Housing in a severe climate

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Housing in a severe climate

Litskevich, V.; Vonog, I.; Romm, I.; Kozhurin, S.; Bryzhkin, A.; National

Research Council of Canada. Division of Building Research

PREFACE

Although t h e s t y l e , method and e x t e n t of b u i l d i n g d i f f e r , t h e problems f a c e d by t h e d e s i g n e r of housing i n n o r t h e r n a r e a s of t h e U.S.S.R. a r e veky s i m i l a r t o t h o s e encountered i n t h e n o r t h e r n r e - g i o n s of Canada. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e f f e c t s of p e r m a f r o s t , c l i m a t i c f a c t o r s such a s wind, low t e m p e r a t u r e , d r i f t i n g snow, and h o u r s of d a y l i g h t a r e important c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t h e d e s i g n of b u i l d i n g s f o r t h e North, a f f e c t i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e l a y o u t and s i t t i n g of t h e house w i t h r e s p e c t t o l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s .

T h i s s e r i e s of f i v e p a p e r s t r a n s l a t e d from t h e Russian d i s c u s s e s t h e s e f a c t o r s and t h e i r e f f e c t s on t h e d e s i g n of m u l t i p l e f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s which comprise t h e m a j o r i t y of housing i n t h e U.S.S.R. E x i s t i n g d e s i g n s a r e a p p r a i s e d and t h e i r l i m i t a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d i n terms of room l a y o u t , window arrangement and t h e i r g e n e r a l a d a p t a - b i l i t y t o l o c a l c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . The e f f e c t s of wind i n w i n t e r on t h e t h e r m a l performance of housing and on snow accumulations around b u i l d i n g s have r e c e i v e d p a r t i c u l a r emphasis and methods of modifying t h e s e e f f e c t s by p r o p e r d e s i g n and o r i e n t a t i o n a r e a n a l y z e d .

The D i v i s i o n of B u i l d i n g Research

i s

p l e a s e d t o sponsor t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s review of Russian d e s i g n e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e North and t h e a s s i s t a n c e of t h e t r a n s l a t o r , M r . D . A . S i n c l a i r , i s g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged. O t t a w a November, 1964 Robert F . Legget D i r e c t o r

N A T I O N A L RESEARCH C O U N C I L OF CANADA

T e c h n i c a l T r a n s l a t i o n

115)k

T i t l e : Housing i n a s e v e r e c l i m a t e

( ~ h l l l s h c h a d l l a r a l o n o v s _{surovym klimatom)}

Authors : Five p a p e r s by: V . L i t s k e v i c h , I . Vonog, I . Romm, S. Kozhurin and

A.

Bryzhkin

Reference: A r k h l t e k t u r a SSSR, ( 1 ) : 10-16, 1959

TABLE OF CGNTENTS

. . .

1. P l a n s o f h o u s i n g u n i t s f o r t h e F a r E a s t , by V . L i t s k e v l c h 4

2 . The s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p l a n n i n g and c o n s t r u c t l o n

i n t h e F a r N o r t h , by I . Vonog

...

9

3. Methods of' c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e wind,

by I . Homm

...

11

...

4 . On a h o u s i n g s t a n d a r d f o r t h e A r c t i c , by S . K o z h u r i n 13

5.

The need f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y s e t s o f s t a n d a r d h o u s i n g and d e s l g n f o r r e g i o n s w i t h a s e v e r e c l i m a t e , by

HOUSING I N A SEVERE CLIMATE

I n t r o d u c t i o n

I n N.S. Khrushchev's r e p o r t t o t h e X X I Congress of t h e Communist P a r t y of t h e S o v i e t Union e n t i t l e d " ~ n d i c e s f o r t h e Development of t h e N a t i o n a l Economy of t h e U.S.S.R. f o r t h e Period 1959

-

1965" t h e need f o r a more r a p i d develop- ment of t h e economy of t h e e a s t e r n r e g i o n s of t h e U.S.S.R., which a r e r i c h i n n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , i s emphasized. "The main change i n t h e a l l o c a t i o n of r e -

s o u r c e s d u r i n g t h e coming seven-ye,m p l a n w i l l be d i r e c t e d p r i m a r i l y towards a c c e l e r a t i n g t h e economic development of t h e e a s t e r n r e g i o n s of t h e c o u n t r y . More t h a n 40% of t h e t o t a l c a p i t a l investment w i l l be c h a n n e l l e d i n t o t h e s e r e g i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e Urals, S i b e r i a , t h e F a r E a s t , Kazakhstan and C e n t r a l Asia

."

A s a consequence of t h e advance of i n d u s t r y t o t h e e a s t d u r i n g t h e next p e r i o d , i n t o t h e v a s t expanses of S i b e r i a , t h e F a r E a s t e r n t a i g a , t h e s t e p p e s of Kazakhstan and t h e t u n d r a of t h e F a r North, housing w i l l d e v e l o p on an even g r e a t e r s c a l e .

I n t h e p a p e r s p u b l i s h e d below t h e problems of d e v e l o p i n g new t y p e s of d w e l l i n g s I n r e g i o n s w i t h s e v e r e c l i m a t e a r e d i s c u s s e d .

1. P l a n s of Housing U n i t s f o r t h e Far E a s t by V . L l t s k e v i c h

One of t h e b a s i c shortcomings of many s t a n d a r d r e s i d e n t i a l housing d e s i g n s

1 3 t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e o f t e n u n s u i t a b l e f o r t h e l o c a l s i t e c o n d i t i o n s .

Ye may a s w e l l a s k why, i n drawing up p l a n s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n i n c l i m a t i c zones I and 11, a r c h i t e c t s c o n s i d e r o n l y t h e t e m p e r a t u r e regime, c o m p l e t e l y

disregarding such i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s a s wind f o r c e , atmospheric humidity, i n t e n s i t y of t h e s o l a r r a d i a t i o n , e t c

.

With c e r t a i n combinations of t h e s e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s i t i s f r e q u e n t l y found t h a t houses b u i l t a c c o r d i n g t o s t a n d a r d p l a n s a r e q u i t e u n s u i t a b l e f o r t h e l o c a l c l i m a t e , even though t h e y meet t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r e q u i r e m e n t s .

I n many p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y o t h e r n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s must be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , f o r example complex r e l l e f , d i f f i c u l t s o i l c o n d i t i o n s , s u b t e r r a n e a n w a t e r , t h e p r e v a l e n c e of e a r t h t r e m o r s , e t c . I n such c a s e s t h e u s e of " g e n e r a l "

T h e r e f o r e t h e f u r t h e r development of s t a n d a r d d w e l l i n g d e s i g n s must f o l l o w t h e p a t h of g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t e r r l t o r i e s , b r i n g i n g them more i n t o l i n e w i t h a c t u a l l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s , while a t t h e same time p r e s e r v i n g a uniform system of a r c h i t e c t u r a l and p l a n n i n g p a r a m e t e r s .

I t would be i n c o r r e c t , holwever, t o c r e a t e s e p a r a t e s t r u c t u r a l p l a n s of d w e l l i n g s f o r each s e p a r a t e microregion p o s s e s s i n g a g i v e n s e t of n a t u r a l con- d i t i o n s . T h i s would be a s t e p backrfrard, s i n c e i t would g e n e r a t e a p l e t h o r a of p l a n n i n g s o l u t i o n s which would s c a r c e l y d i f f e r one from t h e o t h e r .

One way of b r i n g i n g p l a n s more i n t o l i n e w i t h t h e v a r i o u s r e q u i r e m e n t s of l o c a l c l i m a t i c and m i c r o c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s would be t o add t o t h e d e s i g n s

a t

p r e s e n t b e i n g u s e d . For t h e F a r E a s t , i n p a r t i c u l a r , a d d i t i o n a l d e s i g n s should be f u r n i s h e d of a t y p e i n which t h e a p a r t m e n t s a l l open on one s i d e of t h e b u i l d i n g , f a c i n g i n t h e most f a v o u r a b l e d i r e c t i o n from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of exposure t o s u n l i g h t and p r o t e c t i o n from winds.

Such d e s i g n s were widely used a t one time i n Eaku, where t h e y were known as " s t r a i g h t o r i e n t a t i o n p l a n s " ( ~ i g . 1 ) . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s have shown t h a t such apartment l a y o u t s a r e needed i n c e r t a i n n o r t h e r n a r e a s , and e s p e c i a l l y i n f a r e a s t e r n r e g i o n s , where t h e s t r o n g w i n t e r winds almost always blow from one d i r e c t i o n .

I n t h e F a r East, which o c c u p i e s a s i x t h of t h e t o t a l a r e a of t h e U.S.S.R., a monsoon c l i m a t e predominates. The w i n t e r s a l t h o u g h sunny, a r e g e n e r a l l y s e v e r e , w i t h mean monthly wind v e l o c i t i e s up t o 8 m/sec. January t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e from -14' t o -50°C. I n t h e s o u t h e r n , more d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d p a r t s of t h e F a r East t h e winds u s u a l l y blow from t h e n o r t h o r northwest d u r i n g t h e whole w i n t e r . During windy p e r i o d s room t e m p e r a t u r e s on t h e windward s i d e , even when

t h e h e a t i n g system f u n c t i o n s f a u l t l e s s l y , do n o t r i s e above 1 0

-

12OC, and f r e - q u e n t l y f a l l t o

5

-

6 O C . F r o s t a p p e a r s on t h e i n t e r i o r w a l l s u r f a c e s of c o r n e r rooms.

For p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e wind under s e v e r e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s it i s

recommended t h a t i n d i v i d u a l l y - s t a n d i n g b u i l d i n g s should have no windows on t h e windward s i d e . Also recommended a r e t h e c r e a t i o n s of b l o c k s o r m i c r o r e g i o n s on t h e windward s i d e p r e s e n t i n g a c o n t i n u o u s p r o t e c t i v e f r o n t . F i n a l l y , t h e w i n d - t i g h t n e s s of c o n s t r u c t i o n s exposed t o t h e wind should be i n c r e a s e d .

The c o n s t r u c t i o n of a w i n d - p r o t e c t i v e row of houses w i l l improve t h e m i c r o c l i m a t e of a block and of t h e a p a r t m e n t s i n i t .

However, t h i s s t i l l l e a v e s t h e q u e s t i o n of what t y p e of house can p e r f o m such a p r o t e c t i v e f u n c t i o n .

S i n c e houses w i t h r e s t r i c t e d o r i e n t a t i o n ( h a v i n g a p a r t m e n t s o n l y on one s i d e ) a r e u n a c c e p t a b l e f o r t h e b u i l d i n g of

a

w i n d - p r o t e c t i v e row, a l l t h a t remains from e x i s t i n g s t a n d a r d housing p l a n s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e c l i m a t i c

c o n d i t i o n s of zones I and I1 i s t h e house of p a r t i a l l y r e s t r i c t e d ( l a t i t u d i n a l ) o r i e n t a t i o n ( i n t e n d e d , s t r i c t l y speaking, f o r c l i m a t i c zone 111). When t h e l a t i t u d i n a l house i s used, one of t h e two bedrooms of a three-room apartment w i l l open on t h e s i d e p r o t e c t e d from t h e wind, b u t t h e o t h e r two-rooms w i l l be s u b j e c t t o i n t e n s e c o o l i n g throughout most of t h e w i n t e r ( F i g . 2 ) .

There a r e a number of p r o p o s a l s f o r s o l v i n g t h i s problem. The a r c h i t e c t E . L e o n t l e v ( N o v o s i b i r s k ) s u g g e s t s u s i n g apartments t h a t f a c e two ways i n t h e c i t i e s of S i b e r i a * . The a r c h i t e c t N . Ryabov and t h e e n g i n e e r A . S t o t s e n k o

( ~ l a d i v o s t o k ) on t h e o t h e r hand, recommend e i t h e r u s i n g a t h i c k e r e x t e r n a l w a l l t o p r o t e c t t h e rooms on t h e windward s i d e , o r having o n l y a u x i l i a r y rooms

s i t u a t e d on t h i s side**.

E . L e o n t ' e v t s p r o p o s a l a p p e a r s i m p r a c t i c a b l e . Apartments w i t h rooms f a c i n g two ways a r e uneconomic ( n o t more t h a n two s u c h a p a r t m e n t s can have a c c e s s t o t h e s t a i r w a y l a n d i n g ) . Moreover, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e e q u a l i z a t i o n of room t e m p e r a t u r e s on t h e leeward and windward s i d e of t h e b u i l d i n g (which i s t h e b a s i s of L e o n t l e v l s p r o p o s a l ) t h e average t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e apartment w i l l be lower than i t would be f o r rooms f a c i n g one way o n l y . T h i s i s owing t o t h e c r o s s - v e n t i l a t i o n t h a t can occur, l e a d i n g t o an i n c r e a s e d change of a i r w i t h i n t h e b u i l d i n g . Even i n c r e a s i n g e x p e n d i t u r e s on t h e h e a t i n g of t h e b u i l d i n g would not improve t h e microcllrnate i n a l l t h e i n h a b i t e d premises, because a c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e s e would s t i l l f a c e t h e windward s i d e .

As _{f a r a s Ryabov and S t o t s e n k o ' s p r o p o s a l i s concerned, t h i s would be}

a c c e p t a b l e o n l y i n low houses, f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s .

F i r s t l y , now t h a t t h e use of wet p l a s t e r h a s been d i s c o n t i n u e d and p r e - f a b r i c a t e d components have come i n t o u s e , t h e a i r - t i g h t n e g s of t h e e x t e r n a l w a l l s of t h e m u l t i - s t o r e y b u i l d i n g , a p a r t from window openings, h a s a c t u a l l y decreased t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t .

Secondly, t h e u s e of walls of d i f f e r e n t t h i c k n e s s i n houses would n e c e s s i - t a t e i n c r e a s i n g t h e number of s t a n d a r d p r e f a b r i c a t e d w a l l components.

T h i r d l y , merely i n c r e a s i n g t h e a i r - t i g h t n e s s of w a l l s does n o t by i t s e l f a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r e d r e s u l t . The i n f i l t r a t i o n of a i r f o r each s q u a r e metre of window opening g r e a t l y exceeds t h a t of an e q u a l a r e a of u n i n t e r r u p t e d w a l l . So f a r , no one h a s y e t succeeded i n s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c i n g t h e p e n e t r a t i o n of a i r through windows. S e a l e r s a p p l i e d t o t h e windows by no means always produce t h e n e c e s s a r y d e g r e e of a i r - t i g h t n e s s . iqeather s t r i p p i n g s a r e found t o be

*See A r k h i t e k t u r a SSSR,

( 5 ) :

28, 1958.

**See N . Ryabov and A . _{S t o t s e n k o . Standard Plan f o r P r i m o r s k i i K r a i . Krasnoe}

s h o r t - l i v e d . The u s e of t r i p l e g l a s s panes, which have r e c e n t l y appeared i n c o n s t r u c t i o n p r a c t i c e abroad, g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e s t h e c o s t s of windows. Moreover, b e f o r e t h e y could be used under t h e s e v e r e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e Far E a s t t h e y , t o g e t h e r w i t h s a s h e s and s e a l e r s , must f i r s t be t h e s u b f e c t of l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

It should be borne i n mind t h a t even i f bufPdings could b e made a i r - t i g h t , t h e whole problem of t h e microclimate o f d w e l l i n g s would s t i l l not be f u l l y s o l v e d . I n p l a c e s l i k e P r i m o r s k i i K r a i , n o r t h winds p r e v a i l i n w i n t e r . Here, even when b u i l d i n g s a r e a b s o l u t e l y a i r - t i g h t on t h e windward a i d e , c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e roorn f a c i n g n o r t h b a r e l y e q u a l t h o s e p r e v a i l i n g i n s i m i l a r l y o r i e n t e d rooms i n l e s s windy p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y .

Such a s o l u t i o n ( l i k e t h e u s e of a p a r t m e n t s f a c i n g two ways) cannot be considered s a t i s f a c t o r y . It does not a s s u r e any s u b s t a n t i a l improvement i n t h e m i c r o c l i ~ n a t e of t h e d w e l l i n g i n r e g i o n s of s e v e r e c l i m a t e .

I n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of t h e F a r E a s t , w i t h i t s monsoon c l i m a t e , it i s p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o produce p r o t e c t i v e rows by means of a l a t i t u d i n a l arrangement of r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s , i f t h e s t a n d a r d p l a n s now i n u s e a r e a p p l i e d .

The more f a v o u r a b l e m e r i d i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n of houses i s o f t e n r u l e d o u t by t h e h i l l y r e l i e f of t h e F a r E a s t e r n c i t i e s . For example, on n o r t h e r n ( l e s s d e n s e l y occupied) s l o p e s and on s o u t h e r n ones ( t h e most f a v o u r a b l e from t h e m i c r o c l i m a t i c p o i n t of view) i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o c o n s t r u c t houses i n t h e

m e r i d i o n a l d i r e c t i o n , because t h e y must t h e n s t a n d a t r i g h t - a n g l e s t o t h e l i n e s of c o n t o u r of t h e s l o p e s ( ~ i g .

3 ) .

Because of t h e p r e v a i l i n g west winds' i n c e r t a i n a r e a s , and a l s o from c e r t a i n town-planning c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , i t i s o f t e n impossible t o p l a c e a b u i l d i n g on a m e r i d l o n a l a x i s .

I t a p p e a r s b e t t e r t o seek t o improve t h e m i c r o c l i m a t e of d w e l l i n g s by t h e use of d e s i g n s i n which most of t h e rooms a r e o r i e n t a t e d towards one s i d e of t h e h o r i z o n . It may be r e c a l l e d t h a t such p l a n n i n g h a s been a p p l i e d I n m u l t i - s t o r e y d w e l l i n g s i n Baku. I n 1957 t h e S t a t e I n s t i t u t e of Planning f o r t h e A v i a t i o n I n d u s t r y produced p l a n s f o r two-storey houses w i t h one-room a p a r t m e n t s i n which a l l rooms f a c e t h e same way ( ~ i g .

4 ) .

We n o t e t h a t s i m i l a r d e s i g n s a r e now b e i n g v e r y widely a p p l i e d i n China. There houses a r e f r e q u e n t l y o r i e n t a t e d l a t i t u d i n a l l y , w i t h t h e s o u t h e r n s i d e occupied by i n h a b i t e d rooms, w h i l e t h e n o r t h e r n s i d e i s t a k e n up w i t h stair- ways and a u x i l i a r y rooms ( F i g .

5 ) .

I n o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e t h i s p r i n c i p l e of arrangement Chinese a r c h i t e c t s sometimes even d i s p e n s e w i t h

a

convenient c o n n e c t i o n between k i t c h e n s and o t h e r i n h a b i t e d rooms ( ~ i g .

6 ) .

House d e s i g n s w i t h t h e i n h a b i t e d rooms having a c c e s s t o

a

f a v o u r a b l e p a r t of t h e h o r i z o n a r e encountered i n t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l b u i l d i n g p r a c t i c e s of

Hungary, France and Denmark ( ~ i g . 7 ,

8

and

9 ) .

I n Husum, a suburb of

Copenhagen, i n t h e very modern T i n g b j e r g development n o r t h - s o u t h o r i e n t a t e d b u i l d i n g s have a p a r t m e n t s f a c i n g two ways, l a t i t u d i n a l l y p l a c e d houses have a maximum s o u t h e r n exposure f o r t h e a p a r t m e n t s .

Experience h a s shown t h a t i n m u l t i p l e dvrellings, a p a r t m e n t s w i t h i n h a b i t e d rooms f a c i n g one way can be most f a v o u r a b l y a r r a n g e d when two-apartment u n i t s a r e employed. However, t h e s e u n i t s , o b v i o u s l y , a r e l e s s economical. The

l a t e s t s o l u t i o n s of Chinese a r c h i t e c t s s u g g e s t t h a t much more economical u n i t s can be o b t a i n e d by p r o v i d i n g f o r k i t c h e n a l c o v e s i n a number of t h e a p a r t m e n t s , o r by illuminating k i t c h e n s t h r o u g l ~ windows f a c i n g i n t o a s t a i r w a y .

The Hungarian three-apartment u n i t (FIE.

9 )

i s a l s o w e l l l a i d o u t , a l t h o u g h two small rooms i n i t do f a c e n o r t h .

I n t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e examples c i t e d , t h e b u i l d i n g s a r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y narrow. The r e s u l t i n g h e a t l o s s , however, i s compensated by t h e s m a l l e r

a i r

i n f i l t r a t i o n through t h e s m a l l e r windows on t h e windward s i d e , and by t h e f a c t t h a t i n h a b i t e d rooms a r c removed from t h i s s i d e .

I n 1957 a p l a n f o r

a

o n e - s e c t i o n house was i s s u e d by t h e V l a d i v o s t o k P r i m k r a i p r o e k t b u i l d i n g t r u s t , which h a s been found eminently s u i t a b l e f o r t h e b u i l d i n g of towns i n mountainous a r e a s (FIE. 1 0 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h i s s o l u t i o n does n o t a l l o w o r i e n t a t i o n or" one of t h e end w a l l s of t h e house towards t h e n o r t h e r n , windward d i r e c t i o n , f o r t h e simple r e a s o n t h a t t h e windows of inhab- i t e d rooms a r e s i t u a t e d i n b o t h end w a l l s . Moreover, t h r e e of t h e s i x a p a r t - ments on each f l o o r i n t h i s p l a n n e c e s s a r i l y f a c e n o r t h e a s t and n o r t h w e s t . T h i s could e a s i l y have been avoided i f t h e two k i t c h e n s , which a r e h e r e s e p a r - a t e d , had been p u t s i d e by s i d e on t h e a x l s of t h e b u i l d i n g and one of t h e end walls of t h e house h a s been made t o f a c e n o r t h ,

A new apartment development I n H e l s i n k i , F i n l a n d , i s an e x c e l l e n t example i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n . I n t h i s p l a n a l l t h e a p a r t m e n t s , w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , f a c e t h e sunny s i d e ( ~ i g . 11).

I n k r i m o r s k i i and Khabarovskii K r a i , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of apartment houses w i t h one-sided exposure of a l l rooms would make i t p o s s i b l e t o reduce h e a t i n g c:cpenses c o n s i d e r a b l y . Obviously, w i t h s o u t h e r n o r i e n t a t i o n of rooms and t h e absence of winds from t h e s o u t h i n w i n t e r , h e a t l o s s e s i n t h e i n h a b i t e d prem- i s e s w i l l be s m a l l .

::here t . . ~ o a p a r t m e n t s have a c c e s s t o

a

s t a i r w a y t h e i n h a b i t e d rooms i n t h e s e a p a r t m e n t s a r e n o t only p r o t e c t e d from t h e wind, b u t t h e y a r e a l s o

a s s u r e d c r o s s - v e n t i l a t i o n through t h e k i t c h e n . T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e r e g i o n s of h i g h humidity and s t r o n g winds ( f o r example t h e s o u t h e r n

P r i m o r ' e and t h e E a l t i c Coast r e g i o n ) , s i n c e t h i s t y p e of v e n t i l a t i o n p r o v i d e s t h e b e s t p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t dampness.

New s t a n d a r d b u i l d i n g s w i t h a l l o r most rooms f a c i n g i n one d i r e c t i o n (produced

as

a n a d d i t i o n t o e x i s t i n g s t a n d a r d p l a n s ) w i l l permit t h e c o n s t r u c - t i o n of a c o n t i n u o u s row of r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s t o a c t as a wind s h i e l d . Such wind s h i e l d s can be e r e c t e d i n every c i t y of t h e c o u n t r y where p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t winds from any d i r e c t i o n except t h e s o u t h i s needed ( ~ 1 ~ . 1 2 ) . Behind such a p r o t e c t i v e s h i e l d , o t h e r b u i l d i n g s can t h e n be placed a t d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s . T h i s w i l l a l s o a p p l y t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of towns employing t h e more economical m e r i d i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n of houses ( i n a r e a s w i t h w e s t e r l y and

e a s t e r l y winds)

.

The i n t r o d u c t i o n of s t a n d a r d houses of t h e proposed d e s i g n would improve t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of towns throughout t h e e n t i r e F a r E a s t . I n p a r t i c u l a r i t would s o l v e t h e problem of c o n s t r u c t i n g towns i n t h e F a r E a s t on h i l l s i d e s .

The u s e of b u i l d i n g s w i t h a l l rooms f a c i n g one d i r e c t i o n ( i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e u s e of r e g u l a r d e s i g n s ) w i l l c o n s i d e r a b l y improve t h e m i c r o c l i m a t e of d w e l l i n g i n p a r t of t h e c o u n t r y w i t h s e v e r e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s .

2 . The S p e c i a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Planning and C o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e F a r North by I . Vonog

The p l a n n i n g of d w e l l i n g s f o r t h e North i s c a r r i e d o u t by many p l a n n i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Owing t o t h e l a c k of c o n s t r u c t i o n a l p l a n n i n g s t a n d a r d s f o r t h e n o r t h e r n r e g i o n s , c e r t a i n problems a r e f r e q u e n t l y s o l v e d d i f f e r e n t l y even i n t h e p r e s e n c e of i d e n t i c a l n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s . The e x t e n s i v e b u i l d i n g e x p e r l - ence t h a t h a s been accumulated i n t h e North h a s n o t y e t been f u l l y e x p l o i t e d . Lie s t i l l have no s t a n d a r d p l a n s f o r d w e l l i n g s and p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s which would meet t h e c u r r e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s of c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e s e v e r e c l i m a t e s of t h e North.

Departments c a r r y i n g o u t c o n s t r u c t i o n h e r e make wide u s e of p l a n s evolved f o r t h e middle l a t i t u d e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e i s a widespread misconception among workers of t h e s e d e p a r t m e n t s t h a t it i s merely n e c e s s a r y t o i n t r o d u c e s m a l l c o r r e c t i o n s

i n

t h e d e s i g n of e n c l o s i n g s t r u c t u r e s and f o u n d a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o a d a p t any d e s i g n meant f o r t h e c e n t r a l r e g i o n s t o a r c t i c c o n d i t i o n s . Planning e x p e r i e n c e f o r t h e n o r t h e r n r e g i o n s , a s w e l l a s t h e r e s u l t s of t h e many i n s p e c t i o n s and o b s e r v a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t on e x i s t i n g b u i l d i n g s i n t h e North, r e f u t e t h i s view e m p h a t i c a l l y .

A s i s known, t h e c l i m a t e of t h e North i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by low t e m p e r a t u r e s , b l i z z a r d s , d r i f t i n g snow and t h e p r e v a l e n c e of p e r m a f r o s t . During t h e l o n g , . ; ~ l n t e r , t h e n i g h t s grow l o n g e r and l o n g e r , e v e n t u a l l y p e r s l s t i n g around t h e c l o c k . I n t h e s h o r t swmner t h e p o l a r day e v e n t u a l l y becomes

24

h o u r s l o n g .

When we consider t h e combined e f f e c t of

t h e

v i o l e n t winds, t h e low temperatures

and t h e d r i f t i n g snow,

it i s

obvious t h a t t h e s e f a c t o r s must have

a

profound

e f f e c t on t h e choice of heat-conserving measures, t h e lay-out of houses and

t h e i r placement on t h e s i t e .

Winter winds blow through t h e p r o t e c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s of b u i l d i n g s w i t h

g r e a t f o r c e . I n s t o n e houses t h e window and door openings a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y

s u s c e p t i b l e t o d r a f t s , and i n timber houses t h i s a p p l i e s t o t h e w a l l s a s w e l l .

I n t h e North, t h e r e f o r e , e x t e r n a l w a l l s , ground f l o o r coverings, windows and

o u t s i d e doors must be designed f o r s t r o n g wind p r e s s u r e s , low t e m p e r a t u r e s and

h i g h atmospheric humidity.

I n

a

number of p l a c e s , however, even t h e s e measures may be inadequate.

F'rom o b s e r v a t i o n s on e x i s t i n g n o r t h e r n b u i l d i n g s

it

h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t

even i n t h e w e l l i n s u l a t e d p a r t s of

a

b u i l d i n g , w i n t e r storm winds

s t i l l

a f f e c t

t h e microclimate i n t h e rooms.

I n rooms s i t u a t e d on t h e windward s i d e of t h e

b u i l d i n g , even w i t h t h e c e n t r a l h e a t i n g system turned up, u n s a t i s f a c t o r y condi-

t i o n s f o r h a b i t a t i o n a r i s e . The t e n a n t s o f t e n have t o v a c a t e t h e s e rooms

d u r i n g t h e e n t i r e season of w i n t e r winds.

I n o r d e r t o reduce t h e number of rooms exposed t o t h e d i r e c t f o r c e of

storm winds,

i t

i s

recommended t h a t i s o l a t e d b u i l d i n g s be c o n s t r u c t e d p a r a l l e l

t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g winter winds. On t h e windward ends of t h e r e s i d e n t i a l houses

i t

i s d e s i r a b l e t o p l a c e a u x i l i a r y rooms i n which t h e i n h a b i t a n t s spend

comparatively l i t t l e time.

By p l a c i n g t h e end w a l l s of b u i l d i n g s on t h e windward s i d e t h e d e s i g n e r

can achieve a more favourable l o c a t i o n f o r e n t r a n c e s ( t h e s e

w i l l

not

f i l l

up

w i t h snow). Where b u i l d i n g s a r e placed "crosswise t o t h e wind" e n t r a n c e s g e t

covered with snow and s p e c i a l passages have t o be dug through t o them.

( ~ i g .

13

and 1 4 )

.

I n towns and l a r g e s e t t l e m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g m u l t i - s t o r e y b u i l d i n g s

i t i s

recommended t h a t r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s be p r o t e c t e d from snow storms by

an

o u t l y i n g

block of h i g h e r b u i l d i n g s .

Such a block should be placed on t h e windward s i d e

of t h e town o r s e t t l e m e n t

( ~ i g .

1 5 ) .

S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n should be paid t o t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e s e

o u t l y i n g s e c t i o n s , because

I n

t h e North t h e c o o l i n g of premises exposed t o t h e

wind

i s very g r e a t . The p l a n s should be drawn up w i t h a view t o having a

minimum number of b u i l d i n g s e r e c t e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e

p r e v a i l i n g winds ( ~ i g .

1 6 ) .

Since t h e low temperatures and s t r o n g winds r e s u l t i n c o n s i d e r a b l e h e a t

l o s s e s i n b u i l d i n g s through t h e i r e x t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s , h i g h e r e x p e n d i t u r e s f o r

h e a t i n g must be reckoned with.

Therefore

It i s very important t o i n c r e a s e t h e

w i d t h s of b u i l d i n g s and t h u s t o reduce t h e i r e x t e r n a l w a l l p e r i m e t e r s . I n N o r i l ' s k , f o r example, t h e w i d t h of most r e s i d e n t i a l and p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s i s

15

-

17 m e t r e s , which

i s undoubtedly advantageous.

C l e a r l y , t h e r e f o r e , t h e d e s i g n of b u i l d i n g s and t h e l a y o u t of b l o c k s i n t h e North h a s s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y from p r a c t i c e s i n o t h e r p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y .

The s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s of t h e North cannot be l e f t o u t of a c c o u n t . They must be c o n s i d e r e d i n drawing up s t a n d a r d p l a n s .

3.

Methods of C o n s t r u c t i o n L'or P r o t e c t i o n Against t h e Wind by I . Romm

It i s g e n e r a l l y lcnown t h a t t h e c o n t i n u o u s winds i n t h e F a r North w i l l produce s h a r p t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p s i n rooms on t h e windward s i d e , d e s p i t e t h e most

c a r e f u l

seal in^

of window s a s h e s and d e s p i t e v e r y i n t e n s e h e a t i n g of t h e p r e m i s e s .

Cold a i r g e t s i n t o t h e b u i l d i n g s mainly through t h e windows.

The a i r - t i g h t n e s s of t h e windovrs can be i n c r e a s e d by c a r e f u l s e a l i n g . Under l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s , r e p l a c i n g p u t t y by p l a s t i c i n e brought a n improve- ment of

50

-

60$.

T h i s would be e q u i v a l e n t t o a 30

-

405

improvement under t h e c o n d i t i o n s of

mass

c o n s t r u c t i o n . The l i f e of s e a l e r s of t h i s t y p e i s from 2

-

5

y e a r s .

It f o l l o w s t h a t merely by s e a l i n g windows i t i s not p o s s i b l e wholly t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e e f f e c t s of d i r e c t w i n t e r winds on i n h a b i t e d p r e m i s e s .

U n t i l r e c e n t l y t h e e f f o r t s of p l a n n e r s t o combat t h e e f f e c t s of winds on d w e l l i n g s have been d i r e c t e d mainly towards t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of v a r i o u s town- p l a n n i n g measures. U s u a l l y a few r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s a r e used t o p r o t e c t t h e o t h e r d w e l l i n g s I n t h e b l o c k from t h e wind and a t t h e same time t o p r o t e c t t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e b l o c k from d r i f t i n g snow.

However, i n t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e s e measures, rooms f a c i n g i n t h e d i r e c - t i o n of t h e p r e v a i l i n & winds a r e exposed t o t h e f u l l p r e s s u r e of t h e a i r

c u r r e n t s

.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no s t a n d a r d d e s i g n s have a s y e t appeared i n p l a n n i n g and c o n s t r u c t i o n p r a c t i c e which t a k e f u l l account of s p e c i f i c r e q u i r e m e n t s of b u i l a l n ~ s t o be used f o r x i n d - s h i e l d i n g p u r p o s e s .

Nothing 1 3 c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s o l u t i o n of t h i s problem by c o n t r o v e r s i e s

n a r r o w e r * . The width o f b u i l d i n g s , b a s t c a l l y , makes no essential d i f f e r e n c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e wind p r o t e c t i o n o f a p a r t m e n t s s l t u a t e d on t h e o u t e r p e r i m e t e r of a c i t y l)loclc ( o r o f 3 s e t t l e m e n t ) .

The f a c t i s t h a t i n any apartment house b u i l t I n t h e North a c c o r d i n g t o s t a n d a r d p l a n s some o f t h e i n h a b i t e d rooms a r e bound t o be s i t u a t e d o n t h e windward s i d e , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e w i d t h of t h e b u l l d i n g . The f a c t t h a t i n a p a r t m e n t s w i t h a two-sidcd e x p o s u r e t h e t e n a n t s a r e a b l e t o t a k e c o v e r from t h e windward s i d e d u r i n g storm3 by moving i n t o t h e rooms s i t u a t e d on t h e l e e - ward s i d e , c a n h a r d l y excuse t h e d r a r t i n e s s o f t h e i n h a b i t e d p r e m i s e s .

O b v i o u s l y , i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of h u ~ ~ s e s i n t c n d e d t o a c t as wind b a r r i e r s , f l o o r p l a n s ( o r u n i t s ) should be a p p l i e d i n which a l l rooms f a c e i n one d i r e c t i o n .

F i g u r e 1 7 shows a two-apartment p l a n w i t h a n i n t e r n a l l o n g i t u d i n a l b e a r i n g w a l l . 1111 t h e i n h a b i t e d roorns f a c e one way. T h i s p l a n i s somewhat l e s s eco- nomical t o c o n s t r u c t t h a n a s t a n d a r d one c o n t a i n i n g a p a r t m e n t s o f s m a l l f l o o r a r e a . However, when t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e improvement i n t h e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s of h o u s e s 1,vith one-sided e x p o s u r e of t h e rBoorns i s talcen i n t o a c c o u n t , s u r e l y a c e r t a i n i n c r e a s e i n c o s t s c o u l d be a c c e p t e d Tor b u i l d i n g s t o be l o c a t e d a l o n g t h e boundary l i n e o f t h e bloclc on t h e windward s i d e .

It i s t r u e t h a t h o u s e s of t h i s t y p e have one i m p o r t a n t drawback, namely t h a t a l l t h e e n t r a n c e s a r e on t h e windward s i d e and exposed t o s n o w d r i f t s . Attempts t o d e s i g n e n t r a n c e s from t h e c o u r t y a r d u s i n g a second s t o r e y p a s s a g e - way, r e s u l t e d i n g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d c o n s t r u c t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s .

The s o l u t i o n t o t h i s problem must be s o u g h t i n t h e abandonment of t h e s e c t i o n a l house i n f a v o u r o f t h e g a l l e r y t y p e .

To t h i s i t may be o b j e c t e d t h a t g a l l e r y h o u s e s reinain economical o n l y s o l o n g a s t h e g a l l e r i e s a r e l e f t open. A s soon as t h e g a l l e r y i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a h e a t e d c o r r i d o r , i t becomes a c o s t l y i t e m . The t o t a l c u b i c c o n t e n t of s u c h a c o r r i d o r and s t a i r w a y i n a g a l l e r y t y p e house w i l l exceed t h e c u b i c c o n t e n t o f a m u l t i p l e d x e l l i l n g viith t h e same number o f a p a r t m e n t s by 50

-

70%.

A l l t h i s i s q u i t e t r u e . Hovrever, i t should n o t be f o r g o t t e n t h a t i n t h e g a l l e r y house a somel~rhat more ccorlomical p l a n n i n g of t h e comlnon e n t r a n c e way f o r t h e a p a r t m e n t s t h a n f o r a m u l t i p l e d w e l l i n g becomes p o s s i b l e .

F3-gure

13

shows a n example of a f l o o r p l a n f o r a g a l l e r y - c o r r i d o r house

:,!ith :L l o n g i t i l d i n a l b e a r i n g 1,lall and t7v.lo d i f f e r e n t c e i l i n g s p a n s , 4.14 and 6 . 4 m . Each z t o r ! ? y h a s 12 a p a r t m e n t s . The g a l l e r i e s a r e 1 . 2 in w l d e .

r '-

.~,he prxopo:;cci g a l l e l - y h o u s e s a r e d e s i g n e d f o r t h e u s e o r s t a n d a r d con- s t r u c t i c n colnponent s 1-44'7-s ( s t o r e y hc:Lght 2 . 8 m f l o o r - t o - f l o o r )

.

, 'i'hl.; ~ ~ z t - ~ ~ o v o r s ~ r a y l ~ e a l ' e d , 111 particular, 1 1 1 A r l c h i t e k t u r a

';ASH, ( 2 )

,

1957,

C a l c u l a t i o n s on t h e b a s i s o f e x p e r i m e n t a l p l a n s of g a l l e r y h o u s e s

developed by u s confirm t h a t t h e i r v o l u m e t r i c c o e f f i c i e n t

(K,)

i s from

5.7

-

6 .

For cornparison i t may be r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e v o l u m e t r i c c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e 1-447-s s t a n d a r d house i s 5.5

-

5.7.

Thus t h e proposed t y p e o f house would be o n l y s l i g h t l y l e s s economical t o b u i l d t h a n t h e s t a n d a r d house w i t h small a p a r t m e n t s a t p r e s e n t i n u s e .

The a d v a n t a g e s of t h e g a l l e r y t y p e o f d ~ r c l l i n g , on t h e 0 t h ~ hand, a r e v e r y g r e a t . E e s i d e s making i t p o s s i b l e f o r a l l i n h a b i t e d room:; t o f a c e t h e leeward s i d e , a d d i t i o n a l wind p r o t e c t i o n i s o b t a i n e d by means of t h e s p a c e between t h e windward o u t s i d e w a l l o f t h e b u i l d i n g and t h e o u t s i d e w a l l s o f t h e a p a r t m e n t s ( h e a t e d c o r r i d o r s ) . The end w a l l s a r e p r o t e c t e d from t h e wind by t h e s t a i r w a y and c o l d s t o r a g e rooms. The number o f e n t r a n c e s t o t h e b u i l d i n g i s k e p t a t a minimum.

The u s e of t h e g a l l e r y t y p e b u i l d i n g i s s u i t a b l e o n l y f o r t h e o u t e r p e r i m e t e r of t h e b l o c k . 'flithin t h e "wind s h i e l d " r e g u l a r s t a n d a r d b u i l d i n g s may be b u i l t .

I n F i g . 1 9 i s shown t h e l a y - o u t of a b l o c k u s i n g s p e c i a l " w i n d - p r o t e c t i v e " b u i l d i n g s i n a l o c a l i t y where rfrest and n o r t h w e s t winds p r e v a i l .

" ~ i n d - p r o t e c t i v e " b u i l d i n g s c a n be a p p l i e d w i d e l y , n o t o n l y i n t h e F a r N o r t h , b u t a l s o i n o t h e r p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y where v e r y low t e m p e r a t u r e s w i t h

s t r o n g and s t e a d y winds a r e e x p e r i e n c e d i n w i n t e r ( e . g . N o r t h Kazakhstan, C e n t r a l Kazakhstan, and t h e s t e p p e s of S i b e r i a ) .

4 . On a Housing S t a n d a r d f o r t h e A r c t i c by S. Kozhurin

The q u e s t i o n of a h o u s i n g s t a n d a r d f o r t h e A r c t i c h a s been d e a l t w i t h p r e v ~ o u s l y i n p a p e r s by

I.

Vonog and G . U s t i n o v , A r k h i t e k t u r a , ( 2 ) ,

1957.

1 s h o u l d l i k e t o make t h e followinE; o b s e r v a t i o n s on p l a n n i n g problems f o r n o r t h - e r n h o u s i n i v r i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s t a t e m e n t s made t h e r e .

U n t i l a s e r i e s of s t a n d a r d d e s i g n s f o r c l i m a t i c z o n e s I and I1 had been worked o u t , c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e c i t i e s o f t h e A r c t i c had been c a r r i e d o u t o n t h e b a s i s of i n d i v i d u a l p l a n s . I t must b e s a i d t h a t w i t h a l l t h e i r s h o r t - comings, t h e s e p l a n s werc more s u i t e d t o A r c t i c c o n d i t i o n s t h a n t h e s t a n d a r d p l a n s now b e i n 5 employed, which have been developed f o r t h e middle l a t i t u d e s .

I n t h e p l a n n i n g o f h o u s i n g f o r t h e A r c t i c t h e f o l l o w i n g problems must be s o l v e d :

( 1 ) '.!hat i s t h e b e s t o r i e n t a t i o n of r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s and rooms?

( 3 )

Must t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of c r o s s - v e n t i l a t i o n of apartments be provided

f o r ?

( 4 ) What type of I l l u m i n a t i o n must be provided i n t h e rooms?

( 5 ) What kind of g e n e r a l s e r v i c e s should be provided i n r e s i d e n t i a l

b u i l d i n g s i n t h e A r c t i c ?

The

f i r s t

q u e s t i o n had a l r e a d y been c o r r e c t l y answered i n t h e p r o p o s a l s of

Vonog and Ustinov.

One cannot but a g r e e t h a t r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s i n t h e

A r c t i c should i n g e n e r a l be given a meridional o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h t h e end walls

f a c i n g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p r e v a i l i n g winds.

However, i n o r d e r t o reduce

t h e wind f o r c e w i t h i n t h e block, t h e town p l a n should i n c l u d e

a

l i n e of

b u i l d i n g s forming a b a r r i e r a g a i n s t t h e wind.

For t h i s purpose

a b u i l d i n g

would have t o be placed l a t i t u d i n a l l y . Thus, t h e r e must be two standard house

p l a n s f o r t h e A r c t i c , one f o r t h e meridional and one f o r t h e l a t i t u d i n a l

o r i e n t a t i o n .

I n t h e l a t i t u d i n a l b u i l d i n g s some of t h e rooms

w i l l

i n e v i t a b l y f a c e n o r t h .

However, n o r t h e r n o r i e n t a t i o n of i n h a b i t e d rooms under l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s cannot

be countenanced, s i n c e i n t h e A r c t i c t h e need f o r t h e s o l a r i n s u l a t i o n of t h e

inhabited a r e a s

i s

very g r e a t .

The congregation of f a m i l i e s d u r i n g windy p e r i o d s i n rooms on t h e leeward

s i d e , a s advocated by Vonog (obviously t h i s would e n t a i l moving t h e s l e e p i n g

f a c i l i t i e s

as

w e l l ) seems i m p r a c t i c a b l e .

It

would be p r e f e r a b l e t o c o n s t r u c t

s l e e p i n g a l c o v e s i n t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e apartment o r even t o have t h e bedrooms

c o n s t r u c t e d without d i r e c t n a t u r a l i l l u m i n a t i o n .

However, a more r a t i o n a l s o l u t i o n f o r b u i l d i n g s of l a t i t u d i n a l o r i e n t a t i o n

would be t h e employment of

a

two-apartment u n i t w i t h

a t

l e a s t two-thirds of t h e

i n h a b i t e d a r e a f a c i n g s o u t h . The o u t s i d e w a l l on t h e windward s i d e s o f such

b u i l d i n g s should be faced w i t h ceramic t i l e s , c o n c r e t e s l a b s , o r some o t h e r

compact f a c i n g m a t e r i a l .

The b a s i c standard r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g i n t h e A r c t i c should have meridio-

n a l o r i e n t a t i o n and should

have a

frame width of 1 5

-

1 8

m .

The c e n t r a l , more

remote p a r t of t h e house p l a n should be used f o r t h e accommodation of t o i l e t s ,

washrooms, c l o t h e s c l o s e t s and p o s s i b l y f o r k i t c h e n a l c o v e s i n one-room a p a r t

-

ments, and f i n a l l y f o r s l e e p i n g q u a r t e r s ( a l c o v e s o r rooms).

The s l e e p i n g

space can be s e p a r a t e d from t h e o t h e r l i v i n g a r e a s by p a r t i t i o n s w i t h moving o r

f i x e d g l a s s panes, o r by light-weight s l i d i n g p a r t i t i o n s .

I n summer tNs

i s

e s p e c i a l l y convenient f o r t h e t e n a n t s , s i n c e w i t h t h e onset of t h e p o l a r

24-hour day some darkening of t h e bedrooms d u r i n g s l e e p i n g hours must be

provided.

I n t h e o t h e r l i v i n g a r e a s , however, i l l u m i n a t i o n s t a n d a r d s must be h i g h e r

than t h o s e accepted f o r t h e middle l a t i t u d e s . For t h e A r c t i c it may be

s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e :~indolv~ a r c a should be I/(;

-

1/7 o f t h c f l o o r a r c a p e r room. Vonogls s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e n a t u r a l i l l u m i n a t i o n of l i v i n g q u a r t e r s be d e -

c r e a s e d i s l n c o r r c c t , because i n s p r i n g and autumn, when t h e d a y s a r e c l o u d y , p e o p l e n a t u r a l l y ;rant t o e n j o y a lnaxlrnuln o f d a y l i g h t . On t h e o t h e r hand, q u i t e r i g h t l y , r e s i d e n t l a l b u i l d i n g s of t h e North r e q u i r e s p e c i a l l y d e s j . ~ n e d , a i r - s e a l e d windows w i t h d o u b l e l o c k s , c a r e f u l i n s u l a t i o n of t h e j o i n t s between s a s h e s and w a l l s , and p o s s i b l y t r i p l e - g l a s s p a n e s . C r o s s - v e n t i l a t i o n of h o u s e s w i t h l n e r i d i o n a l o r i c n t , a t i o n should be r e p l a c e d by e f f i c i e n t e x h a u s t v e n t i l a t i o n of a l l rooms, w i t h e x h a u s t d u c t s i n s t a l l e d i n s i d e i n n e r w a l l s o r p a r t i t i o n s .

The compulsory i n s t a l l a t i o n oP c o l d - s t o r a g e cupboards under window s i l l s

would be d e s i r a b l e . I n t h e P a r North s u c h cupboards would meet t h e r e q u i r e - ments of t e n a n t s f o r r e f r i g e r a t i o n s p a c e t h r o u g h o u t a l m o s t t h e e n t i r ' c y e a r .

The m a j o r i t y of towns i n t h e A r c t i c a r e w e l l s u p p l i e d w i t h e l e c t r i c i t y . E l e c t r i c s t o v e s a r e conxnonly employed L'or c o o k i n g . Ilowever, o u r i n d u s t r y i s s t i l l p r o d u c i n g t o o few e l e c t r i c s t o v e s w i t h two and f o u r b u r n e r s and a n oven. There i s a l s o a s h o r t a ~ e o l e l e c t r i c a l l y h e a t e d h o t w a t e r t a n k s f o r bathrooms. ;uch domeatlc a p p l i a n c e s a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s i n t h e A r c t i c . I n l o c a l i t i e s where wood and c o a l a r e used f o r f i r i n g , a c e r t a i n amount of s p a c e should be p r o v i d e d w i t h i n t h e apal-tments f o r s t o r i n g a w e e k ' s s u p p l y o f f u e l . I n working o u t a p a r t m e n t f l o o r p l a n s , s t o r a g e s p a c e must a l s o be i n c l u d e d . O t h e r w i s e , some of t h e l i v i n g a r e a w i l l i n e v i t a b l y be s a c r i f i c e d f o r t h i s purpose

.

U s t i n o v l s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e ground f l o o r b e used f o r s t o r a g e p u r p o s e s a p p e a r s u n s u i t a b l e because i t would t u r n t h e s t r e e t s o f A r c t i c towns i n t o s t r e e t s o f s h e d s ! O f ' c o u r s e , t h e ground f l o o r should i n c l u d e s p a c e f o r t h e t e n a n t s t o kccp t h e i r b i c y c l e s , s k i s , s l e i ~ h s , baby c a r r i a g e s , e t c . b u t t h e e n t i r e f l o o r shohld n o t be devoted t o t h e s e p u r p o s e s .

IL'

basements cannot be p r o v i d e d i n t h e h o u s e s , it would be b e t t e r t o s t o r e f u e l i n s p e c i a l s h e d s i n t h e b l o c k . I t i s d e s i r a b l e t o have f u e l s t o r e d c o l l e c t i v e l y , s o t h a t l e s s s t o r a g e s p a c e need be a l l o c a t e d t o i t . B a l c o n i e s and v e r a n d a s should n o t be i n c l u d e d i n t h e p l a n s o f A r c t i c h o u s c s . The p a t t e r n of l i v i n g i n t h e North i n d i c a t e s t h a t n e i t h e r w i l l a c t u - a l l y be u s e d . The c o n s t r u c t i o n of v e r a n d a s and b a l c o n i e s m e r e l y r e s u l t s i n u n n e c e s s a r y c h i l l i n g of t h e a p a r t m e n t s . It i s t h u s o b v i o u s t h a t s p e c i a l s t a n d a r d p l a n s must be worked o u t f o r t housin; i n t h e N o r t h . L o c a l p l a n n i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s p o s s e s s i n g a d e q u a t e e x p e r i - ence i n t h e p l a n n i n g of n o r t h e r n d w e l l i n g s rnuot be encouraged t o produce s u c h p l a n s .

Only i n t h i s way w i l l i t be p o s s i b l e t o c r e a t e good s t a n d a r d p l a n s of r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s f o r t h e workers of t h e North and t h e A r c t i c .

5.

The Need f o r S a t i s f a c t o r y S e t s of Standard Housing and Design f o r Regions wfth a Severe Climate

by A . Bryzhkin

E x i s t i n g s t a n d a r d d e s i g n s have c o n s i d e r a b l e shortcomings. These i n c l u d e t h e g e n e r a l monotony of t h e d e s i g n s being proposed ( n o t t o be confused w i t h t h e f u l l y j u s t i f i e d u n i f o r m i t y of s t r u c t u r a l p l a n s ) and t h e r e s u l t i n g l i m i t a t i o n i n t h e choice of o r i e n t a t i o n f o r b u i l d i n g s .

The importance of sunshine f o r t h e h e a l t h , working c a p a c i t y and morale of t h e people i s w e l l known. It i s extremely important t o u t i l i z e every p o s s i - b i l i t y of i n c r e a s i n g t h e hours of i n s o l a t i o n of premises i n c l i m a t i c zones I

and 11, where t h e l a c k of abundant sunshine i s most a c u t e l y f e l t .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s t a n d a r d d e s i g n s of d w e l l i n g s f o r t h e s e r e g i o n s ,

e s p e c i a l l y apartment houses f o r f a m i l y o c c u p a t i o n , a r e f a r from p e r f e c t from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of a d a p t a b i l i t y w i t h i n t h e town p l a n .

I n t h e four-apartment u n i t of r e s t r i c t e d o r i e n t a t i o n , f o r example, two apartments f a c e one s i d e of t h e b u i l d i n g , t h e o t h e r two t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e . Given a north-south d i r e c t i o n of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s , a l l f o u r a p a r t m e n t s i n t h i s c a s e w i l l r e c e i v e sunshine i n t u r n ( i n t h e f i r s t and second h a l v e s of t h e d a y ) . T h i s , of c o u r s e , i s good.

However, when t h e b u i l d i n g f a s a d e s f a c e n o r t h and s o u t h , we have t h e l a t i t u d i n a l v a r i a n t of t h e p l a n ( p a r t i a l l y r e s t r i c t e d o r i e n t a t i o n ) , which

i s

not v e r y s a t i s f a c t o r y . One of t h e t h r e e rooms on t h e s o u t h s i d e h a s s i d e r a t i o s 1 : 2, and seems more l i k e a s m a l l c o r r i d o r t h a n a room f o r h a b i t a t i o n . Despite i t s f a v o u r a b l e o r i e n t a t i o n , t h e s h o r t a g e of sunshine i s s c a r c e l y

remedied w i t h i n t h e apartment.

For apartment houses w i t h l a t i t u d i n a l o r i e n t a t i o n , f l o o r p l a n s and b u i l d i n g s should be designed s o t h a t a l l i n h a b i t e d rooms w i l l open o n t o one

s i d e of t h e b u i l d i n g ( t h e s o u t h e r n f a s a d e s ) . P o s s i b l y , i n t h i s c a s e , t h i s would mean employing a c o r r i d o r p l a n ( p l a c i n g a p a r t m e n t s on one s i d e of t h e c o r r i d o r ) and i n t r o d u c i n g secondary l i g h t i n t o k i t c h e n s (and a l s o i n s t a l l i n g a s p e c i a l v e n t i l a t i o n system t h e r e ) .

Another p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n t o t h i s problem i s t h e development o f p l a n s of one-unit b u i l d i n g s , t h r e e t o s i x s t o r e y s h i g h , i n which f o u r o r f i v e a p a r t m e n t s a r e grouped around a s t a i r w a y . I n t h i s c a s e it i s p o s s i b l e f o r

a l l

i n h a b i t e d premises t o have e i t h e r e a s t e r n , w e s t e r n o r s o u t h e r n exposure.

I t i s a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p s u c h s t a n d a r d d e s i g n s . Cnly i n t h i s Nay c a n a s a t i s f a c t o r y s e t of r e s i d e n t i a l h o u s i n g p l a n s be c r e a t e d f o r c l i m a t i c zones I and 11.

F i g . 1

A _{two-apartment u n i t w i t h}

_a

_{two-room and}

_a

_{three-room s e c t i o n} Almost a l l i n h a b i t e d rooms a r e f a c i n g i n t h e one most

f a v o u r a b l e d i r e c t i o n . The h a t c h e d p a r t r e p r e s e n t s a u x i l i a r y p r e m i s e s

Fig. 2

Diagram showing t h e e f f e c t of t h e p r e v a i l i n g wind on

a

r e s i d e n c e u n d e r t h e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s of towns

i n t h e P a r E a s t . ( ~ p a r t m e n t house w i t h a f o u r - a p a r t m e n t u n i t )

F i g .

3

P l a c i n g of a house m e r i d i o n a l l y on a n o r t h e r n ( o r s o u t h e r n ) s l o p e I t i s evj.derit t h a t such p o s i t i o n i n g i s made d i f f i c u l t by

t,he n e c e s s i t y of c o n o t r u c t i n g a n a d d i t i o n a l f o u n d a t i o n s t o r e y t o t h e house

One-roorn a p a r t m e n t s i n a b l o c k e d t w o - s t o r e y b u i l d i n g All rooms f a c e i n one d i r e c t i o n . A s t a n d a r d

d e s i g n p r o d u c e d i n

195'j'

by t h e S t a t e I n s t i t u t e of P l a n n i n g f o r t h e

A v i a t i o n I n d u s t r y

A f o u r - a p a r t m e n t u n i t w i t h two-room a p a r t m e n t s

A two-apartment u n i t d e s i g n e d f o r room-by-room o c c u p a t i o n , w i t h a s e p a r a t e k i t c h e n f o r e a c h f a m i l y P e o p l e s 1 R e p u b l i c of C h i n a , Ukhan'

, 1958

Fig.

7

U n i t w i t h two-room and t h r e e - r o o m a p a r t m e n t s F r a n c e , S t . E t i e n ,

1954

Unit ~ # l l t h n o r t h - s o u t h o r i e n t a t i o n o f b u i l d l n g ( a ) and u n i t w i t h l a t l . t u d l n a 1 p o s i t l t o n ( b ) Denmark, s u b u r b of Copenhagen ( ~ u s u m ) , Tingb j e r g p r o j e c t ,

15?58

F i g . g A t h r e e - a p a r t m e n t u n i t w i t h two-room a p a r t m e n t s For e a c h a p a r t m e n t l o n g , narrow rooms

are

d e s i g n e d w i t h s o u t h e r n exposure IIungary,

1353

A s i n g l e - u n i t , f o u r - s t o r e y house. Of t h e s i x a p a r t m e n t s on each f l o ~ r o n l y t h r e e f a c e t h e sunny s i d e Primkraiproyelct

.

V l a d i v o s t o k , 195'1 P i g . 11 F l o o r p l a n of a _{s i n g l e - u n i t house w i t h a l l rooms f a c i n g} t h e sunny s i d e . F i n l a n d , I I e l s i n k i ,

1939

F i g . 12

U t i l i z a t i o n of u n i t s w i t h

a one-sided exposure f o r a l l i n h a b i t e d

rooms; s u i t a b l e f o r c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e F a r E a s t

A l l

rooms a r e sunny and p r o t e c t e d from w i n t e r winds

Secondary a r e a s shown by h a t c h i n g

F i g .

13

I n c o r r e c t l o c a t i o n of

a

r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g i n t h e A r c t i c

T i k s i Bay.

It

i s b u i l t a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e

d i r e c t i o n of t h e p r e v a i l i n g w i n t e r winds

Snowdrifts have accumulated on t h e

Fig. 1 4

The main d i r e c t i o n of t h e p r e v a i l i n g winter winds

was

_{not taken}

i n t o c o n a i d e r a t i o n i n planning t h e a e blocks i n t h e c i t y

of

N o r i l l s k . The s t r e e t running a t

right

a n g l e s

t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p r e v a i l i n g w i n t e r wind

i s

blocked by snowdrift8 d u r i n g t h e

stormy w i n t e r months

Fig.

15

Buildings on t h e windward s i d e of t h e c i t y of N o r i l l s k

On

t h e l e f t

-

a

snow fence, p r o t e c t i n g t h e

b u i l d i n g s from s n o w d r i f t s

.

1957

F i g . 16 General p l a n of a n A r c t i c s e t t l e m e n t f o r

6,000

p e o p l e i n a n a r e a s u b j e c t t o s e v e r e snow s t o r m s . The c l o s e d p e r i m e t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h two rows of m u l t i - s t o r e y houses p r o t e c t s t h e s e t t l e m e n t a g a i n s t wind and s n o w d r i f t s P l a n drawn by a r c h i t e c t I . Vonog. 1956 F i g . 1 7

A two-apartment u n i t i n which a l l i n h a b i t e d rooms f a c e t h e sunny s i d e . The u n i t h a s two

The p l a n of a c l o s e d i n g a l l e r y house w i t h a l o n g i t u d i n a l s u p p o r t ; l n ~ w a l l and two uneql,~al c e i l i n g s p a n s

of

4

.[I

m

and 6.14 m F i g . 1'3 Example of a r e s i d e n t i a l b l o c k u s i n g s p e c i a l " w i n d - p r o t e c t i v e " h o u s e s f o r a r e g i o n w i t h p r e v a i l i n g west and n ~ r t h ~ v e s t w i n t e r y l n d s . The rows of I I w i n d - p r o t e c t l v e h o u s e s a r e shown i n s o l i d b l a c k