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An experiment concerning mathematical proofs on computers with French undergraduate students

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HAL Id: hal-00384656

https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00384656

Submitted on 15 May 2009

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An experiment concerning mathematical proofs on computers with French undergraduate students

René David, Christophe Raffalli

To cite this version:

René David, Christophe Raffalli. An experiment concerning mathematical proofs on computers with

French undergraduate students. Journal of Applied Logic, Elsevier, 2004, 2 (2), pp.219-239. �hal-

00384656�

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njwXp}aMvv\`h`e¢‡

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A ∨ B

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vlkc½‚`-aMp}`e•w)cM†|~½r>c•nj^M`-vlkp}`lkc•w„‚Mï`v\n

t

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f

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‰Snt^f`6v\w)sXsXlkcMe

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njwpjl~"nj^Glon3r>xGw„cM`i)r¬{)`ppjaMvt^6lkcw„‚Mï`v\n‚)~vt^Glmcdv\`„‰„r¬n{„`hgq~gtlmg}`†|~"Šbw„g}µAp5õk]_^M`_x©w)†>†>wuŠ™rJcfi

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r>p"‚w)aMcMef`ue nj^M`%pžntaMef`uc„ntp%£Dr>c nt^f`X…dg}w˜w)xw)xnt^f`%v\w)s…G†|`\nj`cM`p}p›w)x

R

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njw-ik`hn8nj^dr>p8…w)r>c)nu‰Gnt^M`\~^Glke<r>sXs`edrJlonj`†|~i)r|{„`cnt^f`6v\w)s6sXlkcMe

¦>¥ ê\­‘ª

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nt^f`\~^dlke…Mg}`\{Mr|w)adp}†¬~ x©w)aMcMe5‡

Ì ÅµÍË>µ\Ê#Ï7·'Ä%¶Gã/ËØÂÒ6ÒÂ'ÆkÊïä€å<ϑË

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0

:= f (x) = x

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i lkcMe

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Š™r¬nt^Kš3^Mw„œIl"pjaMvt^KlŠgjw„cMi"…dg}w˜w)xSw)x

∃ xA ∧ ∃ xB → ∃ x(A ∧ B)

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e lkcMe

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x

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∃ xA

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x

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