellahs which

se~sonal

^{unemploymontl/}

anù. chronic unemploym..;nt throw on tho L:..bour markvt Oé.:.ch year •••• Without any basic r0forms - which should como from th state - for the total roorganization of "doukkali" society and tho rural commu- ni ty in gon8ral ₉ ( th•.;: se palliativu hdf-moasures) may not be

acceptc.blo for moro than a generation or two."

The Tunisien proj--ets for providing work for tho unernployed heve thoir

countorp~rts

^{here in t}hose of the "Promotion Nationale"Y to uhich é'.. f5r...;Cl.t dual of publici ty, is given, but A. Tiano has

shown how inGffuctivo they are and how th0 cost of creating one porn.c,n..;nt employrn'-:nt is rnuch high-:;r than that in rnod\..jrn industry.

M~1y such projvcts c,re more concorned with irnproving the appearance o: tltu towns tllc2n \·ri th raising agricul tural yi<:ld. Gabriel Arde.nt

b...;caJru too soon impr0ssod wi th the stone removing project in

so-'-l·LuTn 1\'Iorocco of >-Thich the efficiency lias very much lower than

In the pre sc 1t context ₉ of nll the countri"s so far studied, Morocco appvé..rs to bo th<..: on...; counitry where the Green Revolution seams to us likely to raise tho most serious social implications. As in Tunisia, the economie steps boing taken at pres~.:mt in

Morccco favour only the big f&rmcr to whorn great facilitios are

1/

^In

1 964

9 thu rate of underemployment stood at

46%

Y

^In

1 966

9

97 ,500

workors providod

19

million working days.

,

IDEP/~PRODUCTION/287

Page 21 •

granted under the investment code. ·Wi th the ir own money, the rural

dignitari~s and the traders ropurchase lands or even deal in usury -whilù the advcnces received from tho state, the pioce-work arrangod

by the work-ccntres, for which paym~nt is deferred, providc them

with the noccssary funds and rouans to run their farm. Crodits and subsidi;.;s one-ble thom t-6· in-crea.se mochanization (hence unemployment);

and they mako widc use of th0 govcrnmcnt advisory services and the facilitius availablc from the dcvelopm~nt office which prufor t o base its activitias on them sinco it is much casier to do so.

Subsidios for n0vJ orché.i,rds requirl:.:l the_t at least 6 hdcta.r0s of land should be planted, a condition which excludes the small and modium fellahs who do not hdve the means to purchase land to make up tho difference on their existing farm. Formalitios alone would bo enough to 0xclude them since th0 files aro reviewod at least

6

times and one must have personal influence, or relations in arder to succeed. M~ny agricultural officers openly deplore the f~ct that things are made so difficult for the small farmers, of whom it is easy · to thihk th.af

· iney · are

^{r1ot qui te at e .. .se in th0 govornment}

offices? particularly if thoy aro illitorate. A survey by Lazaruv in the villtiges of the Fez-Meknés plateau reveal that 97% of the heads of famili~s hcve not boen to school 1 How could they posGibly be ---·· ···-- _in a position to maintain a file although i t is compulsory to do so ?

x

x x

IDEP/REPRODUCTiüN/287 Po.ge 22.

But timùs are changing. In these same families wher8 the fath0r is gonorally üiitorate-? in 93% of the oaeos there i$ at least one child who is at school or has been to one. But the si- tuation goels on getting worse. Anoth0r survey under the Sebou proj0ct revealed that out of

960

fellahs questionad,

622

or almost two-thirds say th~t their fathçrs were bettcr off than themselves. Traditional peasant society offers socurity nnd mutual help as a rulo: but this socurity, as we see it? is becoming more and more

proct:~rious wi thin th0 professional farming communi ty. The new rural adminstrative set-up aft8r Indepondence originates from the towns and doos not always under~tnnd well th0 problems of a farming society.

In any case? these problems are constantly bhanging. The Khammés begin to disappenr as paid labourers take over; the associa- tion dovs the sama as tenant-farming becomes the rule. All th0se tend to integr~te th0 fellah furth0r into the capitalist system but at such a low l0vel thut very often it soon leads to his being dis- possossed and becoming almost unemployed. The Green Revolution can- nat but favour this concentration and its concomitant sub-proletari- zation. I repeat sub-proletariat? tho term proletariat being appli- cable only to tho8e farmers who hnvo been abl0 to find permanent employmont and this involvos only a small minority.

Schooling is bringing about deep changes in the mentality of tho young9 as shown in a survey by Pascon and Bentahar.i / The young are first accuseù of being too conventional as they do not quçstion th0ir father's authority nor th~t of the family. The criticisms directed towerds the state relate to injustice e:.nd corruption. The young nsk the state to solve their problems, to Emsure that they hav(J bettGr und longer schooling, security of employment particul~rly for the graduates; industrialization, modernization of the villages?

freedom of speech ••••

.1/

^{B.E.S.M., Jan - June}

1969 .

IDEP/REPRODUCTION/287 Page 23.

·vrith r-Jg<:rd t o the future ₉ ¹¹they o.ro born optimists and

th'o3ir 2..11Sw0rs suggust roal <~dvo..nc<Jd ide as. ¹¹ The young tradi t ionally pr ovidcd th0 b¹.llk of tho la "'Jour force; girls and boys of 8 to 10 minded the hJrds of :;,nim:üs whilo boys of 12 to 14 did the pl oughing. The inc.coaso in popule_tion has t o bo catored for by tho existing mJo.ns of production. Thoso who ownod them₉ the big and the adults,

'1-t first to:>1dod. to ovor-exploi t tho 1;:-.bour force made up of the you:1g. Tho rmal l foJ..lc,~.l can no lonç;~.:Jr h::mdovor t o his sons thu securi ty gw::rt,ntuc:.d bi -';':\') ownorship of a pl ot of l2.nd -vihicl~ is now bucor;üng so much smaller. The ville..ges bèing now provided wi th schc.oli3 this socu-ri ty is now sought rnostly through the administra-

tion 2n:i. the 2.rrn~r ~ b'J.t not ^c ll o:: them ar0 t1ble to find i t .

ff~·w hO>T<JVOr appv:cr to have SUffored this ¹¹gap¹¹₉ the break with thu ·cradi t ional way of lifc cons ti tutod by som0 ton years of schoolL1e:; aft0J' vrhich t ""Y :,ro un .... ble to use thuir education pro- fit:::,bly within a rur8.l society which is l argoly dorninct c:.d by the patriarchal systorn₉ whun thGy cannat find ornployrnent in town. There is thus a s0r ious intel lectual gap bet-vmen tho educat'"d young and tho adults due to ~~extension of this pctriarchal socioty side by sido with thv industrial society; honce tho co-exist'-'nce of patriar- chal rolationships and ~~id ernploym0nt rol ct ionships. A f~rrning

cornmunitJ in which land- ownershi p i s concentratad in ~hG hands of a few people, where capital is scarce₉ cannat progress very rapidly. But films₉ radio, newspapor s é..nd books bring nevr ideas t o th0 people of the vill 2go and if the parGnts are indifferent or resignod to thoir fate, tho young refuse t o be bound t o thcir traditional way of lif!il although thoy arc sti l l not in a posi t ion t o set up a ¹¹social ut opia¹¹• Pascon u.lso noticed ¹¹an undiluted a_ggrossive and radically cri ticu.l 2.tt i tude c...rnong tho young when they cre disappointed •.•• • a vain, retro6rade u.nd grcedy r.::Jsistanco on the part of the adults₉

. I DEP/REPFODUCTI O N/287

J?2.g0

24 .

vestige of the patriarchal sociuty". A..Yld he concludes: "For how long will tho 2-dults continuo to hold onJ./and to stem tho flow of hope ? "

Monique Schmidt thinks th~t th~ palliativu half-mJnsures adopt0d will not be ~ccvptablo to mor0 than one generation or two. French tochnical assistance work0rs r0turning from 1\Iorocco and Moroccans working in prof~Jssional training ostablishovnts arc of the opinion that the poli tical and socid "ste.tus quo" -vrhich appears to be the present government 's policy~ will not last for very long in the face of almost compl0te st~naticn in agriculture₁

of increased unemploym.;mt and a population explosion which₁ dvspi te thoir efforts, is not yot slowing down in thv countryside. Moroc- can technicians bound in fri0ndship vri tl: the ir "foll~hs" are already asking themselvùs what attitude they will adopt~ the day₁ which is not very far off now~ when the farmers will revolt. Sorne of them are not afraid to say~ in priva te ~ that they aro going to join the mcv •ment₁ otherwiso "wo shall havu our throats eut". The v0ry fact that they havo askod themsolves this question show that they do not roject the possibility that the poasants might break into open revolt in tho near future.

Wc were unablo to return to Morocco for this enquiry and this ostracism is in itsolf an additional proof of the authority's un- easiness. Tho latter is fully ë~1mro of thv f::1ct that rcpr~::ssion is not always an adequate moasure to make up for tho l~ck of development~

of social Plobili ty 2.nd of hopu among the young. He ar -· thus not in a position to makc a fullor study th<:m this summary of a sot of val id views which sourn to spvak volumvs for thomselves by -v ir tue of the ir consistency. A policy of refus al to face danger is alwé',ys a losing one in the long run as tho sucees sor of Louis 701 found out.

1/

^{Roneo their power~ I would add.}

x

x x