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Research Needs in Protective
Clothing for Fire Fighters
C I S T I / I C I S T N R C ~ C N R C I R C S e r
R e c e i v e d o n : 11-14-97
I n t e r n a l r e p a r t .
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by David T o ~ i and George Hadjisophocleous
Internal Report No. 751
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RESEARCH NEEDS IN PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR FIRE FIGHTERS .~.
David Torvi and George Hadjisophocleous
ABSTRACT
Previous research into protective clothing for fire fighters is discussed in this report. Particular emphasis is placed on research into estimating the useful life of this clothing. Other areas covered in this review include the development of test standards, moisture transfer in clothing, heat stress, design criteria, chemical protective clothing and heat transfer modelling of protective clothing. Some recommendations for future work are also presented.
RESEARCH NEEDS IN PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR PIRE FIGHTERS
David Tomi and George Hadjisophocleous
INTRODUCTION
Protective clothing is of great importance to fire fighters. In the past few decades, advances have been made in the protection which this clothing provides. New flame resistant fibres and microporous materials have been developed for use in turnout gear. Bench top and thermal mannequin tests have been developed to evaluate the performance of fabrics and garments under hazardous conditions. However, protective clothing does have limitations and there are still many areas where research is ongoing. Issues such as the design and durability of turnout gear, moisture transfer in clothing, heat stress and improvements to test methods continue to be studied by researchers around the world. This report presents results of a review aimed at identifying research work on protective clothing for fire fighters, as well as defining areas in which further work is required. The review includes relevant fire fighter, fire research and textile science literature and communication with researchers, fibre and garment manufacturers and members of committees responsible for test standards for this clothing.
Background
During the past few decades, considerable research effort has been devoted to the development and evaluation of protective clothing for fire fighters. Related research has been conducted in the areas of skin bums, fabrics for comfort conditions and research into protective clothing for other applications. Reviews of these areas of research can be
found in Brewster and Barker [l], Ukponmwan [2] and Torvi [3]. Reviews specifically concerned with protective clothing for fire fighters can be found in Fomell[4],
Norman [5] and Vogelpohl 161.
Issues for the Fire Services
As a result of this review, the following issues have been identified as being important to the fire services.
durability of turnout gear
development of test standards for protective clothing moisture transfer in protective clothing and steam bums
heat stress, breathability and other physiological issues related to clothing design criteria for protective clothing
protective clothing for chemical hazards
o heat transfer modelling of protective clothing
This report will concentrate on research into the durability of protective clothing. However, the other topics in the above list will be briefly discussed. Recommended research in these areas will be discussed later in this report.
DURABILITY OF TURNOUT GEAR
It is difficult to estimate the durability of turnout gear for fire fighters. Some degradation of this clothing is easy to detect, such as rips in the outer shell. Degradation due to repeated laundering or exposures to high heat fluxes or certain types of radiation
may not be as apparent. Simply stating that a garment can be used for a certain number of years of service is not sufficient. Different fire departments may have different experiences due to the level of usage, ultraviolet exposure, approach to fire fighting and cleaning frequency [7]. As well, gear belonging to different fire fighters in the same department will be exposed to different conditions over the lifetime of the garment.
Some of the factors which affect the usable lifetime of turnout gear include [8]: weight and type of weave of fabric
frequency of use
number and types of repairs cleaning procedures used
types of work performed by the wearer
amount of reinforcement in high abrasion areas
length of exposure to extreme heat and the intensity of the heat length of exposure to hazardous materials
length of exposure to sunlight, or other light containing ultraviolet radiation
Some manufacturers of turnout gear and other groups (e.g., Lion Apparel [S] and the Fire Industry Equipment Research Organization [9]) have developed manuals on the use of protective clothing. These manuals contain information on recommended
inspec60n, washing, storage, repair and retirement and disposal procedures for turnout pear. Often a form is included to maintain a record of the cleaning and repair history of
-
individual garment.
While test standards such as NFPA 1971 [lo] specify the minimum performance requirements for new protective clothing, there are no standards and little published rescarch into the performance of used garments. The most cornpruhensive study is that of Vogelpohl 161 who conducted physical tests on 20 turnout coats used in actual fire
figGting or &&ing programs fbr lengths of service from one to over six years. Properties tested included thermal protective performance (TPP), flame resistance, water resistance, tensile and seam strength, tear resistance, abrasion resistance, ultraviolet degradation, zipper operation resistance and retroreflectivity. The results of the tests of the used garments were compared to their length of service, type of use and laundering procedures used. It was found that the used garments passed the TPP and most flame resistance requirements. However, some used garments failed some of the flame resistance requirements. The water resistance of the used garments had decreased and some of the used garments with moisture barriers failed the appropriate tests. There were also significant decreases in the seam and fabric strengths of the used garments.
Other work on durability includes that of Day, et al [l 11, who exposed fabrics to simulated sunlight from a xenon arc weather-Ometer* and heat in an oven. Fabric properties were compared before and after these exposures in order to determine the effects of light and heat on the performance of the fabrics. Light and heat reduced the physical strength of the fabric, but did not appear to affect the flame resistance or thermal protective performance of the fabrics and garment assemblies which were studied. Day and Sturgeon [I21 suggested a test for measuring the performance of a garment in the field using a radiative heat flux of 8.4 kW/m2, rather than the usual 84 kW/m2 heat flux.
Certain commercial products are identified in this report in order to adequately specify the results of previous research. In no case does such identification imply recommendations or endorsement by the National Research Council, nor does it imply that the product or material identified is the best available for the purpose.
In this test. the garment would not be damaged, but some information on the condition of the garment after an exposure would be provided. Others have looked at the effects of long term exposure to the high heat fluxes encountered during structural fire fighting on fabrics and garments. For example, Rossi and Zimmerli [I31 showed that the moisture barrier was the most important layer of a protective clothingassembly to consider when investigating thermal aging. They observed decreases in the performance of breathable moisture barriers used in protective clothing after relatively ihort exposures to a heat flux of 10 kW/m2.
Work has been done on the effects of laundering on the properties of materials used in turnout gear. Loftin [14] compared the results of flammability, thermal protective performance, abrasion resistance and strength tests of various fabrics used in protective clothing before and after large numbers of industrial launderings. Mtikinen [15] studied the effects of wear and laundering on the properties of some fabrics used in protective clothing. She found that the combined effects of wear and laundering were much larger than those of laundering alone. Therefore, specifying a large number of washings of a fabric before testing its properties may not be sufficient for test standards. Wear may need to be simulated as well. The effectiveness of different laundering approaches commonly used to decontaminate protective clothing for fire fighters were studied by Stull, et a1 [16]. Baitinger [17] discusses methods that can be used to determine the wash durability of flame resistant cotton fabrics in the laboratory and in actual service.
Some information has been published on the effects of exposures to certain chemicals on the strength of fabrics used in protective clothing. For example, Bryan and Hampton [18] examined the effects of chemicals used at the Kennedy Space Center on fabrics used in protective clothing for propellant handlers. The effects of certain chemicals on the breaking strength of the fabrics used in this particular protective clothing were determined. It was found that the time of exposure to some chemicals which affected the breaking strength could be determined using a differential scanning calorimeter.
More work is still required to assist those deciding when to retire turnout gear in the field. There has been some research reported in the literature about the effects of laundering, high heat fluxes and temperatures, ultraviolet and other radiation and other factors on the material properties of protective fabrics and turnout gear. Agreement is needed on the relative importance of the effects of these and other factors on durability.
Laboratory tests have been conducted to study some of factors listed above and should continue. However, only one systematic field study of turnout gear has been reported (Vogelpuhl [6]). Twenty used garments were examined. As these were chosen for the study at the end of their useful life, records of their use were constructed after retirement. A study in which a larger number of new garments are selected and careful records of their use are kept over their entire lifetime should be undertaken. This would provide more information to use in analyzing the performance of these garments before and after retirement.
Improved guidelines for the retirement of turnout gear should also be developed. More work is required to develop criteria which indicate that clothing should be retired. For example, maximum number of launderings, high heat flux exposures, exposures to certain chemicals, etc. could be'specified. This information could be used in conjunction with visual inspections, simple tests in the field and careful records of the history of service of individual pieces of turnout gear. For example, fire incident reporting systems could be modified to allow fire departments to keep track of the personnel who respond to a fire, an indication of the conditions they faced at each fire (e.g., flashover fires) and
any maintenance, laundering and repair information. All of this information could be compared to the criteria discussed above and the program could flag the user when an individual piece of clothing should be retired.
DEVELOPMENT OF TEST STANDARDS FOR PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Various tests are used to assess the performance of protective fabrics and clothing for fire fighters. One of the main test standards referred to is NFPA 1971 [lo]. It must be kept in mind that the test conditions used in this and other test standards may not be indicative of all the hazardous conditions which may he encountered during fire fighting. For example, most test standards for the thermal protective performance of fabrics utilize a nominal heat flux of 80 kW/m2, which was estimated by Behnke [19] as being
representative of a flash fire. Heat fluxes which fire fighters are subjected to may be
quite different than this. Investigators have reported heat flux measurements for structural fire fi htin and other hazards. These include Holcombe and Hoschke [20]
5
g.
(130-330 kW/m for simulated mine explosions and 167-226 kW/m2 for JP-4 fuel fires), Krasny, et al [21] (up to 180 kW/m2 for room fires from just below flashover to flashover and severe postflashover fires) and Dale, et a1 [22] (up to 170 kW/m2 for an explosion in a house partially filled with natural gas). Lawson [23] discusses the conditions under which fire fighters typically stage their attack on a fire. Holcombe and Hoschke [20] also discuss some of the other concerns with standard bench top tests.
There are also differences between individual test standards used to assess the performance of thermal protective clothing. For example, while the nominal values of the incident heat flux in NFPA 1971 [lo] and ASTM D 4108 [24] are the same, they are considerably different in the amounts which are convective and radiative. Lee and Barker [25] discuss the effects of this difference on bench top test results of single layer flame resistant fabrics.
Some investigators have tried to correlate the results of standard tests with the expected performance of these materials in the field. Peacock, et a1 [26] found that results from tests of specimens of turnout coat materials during full-scale fire tests ranked these materials in approximately the same order as results from thermal protective
performance tests.
In order to test the performance of the entire turnout gear, full-scale thermal mannequin tests can be conducted under specified conditions. Facilities for conducting these tests include those at the University of Alberta [27], DuPont Advanced Fibers [28] and North Carolina State University. However, as noted above, the conditions used in these garment tests are not necessarily indicative of all of the conditions which may be encountered during actual fire fighting.
Other researchers have developed new or modified test methods including those for other hazardous conditions. Stull, et al [29] developed small and large scale test methods to evaluate the performance of chemical protective suits in chemical flash environments. Modifications which may improve existing bench top test methods for single layer protective fabrics were evaluated by Torvi, et al [30].
Test standards should continue to be improved. The conditions which fire fighters are exposed to need to be quantified and compared to those used in standard tests. Most current tests only evaluate the performance of fabrics during a thermal insult and not afterwards while the fabric may continue to transfer stored energy to the skin causing bums to the fire fighter. Some preliminary work has been done on tests which take into consideration the energy transfer after the exposure ends [30]. These test methods,
however, need further development and improvement. Even as these new or modified tests are developed, it remains important for the end user to keep in mind the limitations of any test method used, including the fact that the conditions under which fabrics or garments are tested will never completely simulate those that a fire fighter may face in real life.
MOISTURE TRANSFER IN PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND STEAM BURNS
Possible bum injuries to fire fighters include steam burns. These are caused by the transfer of relatively large amounts of energy when evaporated moisture condenses on the surface of the skin. Lawson [23] discusses how fire fighters may unexpectedly
receive steam burns even while outside the flaming envelope.
Modem turnout gear usually contains a moisture barrier to prevent water from the outside soaking through the entire garment. This helps to keep the fire fighter dry. These barriers are often made of microporous materials which will prevent water from moving towards the skin, but will allow water vapour, such as that from perspiration, to escape. This helps to reduce heat stress and the probability of steam bums occurring.
Various researchers have studied moisture transfer in protective clothing. Zimmerli has looked at the influence of moisture on heat transfer in fire fighters'
gloves [3 I ] and protective clothing assemblies [32] under hazardous conditions, including the importance of moisture bamers. He has also developed a test which measures the thermal protection and comfort of protective clothing for fire fighters and other
applications using a specially designed cylinder which simulates a sweating torso [33]. Veghte [34] examined the effects of moisture on the protection offered by fire fighters' gloves. Makinen [35] compared the effects of various types of underwear on the moisture transfer in protective clothing for fire fighters and the performance of this clothing. Lee and Barker examined the effect of moisture on the performance of single layer flame resistant fabrics in bench top tests using different combinations of radiative and convective heat fluxes [36].
Due to the variety of conditions fire fighters face, moisture transfer through their protective clothing is difficult to describe. This moisture transfer has a large effect on the heat transfer through these garments and hence their performance. More basic research is required in this area. Work is also required to continue to develop test methods which can evaluate the protection offered by turnout gear taking into account the moisture transfer which takes place in this clothing during fire fighting operations.
HEAT STRESS, BREATHABILITY AND OTHER PHYSIOLOGICAL ISSUES
As mentioned above, heat stress to fire fighters is closely related to moisture transfer in protective clothing. Gohlke 1371 discusses the development of a test method to address the heat stress associated with wearing turnout gear. Various researchers have compared the heart rate and core body temperatures of fire fighters doing exercises with and without different pieces of turnout gear, including Carter [38], Miikinen, et al [39] and Huck and McCullough 1401. The latter investigators also used copper mannequin tests and subjective evaluations by fire fighters to compare protective clothing
alternatives for fire fighters. Dukes-Dubos, et al [41] assessed the effects of various practices (such as using a belt versus using suspenders to hold up the pants) on ventilation in fire fighter protective clothing. Veghte [42] examined the physiological responses of fire fighters dressed in chemical protective clothing during field studies under various climatic conditions.
Heat stress will continue to be a major issue in the design of new turnout gear. The continuing development of test methods to assess the ability of protective clothing to combat heat stress and feedback from fire fighters on the performance of their turnout gear will assist in the development of improved turnout gear.
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Krasny [43] gives a good review of some of the desirable characteristics of thermal protective clothing. Veghte [44,45] discusses many of the important issues involved in the design of protective clothing for fire fighters such as the fire environment, skin burns, heat stress, integration of various components and functional design
requirements. Fornell [4] discusses some of the important issues in using protective clothing, such as its fit, integration of coat and pants and purchasing considerations. Rotmann [46] and Pompe [47] also discuss issues of interest to the end user in selecting protective clothing for fire fighters. Crown and Rigakis [48] describe a decision
framework for making protective clothing decisions.
Much work has been done in the general area of sizing of clothing. Correct sizing is particularly important, as the performance of the clothing is dependent on the correct fit. For example, sleeves and pant legs must be of the correct length to provide protection for the wrists and ankles. Work is ongoing at the Building and Fire Research Laboratory at the National Institute of Standards and Technology in the U.S. to determine the critical factors of the sizing of fire fighter clothing which affect the thermal performance and ability of workers during fire fighting [49]. Another example of research into the fit of protective clothing is a study to investigate considerations for pregnant women using protective clothing [50].
Manufacturers continue to improve turnout gear for fire fighters, while end users are becoming better educated in the issues involved in the selection of turnout gear and the proper fiiof this clothing. The design of turnout gear involves some trade offs. For example, there needs to be a balance between increasing thermal protection and
decreasing heat stress. Continued research into all of the areas described in this paper should continue to help manufacturers and end users to make these trade offs. Research into other areas of design, such as the effects of sizing on the protection clothing offers should also continue. Part of this effort may involve research into issues such as energy transfers between heated fabrics and the skin across different sizes of air gaps (e.g., Reference [3]).
CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
While turnout gear is designed to primarily provide thermal protection, chemical protective clothing is also available. However, this clothing is generally not designed to provide thermal protection. This is a problem when fire fighters must battle certain types of chemical fires. Many investigators have conducted research in the area of chemical protective clothing. Some examples of this work can be found in an ASTM special technical publication dealing specifically with chemical protective clothing [51]. For example, An, et a1 [52] performed experiments to test the effect of adding an outer chemical protective clothing layer on the thermal protective performance of single and multiple layer thermal protective clothing, as well as the effects of extreme heat on the performance of the chemical protective clothing itself. Other ASTM special technical publications dealing with the general area of protective clothing also contain papers on chemical protective clothing (e.g., [53]). Further research in this area will continue to be of interest to those involved with protective clothing for fire fighters.
HEAT TRANSFER MODELLING OF PROTECTIVE FABRICS AND CLOTHING
Despite the existence of bench top and thermal mannequin tests of fabrics and entire garments for high heat flux exposures, there are still questions about the thermal response of these materials under these conditions. Heat transfer models have been developed to attempt to answer these questions. These models can also be useful to designers of protective fabrics. One such heat transfer model was recently developed by Tomi [3] for flame resistant fabrics under high heat flux conditions. A review of some of the other heat transfer models for fabrics is also included in this reference.
Heat transfer models have been developed for the case of short duration, high heat flux exposures. However, fire fighters are often exposed to heat fluxes which are
considerably lower, but for relatively longer periods of time. Heat transfer models should he extended to handle these situations. This would allow designers to examine the effects of different thermal properties on the protection offered by fabrics for turnout gear under a larger number of conditions. For example, for a short duration, high intensity exposure, a fabric with a large heat capacity may be desirable, as this will slow down the heat transfer to the skin. However, for a longer duration exposure, a large heat capacity will allow the fabric to store larger amounts of energy which can then he released over time to the skin, possibly causing skin bums.
SUMMARY
While there has been much research into the performance of protective clothing for fire fighters when it is new, little research has been conducted into the performance of used garments. Factors which affect the useful lifetime of turnout gear include the weight and type of weave of the fabric, frequency of use, number and types of repairs, cleaning procedures used, types of work performed by the wearer and length of exposures to extreme heat, hazardous materials and ultraviolet radiation. Published research into how some of these individual factors affect the usable lifetime of the clothing has been
described briefly in this report. Work in other areas of protective clothing for fire fighters, such as the development of test standards, moisture transfer in clothing, heat stress, design criteria, chemical protective clothing and heat transfer modelling of protective clothing was also described. Recommended research in all of these areas has also been discussed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The assistance of the following individuals is gratefully acknowledged by the authors in preparing this review.
Mr. D. Aldridge, Lion Apparel
Dr. R.L. Barker, Textile Protection and Comfort Center, North Carolina State University
Dr. E.M. Crown, Department of Human Ecology, University of Alberta Dr. J.D. Dale, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta Dr. M. Day, National Research Council of Canada
Mr. M. McCaffrey, DuPont Canada Dr. T.E. Neal, DuPont Advanced Fibers
Chief Kirk Owen, Plano (Texas) Fire Department Mr. R. Tucker, Hoechst Celanese Corporation Mr. R. Tutterow, Charlotte (N.C.) Fire Department
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