Tratal_ 1 £If'1CKYof•.1 _ Sn._aIMeadeT Tra.llltftlPrvp-a_
by
Sheila M_Byrne.B.A.B,Ed
Athesissubmined(QtheSChool ofGradua le Studies inpa.rriaIfulfillmcm.of the
requirememsfO!"thedegreeof Maslel"ofEdueation
DepartmentofEducationalPsychol ogy Facultyof Education MemorialUniversityof NewfoundJand
October1999
Abstract
Thisstudydealswiththeefficacyofa juvenilesenaloffenderITeatJnentprogram in reducingfurther offending.The rettospeetive expIOf'aloryresearchwascond uct ed with32 juveni lesexualoffenderswhohad been sentenced 10securecustody attheNewfOWldland and LabradorYouth Centreinwbnbouree. Eachof these offenders,whilein custod y.had completed varying degreesof aueatmeu program,entitled'Healthy Lifestyles ".The programwasledbyfacility therapistSbetweenApriJ1994andOctober1991.Therewer e threegroups.GroupIcompletedtheprognm.group2wasnotoffer edthe program.. and group3<:ompleted theeducational component oftheprogramThe study investigated bothsexualandnonsecualrecidivismof the threegroups.hexplored factorssuchasprior convictions.typology,sex of vietim,andpost releasefollow-upperiod.IIaJso investiga ted asing lecase ofjuvenilesexua.lrecidivi sm.The findings suggested that the educat ional compo nentof the treatment programwas effective in reducingboth seiWaJ andnon sexual recidivism.Thenonsexualrecidivism rateof offenders.who completedtheeduca tio nal componenlofthe program.wasmuchlow er thantherecidivi sm rueofthe groupof juvenileswhowerenotexposedtoanyofthetreatmentcomponents.There was a positivecorrelationbetwftnfollow.-upperiodandnonsexualrecidivism.Juveni leswho werenotexposed toanyohlletreatmentprogrvnswere more likdytore-offendasthe follo w-upperiodincreased
Ac:kn_koda-eBU
Iwouldliketolbankmyhusband,Dennis.Wilhoulhislo ve,encouragement,and patience.Iknow lbswouJdDOlhave beenaocompUshabic.Iwouldalsolike tolhankmy puenuwbowere theretcranindmethu the end wasju 51aroundlhecomer.A special lhankyou toDr.Nann Garlie andMr.Gerry White fer theirsupport. encouragement.,and direction.(wouldalsolike to thankstaffmembersattheNewfoundland and labrador YouthCentre andlheRCMPdetaChment inWhitboumeforhelp ingmeobtainrelev&lll information.F"maUy,I would liketothank:Mrs,Rose O'Reillyforhereditingexpertise, udMn.FromeSpark esforherinvaluablecomputer skills.
ill
Abstract...
Acknowledgements...
list ofTables....
list of Figures...
Cha pler
I.l" trotlIIctioll...
Swtelffentoj Problem...
IUSiNU'ChQtlesriClft.f...
Definltiom...
2 l.iurwl.~Rm-....
TrrDllrlentAPfJ'OOChes...
BehaviouralIreatmems...
Phannaco/ogrcalTreatmems...
Cogn itive . Behaviou ralIreaimems....
EctecucAppt'OOCh.
FutureDirections .
TreannentCons ideratiotU . R«KJrn!J1ll.•...
RecidivismCtJl"relates...
AdultRecidIvlDrl...
Adok~nIRecidivl$m...
Heal thyLifestyles...•.
TreDllrlenlAdJUnct.... .
iv
Page
• •
'0
IS IS
\7
I.
18 2.2\
23
2'
27 29 30 32 343.
JlIlr'Od»ctlO'l.
poptl/orlolt....•.•...
T~nJGrovp. .•...•...
COIrIpCII'lsotrGroups . GroupCompansom. n _Frame....
Follow-up...
ProcedureforMiacollection...
&cidiw sm/?mes....
3.
37 J8 J8 39 43 43 43
4'
4 1UsMb:s••• 49
.2 .2
..51
.... 52
. ...49
...59 ....62 .2 ...52 1MrelatiOmhip HftWenlewloftreomrenl and
~~...
1M relatiomhlp HlWeen lewloftrftmMntand
~/r«iditIIsm...•..••..
1MrelonotuhlpHrwun.JnJIQ/recidivrSMand _xuaJrecidivtSIJI...
TN relohon.sJupklWeen nonsn:ual recidIwSIJIowl pnor convIcnons.l)pOIogy.victi",nlatUNnhip.and sex of vicnm...
Therelationship ktween groupfollow-upand nonsexua lrecidivism...
Treat mentgroup.... Nonsnual recidivism... . .
The relationshipbetweennumber ofprior conviction s and nonsnualrecidivism...
Therelationship~number ofprior convictions andselW&Irecidivism...
Therelationshipbetweentypologyand
scxuaIrecidivisnl.... . 64
Therd ationshipbetweensell:of victim and
sexualrecidivism... 66
Therelationshipbetweenfollow-upandrecidivism... 67
Furtheretpkxation... .... 69
SUMmary... •..71
s.
1JUausion...RlcOltlmenJat iOflS...
Limitations...
FlllIIn'~varchsuggrm ons...
References . Appendices
A.DepartmemofJustice PermissionLetter...
S Royal CanadianMounted PolicePermissionLetter . C.Ethics Conuninee Letterof Approval....
72 77
.0
84
ss
102 104 107
Mean group differences on dependemvariab les...
Analysisof ~ofdependent variables... . FoUow~pperiodfoeyoungoffenden...
p. ..
40 41 ... ... ••...44 Dctemti:ningprior,princifNe.andsubscqucm:sexual and
nollSe'lWaloffen.ses... . 47
Relations hipbetweentreatmentgroupandsexual recidivism..•..
Rd.a~pbetweentreatmenlgroupand nonsexual recidivtSm...••
7. RelationshipbetweenseX1WandnonsexuaJrecidivism.... . Rdationshipbetweenallprio r convictionsand nonsexual recidivism...
Relationship betweenprior sexualconvictions and non sexual recid ivism...
'0
1I
'2
II
l4
10. Relationship between~08Yandnonsexual recidivism.... 56 II. R.eIarionshipbetweennonsexual recidivismandvkaim
relationship... 57
12. Sexofvictirn and nonsexu&lrecidivism... S8
13. Rdations.hipbetweengroupfollow-upperiod and nonsexual
recid ivism... . 60
vii
14 Rdationshipbetweenrunberofallprionand sexual recidivism... 6}
15. ReIationshjpbetweennumberofsexualpriors and sexual
recidi";sm... 64
16. Relationshipbetweentypologyandsexual recidiv ism.; 6S 17. Cross tabulationcfsex ofvictim andsexu.a1 recidi,,;sm.... 66 18. RelationshipbetweengroupfolJow~pand sexual rM)trencling... 68 19 Comparisonof additionalvariablesbetween sexual recidivist
andrestofsample 70
Listor Filum
Tukey HSOmuJripie comparisontestbetweengroupsand numba"ofprioIlClWaIoffenses .
2. Average follow-upperiodfoc juvenilesnuaIoffenders...
Ox
p. .e
42
.,
Cba pterOne /lItrDtI.ctio"
Foryears.actsof maleadolncemsexua1offenden have beendismissedand/or ignored.Oftentheir inappropriate sexualbehaviourwas consideredClCploral ion:that is.
normalbehaviour of beingaboy(Charlesand MacDonald,1997;Co leman.1997;Shie lds andJorden,1995;ScopsandMays.1991 )_Beha viourthai wasnormallydeemed inappropriateorillegalwhencommin edbyan adult,wascondonedinanadolescentpurely onthebasisofage_Despitesocietyexcusingthemaleadolescent sexualoffender,the crimescontinue tobe commined and peoplearehurt regardlessof1Mageofthe vietimizer (CharlcsandMcDonald,199 7;Ryan.1991)
Since theearly1980'sthere hasbeenashiftintheconsidera tiongiventothe adolescentsexualoffender.Their'exploratcry'behavKJurisnowconsideredasymptom ofamuch larg erproblemthatmustbedealt with throughsome type:oftre&tment.
Therapists and researchershave desperatelytried toreveal theim po rtanceof not only acknowledgin g thisproblem but also of an emptingtoaddressit
Manyexperts (Bubatee., HudsonandSeo.1993;Knopp,198 5;Knoppand Lane.
1991)agreethat inappropriate sexual behaviounare Ieamed throughobservation and directexperience The sexualoffend er maygain pleasure through thisobservationand direct experience.Aswith any behaviour,if~easureisassociated withan.et,thentha t
act maybecomehabitual inan anempc to attain the desiredp1easuu.ThishabituaJact maythenbecomeduonic.Earlyintervention.beforethe patterns becomechronic.and ingrainedinlheyoung person, isextremely important.Itis crucial 10stoptbe dev eiopmentalprocessof thesexualassault cycle lhatbeginsintbeseadolescentyears because itmayresult inthe de"\'eIopmentof additionaldevianlsexual interest s orabusive panerns (CharlesandMcDonald. 1991;Knopp,1985;Stenson andAnderson..1981).In addition.Charles and McDonald stressedearlyintervention because adolescent5e'lCUaI offend erswhomayhavebeenvictimized maybechro nologically closer to lheir own victimization.Theybelievedthat. shortened time spanmay beimponam in dealing wit h abuseand shouldbeconsideredinthetreatmentprocess.
Itis also imponarn 10 interveneearlyin an attempt 10arrestsuchviolen t actS Society isaffeaed because everysexually aggressiveactadvendyaffectsapenonotber than theperpetr8tOf.Thereis an emotional impact ontbo seprimvilyandscconcbri ly associated withthecrime.The hu ndocsnot stopat the victim. Friendsandfamilyof boththe victimand tbe perpetrator mustalsodeal withpain andhu miliation.The question,of cocrse,ishowdowedealwiththeseadolescent perpetrators Itis most imponanl thaicommunitiesbe prot ected.lncan:eralionisroutine.However.wecannoc lockthemup and lhrowawaythe key.lncan:erarionwithout u-eaunentmayfurther jeopar dizecommuniI)'safely.What happens when theoffend erisrcleased1Thinyfive 10 eighty percent cfuatreated incarcen.lcd sexual offenders commil more sexual crimes uponrelease (Heinz. Ryan, and Ben gis;1991).
A retrospectivestudyof adult sex offenders,showed that adultsex offenders who begancommitting sexualcrimesas adolescents,willcommit380sexcrimesduringtheir lifetimes (Bec ker,Kaplan. and Kavou ssi,1988).Studies byBarbaree.Marshall.,and Hudson. (1993) found that20"/aofrapes and 30- 50%ofassaultsagainsIchildren were committedbyjuveniles . Fro m thiswecan conclude thata substantial portion ofthe approximate380sexualoffensesoccurduringthe adolescentyean.Thesesexual offend ingjuveniles are thenmorelikelytore-offend sexually asadults (Sipe, Jensen and Everett,1998).Research by,Prentkyand Knight(1993),and HansonandBussiere (1996)confinned that an early onset:of sexualoffending positivelycorrelatedwith the rateof adult sexual recidivism.Specifically.Hansonand Bussierefound thestrongest predicto r of sexual recidivism to bea previou ssexualoffense . In their study,sex offenders whohadcommitt edsex offences in thepastsexually re-offend ed at arate of ]0% Yet.sexoffend e rswithnopreviou shisto ry of asexualoffence re-offendedata7"/0
Itis impo rtant thatwe interveneearlie r than previouslyinanattem pt10rehabilitate these offenders andcurb the progres sion ofa life ofsexualcrime.Thisurgencyis increased since results fromstudiesindicatethai the proport ion of adultSClCUaloffend ers relativetothetOtal offen der populationis steadilyincr easing(Blanchett e.1996) Statistics like these raise fears that there is an increasein the number ofjuvenile sexual offensesbeing committed
Therearesome srudies (Furby,Weinro n and Blackshaw,1989;Nicholaichuk.
1996;Quinsc:y,Hanis.RiceandLalumiere,199 ] )that conclude that trealmentis not effective,FurbyetaI.(1919) performeda meta-analysisof42Sstudinof \larious adult sexualoffenderprognms and foundnoevidencerhattreatmenteffectivelyreduces recidivism.This sounds discouragingbutas Marshall(l 994 b)andtWJ(I99S) poimout, Furby etaI.analysedstudies of treatment programsthai were obsolete.Nicholaichuk (1996 )comparedtreatedanduntrea ted prov;nciallyincarcer aled5eJruaioffenders and found low recidivismratesinbothgroups andnosigni6cam:differences between the rwc groups. Nicholaic:huk fdt thar rhe risk presentedbytbeseoffend erswasnoIhighenough towarnnttreatment.Mostresearch.however.has found that treatmentiseffectivein reducingreci divism (Barbaree,199 7;Becker.19 88;Becker andKaplan., 199 3;Hanson.
1996;Lab.ShieldsandSChondel,199 3;Lombardo,DiGiorgi o_Miller1989 ) fortunately,thereisa largeamountoflitentuTeand researchontheadult sexual offender.T'heupiSlshave often devdopeduutmentprograms for theadolescentsexual offend erusing these adult programsUnfo rtunatdy,the treatment ofcho icefortreenng both adu ltsand adolescentshasvaried throughout the yearsand thereis stillno agreementon whattypesof treatmentswork best.Littleresearch hasbeendo ne regarding adolescentsexual offenders.Ther"eis .scarcityof5cicntificaJly controlled studies(Shields andJordon.1995;Sipe.Jensen,.and Everett, 1998 ).InadditionmoslSNdiesW:k.
contro l groupandhavesmall sample sizes (Oav;s and Leitenberg.1987;Shieldsand Jordo n.I99S).lltisis especiallytrueofresiclentialprogramsin openandclo sed custody
settings(PoUtthews.1997). Theabsenceof . controlgroupcontinuestohinderrnearch (Marshall. HudsonandWan1, 1992).Designing .controlgroupis not aneasy task.In fact,itraises someseriousethical qucstKJrt5.How couldonejust ifY withholdin g treatmentfromoffendersforthepurposesofresearch?Would society be adequately prot ected?(ManhaIIandPithen.1994).Surelythere are ethicalimplications forthe offend el'"andfuturepoImtiaivK:rims.Researd1 maysup portand rdinetheknowledg eand praet tcesthat areinexiStence (Knopp andL..ane.1991)
$i.aJemenr
01
Prob/~",Itwould be wrongtOrus to assumethatlncarceration would automatically elimina terecidivi sm.WesOOuJdalsonot assume that treatment, regardlessofits components,would auto maticallyreducerecidivism for sexual offenses.Itisimponant that facilitatorsdeli verprogruns that target recidivism factors and therebyseek to reduce recidivism.
AspreWJusIystated,very few srudies have been conducted on juveniletreatment programsand even fewer have been conducted usingconuolgroupsto establishsome typeofrecidivismdata- Thenpi5lSmust reaJizethatsexualoffenders havebeen sentenced foraspecifiedrime:bythe legalsystem.Afte.-thatspecifiedtime haslapsed.eacho(these offenders wiU be released back intosociety regardless ofperceived succes s of any treatme nt.Itisessentialthatopen and closed custodyfacilities maximize theuseof their resour cestohelplo wertheoffender's risk ofrc-<)ffend ing.asfaraspossible .befor e release.Some measurementofsuccess or failuremayhelpprogram fKi litatondetermine ifueaunentefforts areconoenuuingon the appropriate areas ofneed and ifchangeto the treatmen1programisnecessary.
The Newfoundland andLabradorYouthCen tr e(NLYC )inWhitboume, Newfoundland.Canada.has been providing a locallydeveloped treatmentprognm.
entitled'Heal thy Lifestyles'(Reid- White., 199 1).IthubeenofferedperiodicaJty during the past six yearsto someof the adolescent sexualoffende rsinthat facility.The NL YC is
theonly secure custody£acilityforjuvenile offenders in Newfoundland.I1s program consistsofthefoUowingcomponeills:assessment,selledacarion, disclosure, cycleof abuse.victim empathy,relapseprevention.individual counselling.andcommunity networlcing.Someadotescemsexual offendenwhowere5CIIlenced 10thefacilitywere notofferedtheueatmenlprogramordidnoIcomplele the programbecauK'of insufficielu reso urces.Thus.the purposeofthisstudywas10resear chtherecidivismrate of the adolescentsexualoffenderswho completedthet1U lmentprogram.Theoffend erswho didnot complet e theprogramand Ihose who werenoIoffend meprogramservedu comparison groups_II istheviewoflhel:l.Jthor dwtherecidivism mewiDbean indicator of tile effeclivenessofmetreatmentprogram.
Rn~aTdrQ-~stiom
Itismy contentionthat recidivism is _directmeasureofthe effectivenessof treatmentpr~gaimed_I changing offending behaviour.Specificresear ch questionswere asfollows:
I.Wouki c:ompietionoftbeHeahby Lifestylesprogram affectse:waI recidivism rate?Itwashypothesized that sexualoffend enwhoCCJ(IIJl6eted the Healthy Lifestylesprogram wouldhave _ lowersexua.Irecidivismrate than the sexual offenderswhodidnotcomp letethe program
2.Would comp letionoftheHealthyLifestylesprogram.affectthe nonsc:xuaIrecidivism rate?Itwas hypothesizedthatsexualoffenders who completed HealthyLifestyleswould have _kJwer~recidivismrate than sexualoffenders who didnotcomplete(heprogram.
3.Wasthere adifference between the rareofsexual recidivismas comparedtononsexualrec id ivism?Itwas hypolhesized thai there would be a lower raleofsexual offenserecid ivism than nonselNa1 offense recidivism forboth thetreated and untreatedsexualoffenden
4,Wouldcertainvariab lesCOl'Tdatewithsexualoffender recidivism?It was hypothesized that offenderswithpriorse:waIoffenseswouldhave.higher"
rateof5elWalrecidivismandrapistswouldhave ahigherrate of nonsexual rec id ivism
5.Wouldfollow-u p periodaffectrecidivism?follow-uponeachof the offend erswasconrinSenI upontheirreleasedate and programcompletiondate.It washypothesizedthatas thefollow-upperiodincreased,so too...ouldthe recidivismrate.
'0
Definilions
Canadian Police: InfOfJDltionSystgn(ePIC)
The ePICisCanada'sNationalPoliceCOfnJMef WormarionSystem Persons chargedMtb •CriminalCodeoffenseinCanadaand fingerprintedate reccoseein•CPIC criminal history (Royal Canadian MountedPo'ic:e [RCMPJ.1991)
W!l.MoI<mI
Achildmolester commits.sexual assaultagainsl:achildthatis at leastfiveyean younger thanthe offender(Batbaree CI at.,1993)
Criminal Rcs:orcI'5Chec k
Thisis. check also performed on the
ePIc.
Itprovides,listof convictio nsand discharg es on eachpersonlisted.Disposit jon Higory
TheDlspositionHiSlOl')'is.printou t producedon the
vms
Itgives•list ofall ofmeoffenses for which youngoffendcn have been convictedand theserueocefor each Fac ilityStilUS Hist0Q:'TheFacility StaWSHistory is •printoutproducedonthe YOIS.Itshows
~ssionandrde:asedates fOl"eachoffend erinquired
II
Follow -u p Period
Thefollo w-u pperiodis the amountoftime that ayOWlgoffender i5 tricked.The periodstarted wheneachyoungoffenderwasreleased from dosedCUSlody.andended September 20,199 8.
Hand'OffOffensn
Hands offoffensesincludesuchoffensesas voy eurism,exhibitionism.andobscene phonecalls(Ryan.199 1)
~
Anincestoffenderisan offmda-thatoffendsagainstvictims withwhomtMy N11o'C I familialorlegalrelationship (Barbaree etaJ.•1993).
luvenileSm1a.IOffmkt
ThejuvenilescxuaIoffender isIlegaltermthatrefers10 ayou th between the ages ofJ3and 18yeanwhoengages insexuaJbehav;our deemedbysociety 10be inappropriate.Thisis anact(I)againstthe victim'swill(2)without consent, or(l)in an aggressive,expk)itarivc.orthreatening manner(Ryan., 1991;Barbaree eraJ.•1993;Perry andOrchard.,1992 )
Multiple Paraphiliacs
Otfcndendasslfiedasmuhipkop&raPhaliacscommitrno«:thanonetypeofseltUIl deviancy.Forexamplelbeymaycommitnpeandbestiality(Ryan,199 1).
12
~
Thisis acheck performedon ehe(PIC.Ie providesthesearcherwithany immediate peninen tinformation.Itgives thestatusof theresearched individual.For e:umple.itwill state whether the offenderis on probation, wanted.orOJrrentlycharged.
policeProfileSheet:
Thisis.shea produced afteracheckon theePIc.Itgives specific information oneach particular occurrenceinwhichthepolicewereinvolved.Itprovides specific informationregarding. case suchas thevictim'sname andage,shan description of offense, etc
Arapiszisanoffenderwhocommitsanysexual act thatisperpetratedwith vioIenc:eorforcewhichincludesoral.anal.or, vaginalpenetration (Ryan.1991 )
~
Torecidivate isto relapse intOfonnerpatt ernsof behaviou r.Relapsemaybe const itu tedby:(i)re-convictionand/orre-commissionofthe sametypeof5elCUaloffense.
re-convictio n andfoc re-commission af any sexoffense; or(n)re-ccnvicnonMldforee- conunission ofany offense(Fwby ctal.•1989 ).In thisSlUdy.re-eon~andfOf're- commissionofanyteXoffense ismeasuredassexualrecidivism,and.re-convicrionandIOI"
re-ccmrrussioe ofany offenseciberthan•snuaJoffenseismeasuredasnonsexuaJ recidivism.
13 Reiapse Preyer!rion
Relapsepreventionis aseIf~ntroiprogramdesigned tohelp individual s anticipateandcopewithcertainbehaviour.Relap seprevauionisbasedontheconcept thatoffensepra:ursonanbeidentifiedand addressed.Itproposesthatsexoffenses are notimpulsiveactsbutculminatedOVCl"time(George&Marlan.1989).
~
Anassault directedata person'ssexua.Iorgans, oranassault which.fromthe circul1lSlances..wascleartysexuallymotivated.Itcouldsubsume e"\'erythingfroma threatenedK:lWaladvance
Of.
pinch onthebdUnd10unwanted sexualimen:oune unaccompaniedby oven threats ortheuse of.weapon(Commin ee on Sexual Offences AgainstChildren and Youths.1984 ).SexualASH ultCycle
Thesexual assault cycle integratessituations,thoughts.feelings.,andbckavioun into asinglefratne"'r'Ol'k.Itisa CQOSlrudrepresenting cognili1o'C andbehaviour al progressionsoccurri ngpriorto,during.,and afterthesc)("..allyabusivebeha viour(Lane.
1991).
young OffmduFileNumber
EachYoungOffenderis givena unique filenu~thaiisusedforidentifiation
'4
Young Offrnd erInformation Sysrm (YOIS)
TheymSwu developed by che NewfoundlandandLabradorDepartmentof Social Scrv1ces.Thesystem wudesigned to meet national and fedenll informationneeds.
toensurerecords are kept, and 10helpthe province~erand administerseMcesto young offenden(Newfoundlandand LabradOC" Drp.anrnentofSociaJServices.J99 S)
Treatment Approaches
There wasa changeinfocuswithjuvenilesexualoffender treatmentwhenstudies revealedaduhsexualoffenden'accowu.softheirsexualdeviancyduring their adolescence.Researchers made theCOMeCtionbetweentheseearlyinapprop riatesexual actsduring &dokscenceandthe re-o ffendingthatoccurredLaterin the individual'slife Researchmlookedtoadultstudies foranswen totheju\'aliJ e problems They implemellledjuveniletreatment programs basedon trea tment programs being usedwith adull offenders.Eventhoughtherewerenumerou sadultsexualoffender progr amsbeing offeredand revampedtherewaslin leawarenes s.in thejuvenile field,ofanynew developmeetsoCQ.lfri n g in the work with adult sex offenders(Knop pandLane.1991)
In1978,l.anedevdopedthe'snua!assault c;ycle·. ResearcherscouldfoUowthe sexualassault cycleoftheoffender"anddetermine theprecursorsof a sexualassaultand tbJsseekstopreveetthe occunenceoffurureoffenses.Thisse:wa.Iassault cycle was utilized toprovidedirection inprogramconoeptualiz.ation andUnpkmentatio n.
StiUthef'e wuvery littlenetWOticingtoallow for the exchange ofideasregarding adequate.successful treatment.Thera pists didnothave anyscientificallybasedtheories or modelstofollow,so most treatments continuedto be utilized through'trial and error'
I. (Knop pand Une., 1991) In1982,Knoppidentified22programsthaloffered services 10 adolescentsinthebook&rtWdU:II/nNrwnnonIn Ado/ escenlSa-Ojfem.es:NineProgrwrt Descriptions: Itlistedtheprogram componentsaJthattimeastypicallyincludingfamily therapy.humansexuality education,victimawareness.social-siriUsdevelc pmenr,anger management,grief:andjournalwriting.Therapists then used thisinformation as a guide fortreat ment implementation.Withininthe next decade treatment programsflourished but program developmentvariedinthe approach used (Kahn and Lafond.1988 ).A 1996 Canadian report shows thai there were 68 programstreating onlyjuveniSesexuaJoffenders andan additio n.al 56programsthattreatedbothjuveni le andaduh sex offenders(Rycnc, 1996)
Generally.prognmdevelopmentsfocussed on treatment modalitiesand method ologiesthatwere basedontheoriesabout sexual offending.Hall(1996) lists 5 theo ries uponwhichtreatmentsappear10have been based.Theyareas follow;
I.Physiolo gical Modelof SexualAggr ession.Itpositssexual arousalas thebasisofsexuallyaggressivebehaviour.
2.Cognitive Mood ofSexualAggression Itposits thatoffenders have cognitive distortionsthat permithimto justi fythebehaviour.
J.Affective MoodofSelrua.IAggression.11 posits thaI negativeaffective stalesfacilitateaggressive actingout and that sexual~is•maladaptive ancmptto copewithnegative affective states.
4_~IopmenlalModelof Sexual Aggression.II positsthai sexual
17 offenders have experienced negative socialization experiences that facilitate sexually aggressive behaviour.
5.The QuadripartiteModel ofSexualAggression Itpositsthat physiological sexual arousal, cognitive distonions.affective dysccnrrol,and developmentallyrelated personality problems aretheprimary motivat ional precursors ofsexuaUyaggressive behaviour.
Inresponse to theories ofsexual abuse,several treatment approacheshavebeen implemented Hall (199 5)suggestsbehavioural treatments.hormonal treat ments and cogni tive-behavioural treatments.Other therapists have used sectionsfrom each ofthese treatment approaches and taken what has been referred toas an'ec lect ic'approach.The delivery of each ofthese programs could alsooccur in different contexts;individual ther apy,group therapy.familyther apy.or combinations of these.
B<hgyiourq/Trra tmenlS
Behavio urist 5 posil1hatsexual arousal to deviant stimuli motivate sthe male aggressor.Thus.methods that reduce deviant sexual arousalshould reduce sexually aggressivebehaviour.According toKahn and Lafond(1988) ,changing these deviant arousalpatternsisbasictosuccessful treatment.Behaviouralmethodsof reducingdevian t sexuaJarousal mayinclude classical conditioning. aversivefantasy,electrical shock.
castra tio n. covert sensitization.plethysmographic biofeedback, guidedvisualization.
journ alsand.masturbal:ory satiation .AsMaletzky (1996) pointsout,veryfew treatmen t programs now foUow an approach that is strictlybehavioural.This may be attributedto
18 theueaunmc"sinabilitytowortinaDconditionsand over a lifetime Itfailsfaaddress issues ofolfender"lifesryteandchcMce.MaIeuIcyalsopointsoutthatpolitic5.nw-keting.
andpraetic.alityhavehinderedthe promotionofbehaviourthertpy PhqrmacoJor.r;gJT«qtments
Bradford (l993).astro ng advocate of phannacology,believesthatmost ofthe paraphilias manifestedinoffendershave theironsetinpuberty.Such parap hilicbehaviour maybe reduced throughthesuppressionohhcsexualdrive.Suchtreatmentsinvolvethe useofantiandrogen andhormonalagents.,andthe useof otherplwmacologic.al agents[0 reduce5C'UlaIdrive.Advocu es ofhonnonal treatmentSsuggestits use is very effecrive in suppressingIeXU&Iarousal.TheantiandrogenhonnonaI drugssuppress allforms of sexual arousal.Unfortunatelythey eliminatethesexualoutletfor consentingsexual partners.Participationin horm onal treat mentsis typically voluntary,invasive (intram uscu larinject io ns ) and lengthy(2-5yean).The usc:of antiandrogensin adolescentsisrestrict ed. Antiandrogens cancausefatigue.sleepiness,weightgain,lossof bodyhair. hepalomas..nausea, vomiting.headaches.leg cramps, hypog/ycemia.. and depres.sion.Uscof sudltreatmentrequires dose monitoringand managing
Bradford (1993)suggesls thatphann.ac.oIogic agentsother than anUandrogens are more acceptablewhen dealin g wit.badolescents.He enes the problem free use of Mellaril.andtheuseofAnafraniL,domipramine,andTegretol but advises that such • treatment approach should beusedwithcautionuntil itssuccess isempirically suppo rted.
In Hall'smeta·analysis (1995) honnonaltreatmen ts andcognitive-behavi our al
19
treat mentSappearedsuperiortobehaviouraltreatments Honnonal treatments.however.
wen:notsignificantlymore effective than cognitWe-behavioural treatments.Pm.ious studies(fcdoro ff. wisoer-Cert sce..Dean.andBerlin.199 2;Meyer,CoJeandEmory.
1992)sited.practical disadvantageofhonno nal treatments,Parti cipantshadarefu sal rate ofone thirdsto twothirdsandadiscont inuing rateof500/.
Cognitiw.BehaytouralApproach
Behaviouraltherapist s(Mushall.199 3;Mushalland McKnight.19 75;Marshall andWiUiams, 1975)etpandedtheirprogrvnstotldpprovidetheolfendenwithskills necessary10de&Iwith appropriatesewaIintef"csts.Sudl approachesbecameknownas cognitive-behavioural treatment.Cognitive-behavKluralprognmsforsewaIoffend ers targetdeviantsexual arousal.cognitive diSionions aboutsnua.Iaggression. and social skillsdeficits(Manhall andBarbaree.1990). SomeofthesupplementSincluded weresex.
education.relapsepreve ntion. victimempathy,social skills training, angermanagement. andaddictio ns counselling (Marshall,1996).
MOSIcognitive-behaviouralprogramsdelivered someaspectcfsex education.
Sex.educationwas impon&ntbcause youthslacked knowledge aboutpositive and consensualsnuaIity.Addressingtheyouth's cognitivediscOl'ttonregarding appro priate sexual behavKlurwasveryimponant.Programsthatfollo wedthiseducationalmodd focu ssed onself-est eem, socialskins,and familyand individual thenpy.Forexample.
Lakey(1994)feltthatjuvenileoffend ers lackedtheknowledgegainedinasuitablesex educencn pro gram.Forthesejuveni les.treatment ofanycognitive disto rt ionsand
20
'tlinking errors'wasessenrialandshouldbeaddressedingroup ther"apy.Lakey alsofdt
empathy forthe victimwasanimporwn:dementinrreatmcnIasitplacedthe offenderin touch with anytraumacaused 10 thevicnm.To DtGiorgio--Miller (1994).empathy was the most powerful reasonnottore-o ffcnd.
Laws (1988)and Marshall(1996) fdt that,since its inception inthe 19 80's.
relapse prevention,as an adjunct tocognitive behavioural therapy,was cmcrgine: as a majorJelloffend er-treatmcm.Therelapseprevention model of addictionwas modifiedfor uscwithsex offendersbyPithenand Gnyin1983(Pn hers and Gray,1996 ).Itis a theoJetica.lconstruct thai suggt:slSthatsexualoffenderscannotbe'cur ed'butan be giventhe slcillsnecessarytorecognizeand deal withprecursorstosexualoffendin g
Becker et al,(1988) studied the use of relapse preveenonin thetrea tmentof juvenilesexualoffend ers It the SC'XU4I BehaviourClinicofthe New York StatePsychiatric Institute.These juveniles wereoffered a cognitive behaviouraltreatmentprogramwhich consistedof' verbel satiation, cognitive restructuring. coven sensitization, socialskills training,sex education,values clarification.andrelapse prevenlion.Thestudy foundthat theprogramwas effectiveinreducing inappropriatesewaIarousalinadolescentoffenders who wereinvolved with maleviaims.In 1990.Becker srudicd anochercognitive behaviouralmodel thatincludedrdapse prevention.It,too,showed treatmenttobe effectivewithadolescents.Again in 1993,Becker and Kaplanreportedthatthe most popular and widely recognized therapy foradolescents (cognitive behaviouralwithrelapse prevention) was effectiveintreating adolescents
21 Ecleroctll?f:?P12l1dJ
Manytherapisl:suriliz..e components of thevarioustreatmentapproaches inan effcrtto offer a program thaltbe)'fed best suits theneedofl heoffenders.Stenson and Anderson(1981)suggestedthatado lescentsexualoffendertreatmentbeinaccordance withassessedindividualneedsandthattherapy should focu s on thefamily unit.Kahnand Lafond(1988)recommended a multifacet edprogram that focussed to change the offender's emotions. cognittonandbehaviours.Borduin. Hennggeler.Blaske,andStein (1990)supponedamuhi-syscemicapproach thataddreues the offender and thesystems thatinfluence their behI..noursuch as family,peersandschooI..LabeIai.(199)fou nd thatpsycho-socialeducatKmaJtheBpy.withan
eeseeee
lIpproachthat addressed social skills,cducatton. and values was,an effective trutmentFum',Dinc@1IJ
Varyingapproacheshaveresulted ina lackofagreeme ntregardingthemost effective interventionsfor adolescent sexual offendersmightbe (Colem an.19(7 ) This is coupledwith the fact that not enough is knownabou t the adolescent sexualoffender popu lalKmtobeabk to definitely stale that there is oneKSealformofintervention(Charles andMcDonald.1997).Ways ofevaluating/measuringthe effectiveness ofany ofthese Ireatments are scarce.The literaturehas. ho ...ever.ledthe author tobdteve thatthere is some merit in • cognitive-behaviouralpro gram thathasrdapsethcnpyas an adjunct FOl"
years, adolescen t sexual offender programs have followed the adu ltsexual offender program trends.Sinceits introd uctio nin1983.relapsepreventionhassteadilyincreased
In Its popularity.InHanson's(19%)reviewof adul t programs itwasfound[hal almostall Canadianse'lCUaIoffend ertreatrnem.progn.msincluded relapseprevemion.Matt hew s (1997) listed severa!ueatment approaches that he believed to be examples ofthe best practicefor adolescent5C'Waloffend ersinCanada.Relapse preventionisonthe list.
Inthe early1980'stherecidivismrateof treatedoffend erswasunacccplablytUgh.
Relapseprevmrionvaliduedthe theorythat.the risk of re-offendingwasan ongoingissu e fo reach offender.Relapsepreventi onidentifiedrecidivism as an expected but workable prob lem (Hanso n19(6).
Beckerand her colleagueshavebeentheforeru nnersindevelopingtreatmen t approachesspecifically for juvenilesex:offenders(Marshall,1996 )Theyhavebeenusing thecognitive-behaviouralapproachinconju.na:ionw;th relapse prevention therapysiece the late1980's and haveresu ltsthaI supportnseffectiveness.Grayand Pithers (1993 ) alsosupponedtheuse ofrdapseprevention noc onlywithselCUallyaggressive adolescents bUIalso with sexually aggressive children.Forthem,relapse pre vent ion served three distinctfunctions insexualoffendertreat ment.First,relapse preventio nhe lpedthesexu al offen derdevelo panawarenessofthechoices affecting lheirbehaviour,and helped developcoping sIriIls.,victim empathy and sdf-control.Second,it fosteredthe developmentof collaborative relationships betweenhelping professionals andindMduals.
and increased themonitori ngoftheoffendeB'behaviours.Third.itpermitted the integr at ionof trea un ent approaches into asinglecomprehensivetherapeu tic framework.
23 Treatment Considerariom
Juvenile sexual offenders have a diversity of needs which treatmem programs have tried to address.Specificallydefiningthe treatmem modalities which compose a program is not an easytask (Knopp and Lane,I991). Not enoughisknownaboutthe offender tobeable 10state that thereisoneideal fonn of intervention.Regardless orthetreatment modalities implemented, programs should address similar treatment issues Itisimponant that a program respond toand compliment theskillsand needs ofthe adolescent sex offender.Perry and Orchard (1992) listthe foUowing considerations as imponant when structuring treatment.
Helping adolescents to assume responsibility for theiroffenses by challengingthe rationalizations.denials and minimizations upon which offenders rely to avoid assuming respcnsibiliry.
2. Helping adolescent sex offenders to develop empathy for the experience of their victims and a more comprehensiveemotionalawareness in all aspects of theirlives
3,Assistingoffenders in achieving a more complete understanding of their own individual offense pattern.and working with them to develop strategies to useifthcy find themselves once again beginning thecycle leading to offending behaviour.
4.Providing new information to challengetheir veryrigid, stereotyped ideas about sex roles and intimacy.and their misinfonnation about sexuality.
, .
5.Providingvariousskilltraining dements, lncluding~ andanger managematt.toremcdiatedeficitsthatimpedesuccessful functioning (p.6 5)
Similarly. Williams(1996) suggescedthatsell;offend er treatment programs in Canada"motivatethe offender totake responsibility fortheoffen se.help them identifY their crimecycle.teach themtodealw;thdeviant sexual fanwiesandurges. and help themlearn10copewithbanicn tomeaningfu.lconscnsuaIandage appropriate relationships"(p.ll).Williamswentontosay that someissues can bedealt with cognitivdybutabehaviouralcomponentmaybeneceuary.Furthermore.Williams supportedtheuseofgroupand/orindividualtherapy.Williamsalso listedthe trea tment goals forthepro vision of services tose'loffendersas follows:recognitionand aceepcance ofcriminalbehavio ur;awareness andreplacementoftbe processeswhichunderliesexuaJ behavio ur;impro veme ntofsocialskills through empathyand anger management;
developmentofhealthy5elCUa1lifestyl~understanding offenderas victim;and. awareness anddevelopmentofrelapseprevencKm_Manyothensuggestedcombin.llionsofthe aforementioned(Bentovim,1991;Charlesand McDona.Id,. 1997;Man hews.1997;SU~lI5on andAnderson,1987;Thomas.199 1)
2 '
RecltiJvism
Thereisno esublishedwaytomeasurerecidivism..It dependsupon the questio n(s ) thatareasked.Researchershave used the official measureof additionalsexual criminalconvictionsandvariousunofficialmeasuressuch as:charges butnotconvictio ns;
conviaions ofnonsexualoffenses;re-admissions tocustody,self reports,andinfonnal repo rts fromagenciessuchas policeandChildren'sAidSocieties (Hall1995;Hansonand Bussiere,1996 ). Forc::umpIe.Furbyet&I.(1989).whileconductingtheirmeta-analysis.
disco veredthatmanyreseacchershadused different Slan dardstomeasurerecidivism.In ordertoproceedtheywereforced 10determineastan dardofmeasurement thatcould applytoallstudies includedintheir meta-analysis.FwbyetaJ.believeditwas neceuary to includeallrc-offencescommittedbytheoffenderwhendet ermi ningtheromberofsex offen derswhoc:onritaIe10cemmi1crimes.They did notlimittheirsrudytose:wal re- offences.Theyarguedthattheinc lusionofall re-offenseswasbeneficialbcausr. treatment'seffectivenessinreduc inganyfunher criminalactivitywuthusmeasuredand thatitmayhave beenonly chanc echatthe sexualoffe nder was caugh tfirstforcommitt ing anonsexualcrime ifhewascommitt ingbothatthesametime.Hall(1995)tooka differentapproach-Helimitedthescopeofhis RUdy10only additionally scwaIly aggressivebd:l.lviourwhichresultedinaddittonalofficial kgaI clw'ges,Inthis study.I willusetwodefinicionsof recidivism(I)additional sexually aggressivebeha'o'iourwhich resultsinasexualconvictio n,cacego rizedassexualrecidivism,and(ii)convictio nfor. subsequen t nonsexual offense.catego rizedasnonsexual recidi vism.These additional
26
cffenses mullOCQU"inthe follow-up period.Measures ofbotJlseuWrecidivism and nonsexualrecidivism willassistindelerm:iningtheeffecti veness ohhc treatment program inrorbinganyfunheroffending.
Afterdeterminingthemeasure for establishingrecidivism there is.needtospecify the lengt hof timethat anoffend er willbefollowed for detect ion offurthercrimes.This is referr ed to as afollow-upperiod.The follow-u pperiodspecifiesthe amountoftime duringwlUchcommission of an actwillconstitute rd.pse and thus recidivism.Follow-up can start immediately following the c:ompIetionof.prognm designedtopm.-ent recidivism or sometime after.Itmaybegin whilethe offendc£ism custody or upon release.Ifthe follow-up periodstartsupon releasefrominsriturionaI confinementthenit representsactual time alrisltinrhe community.Mostsexual offenders wouldbe expected tohavelowrates ofsexualrecidivisminthefirstfew years offollow-up(Hanson, 199 7 ) This issimply becauseasho nfollow-upperiodtran sla tesinto less time10commi t the crime,getcaught..andgetprocessed through thecourts.Hence, the longerthe follow-up periodthe greater rhe likelihood thatoffendcnwillre--offend becausethey havehad more opponunity chronologicallytore-offend.Also.thelongerthe pass.age ohime.the less powerfultheuewnenteffect(Barbaree.,1997;Cooper,1994;Fisher.1994;Gibbens, SoothillandWay.1981;H&nsonandtwris..1998;Man hall and Barbaree, 1988; Williams. 1996;).For example. Hanson. Slrtfy,andGaut hier'sstudy(992) ofadultchild molester s found the grea testriskofre-offending to occur between the fift h andtenth years.For lhe purposes ofthe presentstudy,follow-updated back:to each offen der's
27 releasefromclosedCUSlodyandcontmJedumilSepl:embn20.1998
Rrcidiy;smCoru1aJ(!
There aremany variables thatCOtTelate withrccicIMsrn-TherapiSlS assess offenders anddetermine thesevariablesin anan empttopredicttheprobability of recidivism(Halland Hinchman, 1991).These variablescan bedividedinto four categories;criminal history,currentoffense. personal charact eri stics. and treat men t (Proulx. Granger.Ouimcnt. McKibben.Perreault..andSt-Yva.1996)
CriminalhiSlOfY lNlyincludesuchfactors u pre'o'iousseuWandnonsexual offensesandany other incidents oflcgal involvement.OneofttleITIOSIconsistent predieton ofscxua.l recidivismis. history ofpriot"K'lWIloffenseconvictions(lWl..1988;
Hanson, Steffy.&.Gauthier.1992 ;Marshall&Barbaree,1988;). In thepresen tstUdy,all incidents oflega!invo lvementfor which therewas aconvictionwereincluded and will be furtherdiscus sed inChapter III.
Currentoffense factorsincludefixedfaclon such asageandgender of the victims.
ageof the offender,relation10thevictim.and descriptionand details ofttle offence.This informat ion pertainingtocurrentoffensescanbe usedindeveloping a typologyofttle seltU&1offender.TypologjeshrIve beendevdopedthroughnumerou s taxonomic systems foraduhmalesexualotrendcn(Becker,Harris.,andSaJcs.1993,.For e:umple.Knight andPremky(1991)developedtwotaxonomicsystems.One classifiedchild moIescen, the ether classifiedrapists.M01iuk and Brown(1996 )classifiedsexualoffend ersinlOthree groups;incesr offender,pacdophile,or rapist.JuvenilesexuaJoffenderswere allegorized
2. bySmithandMonastersky(1986).Theyeategoriz.edjuvenile sexualoffcnden basedon threetypesofoffenses;rape.indecentliberties..andhandsotfotfmses_Ryan (1991) categorizedju'o'enileshuedonrape.molestation.hands-oft:and multiplepacaphiliacs Regardlessofthe categoriza tion,itisimponant10rememberthatadolescentsexual offendersarenota homogeneousgroup.11isanticipatedthatthe recidivismratesof juvenilesexualoffenderswillbeaffectedbythejuveniles 'presentingserualoffenses Therefore it isnecessary10uscsomemethodofcalegorizltioncomingemupon thesexual offensescommitted(Sipe,Jensen,and EVU'Clt.1998 ).Forthepr-escntstudy,otrmden willbe classifiedintoone of sixcategories:incesIoffend er,childmolester,rapist.muhipk:
paraphiliac $. orother.Thesewerepreviouslydesaibcdin thedefinition sectionofthe Introduction
Thepersonal characteristicsoftheoffen dershouldbe consideredifavailable For example.theoffender'ssexual preference,employmentstatus.place ofresidence.drug andalcoholuse, mood,socialskills.education,familybackgrou nd and d)'TW!\i<:s.and victimempathyaresomeortheessenti alfactors thai rmybeconsideredwhct1developing atreatmmtprogramtosuitindividualneeds,(K&hnandLafond. 1988;Charlesand McDo nAld.,1997;ShiddsandJordan,1995;HaMon andHarris.1998).Toaddressthe individuaJneedsoCtileoffenden inthepresen tstudy.drug andaJcohoIusc.socialslrills.
education,familybaclc:groundand dynamics.andvictimempat hywereconsideredbythe facilitators whenimplementingthe program
Aspreviously discussed.treatment for adolescentsexual offenders\'aries.Most
29 treatmentsare designed toaddras the\'Viablessurroundingeachsexualoffense andthe juvcoil.es·pcnonalcharactcrisrics.Theeffec:rivenessofthesetreatmentsinaddressing thesevariablesuttimatelyaffectsrecidivism.Unfortuna ldy.diffiadty arises asthe availabilityofthenumberofv;etims, type of~offense. andcharact eristics ofsexual offendersisinsufficient(MotiukandBrown,1996).Thus,some treatmentprogramsmay not be: suitable simply becauseof insufficient informationtopermitmatching trea tment toindividualneeds
-101/,&gdiyi.vw
RecidMsmresearch ontheeffectiveness of curn:ntadolesoentsexual offender trea tmentisscarce andinconsist ent(Kahnetet.,1991;Lakey.1994 ).Muc h oftMdatais based ontheaduJtoffend er.ThePithen, Kashima.Cumming,8e&l,andBuell (1988) studyofatreatment program offered toadult snualoffendersinthe Vermo nt Treat ment Program, found arecid ivism talcforsexualoffensesof4% .In hislongtermfoljo w- u p ofadult childmolester s,Hanson (1992)determined thatoffen derswhoselectedmale victimswere morelikely tobe:re-convictedmdlhattherewasnosignificam difference in recidivismbeIwcmthe treatment groupsandthetwocontrolgroups.InI99S.Hall found a recidivism rate of 19%fo r treated5eXUlaIoffenders and a meof 27%(Of"untreated 5elru&Ioffenders.MotiukandBrown(1996) found IO'Y. oft heir samplewerere- convictedor.newselW&Joffensein.3~year follow-up period.Thiny three pereern werere-convict ed ofanew nonsexualoffence.1bc:yalsofou ndIUgherTales ofnonsexuaJ rc-offen dingamongpaedo p hiles.Hanson and Bussiere (1996 ) found differences inadult
30
recidivism based on the age and sex afthe victims.In their srudy.sex offenden who vkrimized boys oradultfemaleswere morelikdyto recidivate than thosewhovictimized related girls.Quinsey (1996) found thenumberof~s5eJ(otrcrw;:esandextrafamilial malevictimoffendcnpositivelyCOlTdatcdwithrecidivism rate.NK:hoWchuk (1996) found fedeBlly and provincially incarcerated sex offenderswhocompleted rela pse prevention treatmentprogramsrecidivued lessthanoffenders who received notreat men t In a srudy ofadul t rapists andmoIes1en.,Proulx.Pe llerin.Paradis, McKilley.Aubu)1 and Ouiment(199 1)found theprobability ofrecidivisenpositive ly correlat ed withthe number ofprevious convictionsforsexualoffenses.Theyalso found asexual re-ccn vicncnrate of 21.2'1.for rapiSlsandIl% for child molesters overan averageof64.Smonths.Hanson's 1997 studyshowedthatprior sexual. offenseswuthestro ngestpredictorof recidivism Thiswas also foundbyMOIwkandBrown(1996).and HansonandBussiere (1996)
Adolescent &cidiVIsm
Evidence for prediclingjuvenilesexuaJoffender recidivismisdiverse For
~ample.Davis and Leitenberg(1987) studied offense and victim characteristics of adol escentsnual offenders.They compared the recidivism raus of adolescent offenders to adult offenders.They found recidjvismrates inadolescents to be lower thanratesin adult sex offenders.Smithand Monastersky (1986) also studledthe characteristics of juvenilesexualoffenden.Theyfoundthatoffendenconvictedofrapewere lesslikely to re-offendeithersexually ornonsexually.Those offenderswhosevictims wereat least four yean younger were lesslikely tore-offendthanthose whohadvictims thatwere the same
31 age orolder.Theoffenders who committ edoffmses against srrangenwere lesslikelyto re-offendno~butmorelikelycore-offend sexuallythanthosewbe victimized relatives01'"acquaintanc;.es_ThosewhovietinUcdmales were morelikd y to recdivate thanthosewhovictimized females
Becka-eraJ.(1988) focussed on the treatmen tprogramthaiadolescent sexual offend ers were offered.They sNchedmale adolescentsnual offenders at theSexuaJ BehaviourClinicof thcNew York State Psychiat riclnstitu tc.These ado lescentswere offereda cognitive behaviou ral treat ment program which consistedofverbelsatiation, cognitiverestru cturing,covert sensitization,sociaJskill training, sex educat io n,values clarification,and relapseprevent ion.Thestudyfound that the programwaseffective in reducing inap propri at e snua.I arousalinadolescen t offenderswhowereinvolvedwith male victi ms.Becker (1990)foundtha tortbe 52 availableadolescents whohad complet ed thissame treatment9%hadrecommined sexual crimes.In theiroverv;ew of lhetreatmemprogram al Echo Glm Children's CentreinWashington. Kahn and Lafond (1988)found ~/.or lbe sexualoffendersrecidiva teafter complel:ing..program using cognitive behaviouralstrategies such as anger managmK'nl,sex education. confrontAtion andjournalwriting.Borduin, Heggeler.Blaske and Stein(1990)found juvenileswhohad participatedinamulti S)'$lcmictreatmentprogram recidivatedlessboth sexuallyand nonsexuallythandid juvenileswhoreceived individ ual therapy.KahnandChambers (1991) found that,followingthe completio n ofaeclectictreatmentprogram.44,8'/. of thejuvenileswereconvicted of.subsequentcriminaloffenseand 7.5%wereconvictedof
J2 a subsequentsexualmme
Healthyliftstyles
Aspreviouslyindicated..the NewfoundlandandI...abndor Youth Centre(NLYC) offers a juvenile sexual offender Ueatmentprogram. Thekx:&Uydeveloped program is called
~H ealthy Lifeuyks~(Reid.WlUte.1997).Thisprogramisaimed atpro viding juvenile sexualoffenderswhoareservingcustodial dispositions attheNLYCwithskills10 maintai nahealthylifestylefreeof sexual deviancy.More specifically,the goals of treat ment include:deterring subseq uent victimization;reducingthelikelihoodof're- offending behaviour;encouragi ngpositive therapeutic change;and,ultimatel ypro viding safetyfor the community.Thephilosop hy oftrealmentis based on the beliefsthat·
offend ers are responsible for theirbehaviour.sexoffending islearned behaviourthat can beunlearned and/orreplaced by different behaviour;sexoffending can be treated but noc cured;treatment supponsprosecution andisnot an alternativetopro secution; offenders needtobe treated with respect. caution,andassertiveness;and,offendersneedtodissolve thesecrecysurrounding thesex.offence.
As with mosIprograms. itisdifficult todefine itsthenpeuticapproach.Therapists suggest thatHealthy ufestyie$ follows.cognitivebchlvioural approach with afocuson tberelapsepreventionmodel The pro gram is dividedintoseveralcomponents,most of whichare delivered ina groupsetting and supplementedwit hindivid ual counselling sessions.Completio noftheentireprogram usuallytakes 16weeks
3J Theprogramhasa'closeddoor'policy.Thatis.nojuveniksexualoffetK:icn are penninedtoenter theprognmonceithasstarted.Prior toswtingthe program.
therapistscompIet:eariskassessment on eachpanicipant usingLoss and Ross's (1988 ) 21 assessmentfactors.Thepurposeofthe assessment is to coUectinformation and attemptto establis h arelatio nship withthejuv eni le.assistincasedispo sitions,and defi neindivid ual treatmentgoals_Followi ngassessment,juvenil es comp letetheeducationalcompo nen t of treatment.Itisdividedintoe;ghteducationalsessions which focuson(hefollo wing topics:(i)anatomyandp~ogyoflunan reproductivesystems;(ii)growth and developmcmduringpuberty,(iii)~(iv) sexuallytransmined. diseases:(v ) AIDS;(vi)sex.sexuality.and love;(vii)sexualexpressio~and.(viii)datingand relationships (Reid·Whitc.1997).Theeducationalcomponentcanexistas a separate entity.IImaybe det erminedat thistime thaijuvenile'Sshouldnot proceed with treatmen t due10lac k ofmaturi ty.cooperat ion.orcognitive ability.
Followingthe educati o nal component.juvenilescomp letealladditional19sessions specificallyaimedat mttfing the individual sexualolfender's needs.Sessions areoneto fWOhours in duration. dependingupon the needsofgroupmembers.Thesesessions include:coercionandconsent.laws aroundscxuaIabuse,goalsetting.disclo sure.victim empathy.preconditions forsexual abuse,cycle of abuse,andrdapse prevention.Reid- Whit eind ica testhat resourcesutilizedinthispro gram havebeenadoptedfromthe followingauthors:Kahn(1990);Wells(1990);Richard son. LossandRoss (1988):Way andBalthazor(1993);Freeman-Longo.BaysandBear (19%); Finkil hor(1984);Bays
34 andFreoeman--Longo(198 9 );Way&.Balthazor(1990);and.Steen(1993).Inaddition.
there are threeindividualcounsellingsessions interspersed throughout these19sessions Thesesessions aredesignedtoprovideparticipant swithanopportturity10identify their personalgoalsandspecific treatment goals.address 'oicrimi.zationand'abusedbecomes abuser'issues. designindividual protectionplansthroughrelapse preventi on strategi es.
and completecontracts guaranteeingabstinence fromfuture scxuaI.offenses Theofferin goh llisprogramiscoordinatedwithschoolprogramming.Two afternoonsperweekareSCIaside 10proWiesoci&Idn-dopmentprograms aspanof the school.progranuning "Healthylifestyles'isoneoftheseprograms.Programsrun from Sepcembcr toJune.
[rea/me,,'Adiunct
Treatmentofthejuvenile5elWaloffenderextendsbeyond the realmofthe actual treatmentprogram.Ongoinginterventionis pro vid edbymany facility pro fessio nals YouthCar eCounseUon,work withthese youth.and arc~ficallytrainedtodeal with eachoffender'songoingissues.Specificmterventions bytheYouthCareCoun sellors may include:aidingthe youthin malcin.gconnectionsbetween thoughts.,feeling s,and behavi~confrontingthinkingetrces,denial,grooming.andmanipu1&l~hdpingthe youthidentifyand understandthecycleof abuse;and.encouraging empathy for others Facilitysocialworkers areres ponsibleforcounse lling on'everydayissues'and for helping to establisha community network,animpo rtan tadjunct toIreat ment(Reid- White
3S 1997).Thishelpstheyouth'sfamily,community50ciaIwork erandotherprofnsionals become awareofand involvedinthe youth'streannent.concerns. and progress.Teachcn helpreinforce any behaviounJexpectationsandproyjde additional educationinrdaled
Introduct ion
This <:ha plerdescri bes lhe subjects, and the data cellecncn procedure.Since programinception. 14juvenile scxuaI offendeRwere treated for scxuaIoffenses whilein custodyaltheNL YC.Theseoffenders <:ompleted the HealthyLif~programat different.rimes&omApriJ199410October1991.A reuospcctive cxpIonJ:orystudywas designedtodetermine the effectiveness of1bcprogram by comparingtherateof recidivism ofal.lofthesc trealcdjuvmile sexual offenders withtherccidM sm rate ofall etherjuvenilescxuaIoffenderswho had been attbeNLYC,al the same time,buthadnot rec eived trea tmen t. Theresultswere funheranalysed 10determineifanypanicular charact eristicswere more evidcminthe re-offende rs.Theresear ch design ofthcstudy was developed10addressthe rcsearclI. questionsidentifiedinCha pter I
37 Poptl/orion
Thiny.rwomalejuvenileswhocomminedsex mated offenses andweresentenced tosecureCUSl:ody at the NewfoundlandandI...abradorYouthCentrewerestudied,Every malejuvenilesexualoffenderwho hadresidedatthef'ol1.YCsinceApril1994.and whose fileswere still accessiblewereincluded.Theirsexualoffen ses includedcrimessuchas sexual assault,sexualinterference. anal intercourse,bestiality,indecentexposure,and incest.Other nonsexual offenses commined.bythe sameindividual s.include:breakand enter.Utt erin gthreats,aggravatedassault. escapefromcustody.breachof probat io n.theft.
assault,forc ibleentry,possess ion ofstolenproperty.failure to comply with reco gnizance.
fraud.robbery with viol ence.possession of a wea po n. and. failur eto comply wit hthe counsdisposition.Eachcompleteda secure custodydisposition at the NL ye.
whitbocme,Newfound1&nd.Canada.inthepastsix yean aftercommitt ing . scxuaI crime.
Thesampleinclu dedoffenders who had been senreeced aslongago as199 2-12-3Iand released.5recent as1998~2 8_Theageof t hcsc juv enilcsIllhetimeoftheiroffense rangedfrom9.0yean 1017.8years.Their avengeageatoffense was 15.2.Theirages asofSeptember 20.1998rangedfrom 16.5years to 25.5ye&B,Theaverage numberof sexchargesper-offenderwu1.9,average numbef"of victimswas 1.9andtheaverage numberofallprioroffenseswas 6.3 .Tbesethirry-rwojuvenilesexualcffend erswere placedinoneof three treatment programgroups;completed Healt hy Lifestyles;not offeredHealthyLifestyles;or,partiallycompleted HeahhyLifesty les.
J8 T,~n,Grottp
ThetreatmeIItgroupconsistedof ttle 14juvenilesexualoffenden who completed theHeal thy Lifestylesi noffendnlreaunem program atthe NLye.This group was taken fromthetOialpopulationofJ2.Each of tbe14 juvenilesexualolfenden participat edinand completed atleast oneofthesix treatment programofferingssince April,1994.Theageof these juvenilesat thetime of their offenseranged from9.0years to17.5 year s.Their
."'ef&8e
age attimeofoffense was14.9.Their agesas ofSepl:ember 20,1998rangedfrom17.9to 25.5.The avenge numberofsex. dw'gesperotfcndnwas 1.6.averagenumbezoo fv;aimswas 1.8.and the average number"ofallprioroffenses was 7.3.ComparisonGf'0f4P$
Twoincidental compariso ngroupswereutilized in thestudyfromthe remaining 18 juvenilesexual offenders.Onecompariso ngroup consistedof rightjuvenileswho had committed sexualoffenses buthadnot been offered the treatment pro gr am dueto a lack crrescerees.TheageofthesejuveniJesat thetimeoftheiroffense ranged from 13.0to 17.7.Theiraverage ageat offensewasI4,9.Theirages&5ofSep lcmbcr 20,1998rangcd from 16.41022.8.The average numbel" OfSCll;chargaperoffenderwas 1.6.average numberof victimswas 1.1.and theaverage number ofallprioroffenses was 6.1.
ThesecondgroupconsiSledofthe10 juvenileswhohad committed~ offenses,whohadstan edthe Healthy Lifesty les program.butdidnotcomplete il.All olfendersinthisgrouphadcomplet edthe educalional componentof1heprogram.but for
3• vuying reasons,didnotcomplet etheremainder ofthe prognm Thesereaso ns included lengthofsentence andnc:at'1IeUof releasedate.maturityandlowercognitive ability.and commit ment10(heprogram.The age ofthesejuveniles a.thetime of their offense ranged from13.0to17.8. Theiraverage ageatoffensewas IS.B.Theirages as ofSepcember 20.1998rangedfrom16.7to23.5.Theavengenumber ofsex.chargesperoffcndlCf"was 2.7.average number o f vicrimswas 2.7.andthe avcngenumber of allprioroffenses was 4.9
GroupComparisons
Ananalysis of vari an ce was performed todetermineiftherewereany significan t differencesbetweenthe thr eegrou pson:number of sexual charges.numberof all prior offenses,numberof sexualpriors.and.length atrisk..A significancealthep<.05In d wasreq uired.Three groups ofjuvenilesexualoffenders were compared10 determineif therewereany differences amongthe numberof sewalcharges. numberof allprior offenses(includesboth sexual andnonsexualoffenses ),num ber"ofsexualprioroffenses.
andfollow-upperiod.Table1shows how the groups differed on the dependentvariables Ascanbeseenfromthe table.theoffcnd er-s whopaniallycompletedtheHealthy lifestyle!programhad.on average.more sexual charges thanthe other two groups These offendersalsohad.onavenge.lessprior offensesthanthe other two groups Offenderswhohad completedthe HealthyLifestyl esprogramhad, on average,commi ned the largestnumberofprior offenses(mean·7.29).Therewere very few priorsexual offensescommitted(completedHealthyLifestylesmean-0.07 ,not offered Healthy
40 Lifeuylesmean"6.25,putialHealthy Lifestyles mean-4.90).Offenders.who had completedtheHeafthyLifesryles programbad.ODavenge.,the longest follow-upperiod (1013.86 months).Offenders..who hadnotbeenofferedthe Healthy Lifestylesprogram bad the shortest follow-upperiod(9S7.40months)
TableI
Meangroupfreauencing"dCP£Ddrntvariables
Group Co mplet edWL
N NseJtcha
14 1.57
Influmcin gYvi.b1n Npna" Nsexpr Follow-up
7.29 0.07 1013.86
Not offered HIL 1.6) 0.00 884.63
PanialHIL 10 2.70 4.90 0.40 957.40
~Nsexcha-numbet'of sexual charges;Npriors•numberof all prion.;
N5ell;Pf'"numberofsexu.a.lpriors;Follow-up-POStreeeeperiodcalculatedin days;t-VL""HealthyLifesrylcs
Ananalysis of variance indicaled 1Iw:therewereno significantdifferences.at(he p<.OSlevel,among number"ofpriors, numberof se?ruaIpriors,and lengthatrisk(see Table 2).Thereweresignificantdifferences foundinthenumberofsexuaJ clwges atthe pc.uslevel.
;
Tlble2
Analysj5oCy. nanceQfd c;penden!yariab1cs
Variable SumofSquares OF MeanSquire F SiS
NSU cN Betwun Groups 8411 2 4.216 1470 041'
WilhinGroups JS.404 2. 1.221
Total 4187 S 31
Nprion BetweenGroups 33.212 2 1.606 0.350 .708
WithinGroups 1317,257 2. 4.492
Total 86,719 31
NSClpr Betwecnf'IfOUPSWilhinGroups 9.329
'90
2.2 441m
1.384 .267Tolll 10.219 3'
Follow-up BetWftflGroups 856]1,729 2 42819,]65 0.209 81l
WithinGroups 59SJ1l4,OOO 29 205280.482
Total 6Ol81n.l00 ]1
~Nsexcha=numberof sexualcharges;Npriors·numberofpriors;Nsexpr·nunlberofsexual prion;
Fcltow-upepostreleasefollow-upperiodcalculatedindays 'p<OI.
42
Post hoc:tesbDgwinS the Tukey's (NoruR s,1998 )honestlysignificantdifference (HSD) revealedthat juvenile sexualoffend ers who had partially completedtheHealthyLifestyles programhadsignifi cantlymore sexual charges thanoffenden who had completed the HealthyLifestylesprogram (seeFigure I).
Figure1
TukcyHSD multip lecomparisonU!sbetweenprpgramgrouP'andnumwpfgx priors
3,
•
•
1 2
PrOQl"8m pw1ic:ipe1on
..
: - - - - , -- - ----:,-- ---:2'"subjectsnotofferedtheHealthyLifestylesprogram;
3...subjectspartiallycompla cdtheHealthy Lifestyiesprogram
• indicatessignificant ditferencnbetween the groups at thep<.OS lev el.
43 Despitethis significantdiffermce on thenum~ofprioroffenses, the groups wereI'ICH different ontheotherfactors.Ifwasfeltthatfunher analysis I:OUId proceedfor the purpo ses of program evaluation andrecommend ations tothetreatmentcentre
nme
FrwrreTheprocessof identifying and collectinglnfonnation oneachofthe 32 juvenile semal. offenden beganInthespringof 1998_TheHealthy LifntyJcsprogramwastint offeredinApril1994.AUsubjeasincludedinthisstudywereindosedwszodyal the NLYCduringor afterApril1994.ge-convicncn datawascollectedfrom date ofrelease toSepte mber20,1998
Follow-up
Thefollow-up periodwucalculated,foreachoffender,bysubtracting each offender's secure custody release date from September20.1998.Thelmgthoffollow- uprangedfrom I J4 daysto1534days.Thedistributionoffollow-upperiodispresented in Table3.
Procedure/orDataCoifeclloll
Data collectionwasperfonned in the followingmanner First,writtenpermission was obtainedfromthe Departmenl ofJustice (see Appendix A)10carryout the study.
Thisgrantedacocu10each juvenileoffender'sfile coecueeebackgrounddata and
Table3
FolloW.=UPperiodforywng offm4m Duration
Day-365 Days 366Days - 730 Days 731 Days - 1095Days 1096Days -1460 Days 1461Days.182 5 Days
Frequency
10
CumulativePercent 15.6 28.1
59.4 81.3
\00
offense:relatedinformation.andalsoprovidedthe researcher withaccess toboth personnel and technologicalsupport.Second.written permissionwas obtainedfromthe RoyalCanadian MountedPolice (see AppendixC),Thisgrantedaccesstoany data base that waspertinent to gainingan accurate measureofrecidivismin juvenilesexual offenderswhowere olderthan18as ofSept:em beT 20.1998.
Next,juvenile sexualoffenderswere identified,TheNLYCfacility statushistory printout,accessib le throughthe YoungOffendmInfonnat ionSystem(YOIS). was used toacquirea listofaUjuvenileofftnders whohad beeninthe facility since April1994. Juvenile5e'lQI.a\offenderswereNiemified on this printoutbyfacility social workers,nurws andYouth Care Counsellors_A youngoffender file was thenaccessed on each of these identified juveniles to assistintheprocessof ensuring that allidentifiedoffendershad
.,
commined •sex relatedoffense.Fromeachoftheseyoungoffenderfiles ayoung offender- 6Jenumberwasobtained.Thesefilenumberswerethen entered infotheymS toget•disposition historyprintout ofeachoffender to cross referenceandensurethat eachidenti fied juvenilesexualoffend erhadbeenCOIIv;ctcdofasexrelat edoffense
Finally,backgr ound information,personaJinforma tio n.and crimina!historywere collected.This informationwuobtainedthroughtheuseoft he young offender'sfileand dispositio n history printout. Eachyoung offender-'sfilewuused10 collectthe (oUowinginfonnarion:adetaileddescriptionofthesewa1offense;pre-disposltionreports:
victimim pactstat ementS;programparticipationreports;runninglogs;birt hdate;address;
communityint~and family background
Dispositionhistoryprintoutswere used toident ifyallcriminallyconvicted offensesand sentence dalesfor offendersup totheir IS"birthday.Convict ionnumbers were translatedusingtheCriminalCod e afCanada(Rod iq uesandOueJlet.I996 ).Any scxuaIlyrelatedoffenses andtheir dates were noted.Thesesexualoffensesandtheir dateswere crossreferencedw;lhprogrampartici~ionin an attemptto isolate the
'principal'sexual offense(s) forthisresearch.Thiswasnecessary because some
dispositionhistoriesindicatedthatoffenders had beenconvictedof. sewa1 offenseon morethan one occasion.
I e.
fortreat ed offenders, thedate of conviet ton andcompletion of.closedcustody sanence foronesexualoffense occurred prior toenroUmentintbe sexuaJoffender treatment programand occurred priortosente nceconvictionof another sexualoffense:,that sexual convictionwas considered.priorsexuaJoffense.However,if46 the dateof comictioo.ofthese:nWoffensecccarredafter enroUmem mthe sexual offendertreatmentprogram and after seeeece completion for another sexualoffenseIt was considered&subsequent offense andrnea.sumIasrecidivism.
u:
forUntTeatedseJWaI offendenthe date ofc:onvK:rionand completionof.dosedcustody sentence for one sexualoffense oco.ured prior toAprill994.dwsexualconvictionwas«JnSidereda prior sexualoffense.However,ifcomri crionforallsexualofferues andcompierionof any closed custody sentenceOCQUTedafter April1994andifthe date of conviction for onc sexual offenseoccurredaftersentencecomplet ion for anothersexual offenseitWill considered asubsequentoffense and measured as recidivis m.Regardl es sof treatmen t.if there was more thanonesexual offenseanddifferentdate sof conviction allsexual offenses wereconsideredthe'principal'sexualoffenseifthe younS offender'sfile indicated that the chargesinvotvedthe sameincident:but had beendd aycdthrough coun proceedings.Anyoffensethat occurred prior tothe'princi pal'sexual offensecon"; etion dalewereconsidered prioroffenses.AnyoffensesthatOCCWTed&fief" theconvict io nand sentencecompletion forthe'principal'sexualoffen se wereconsidered a subsequent offence andmeasuredasrecid.Msm.(SeeTable 4for anexat1tJHe
ofone case.)Juvenile sexualoffenden were then classified into oneofsix categories based onthedescriptions ofpriorsexuaJ.offenses.These categorieswere incestoffend er,childmolester,rapist.mult ipleparaphiliacs, hands off offender.andother.
Table 4
47
Variables
Saual Offense '1Convidlon
~Custody 0 . - . . UCoavi(:tioa Seelan:~
0 . - . . Nonsexual Offense
.) CorMaJoa Scaare~
e..- '2 ConvicUoa Scr.:ureClISI.~
Dwoti<m
Date
U~J~I
ss-or-or.
96-0&-26 9~21 9~J-o I _
...,..,.
9J-01_21
9l~)-4)1
9UlJ-oI- 93-03-01
Principol
v-
Prior Subsequent
N
UCOlMClioIl 5ccu~Custoa,.·
Dwoti<m
lUCom1cuoa %-OIloOlJ
Scaae~ NtA
0 . - . .
ProgBmParticipation November 95
48 Forthoseoffendenwhowere II yean orolder"priOf"10~ember20.1998.the CanadW1PoliceinformationCentre(ePIC)wasutilizedtotraceIdu.ttaimina.Ihistory Toquerythe CP(Cfirst..'penonscheck'wasperformed_Itrequiredtheoffender"s name andbirthdate. Theper50llScheckgenerateda Mgetprinl JMnber.Next.the fingerprintnumber was used toperfonn a'criminalrecord s check',The criminalrecords check generat eda'convictio nsand discharges'sumnwy data sheet.Alleonvictio ns identifiedherealJlomaticaIJyindicated that theoffenderhad re-offendedbecauseit presupposeslIwtheoffenderbadbeenrdeasedfromyouth custody_Ifthis criminal recordscheck:rn'eaIedthat theoffenderhadcommitted RlbscquentsauaIoffenses, •
'po liceliJesheet'wasobtainedtogClthespecifics5Ulf'OUndingtheolfense
Oncethe offensehistory of each offender wasobl&ined.thelengthof timeuntil re-convictionwas tabulated
Recldiw.VI'I Rases
Recidivism ratesweredeterminedbyre-cce vicncns of subsequentsexual and nonsexual offenses aspertheCriminalCode ofCarwU.Anoffense was establishedas subsequentusing theprocedu re as outlinedinthe"proced ure for dita collectWln'section A Pearsond'i square (Norusis.1991)wasusedto delmnineiftherewere any significant differencesamongthethreegroups.Asignificance at the p<.05levelwas required.A Pearson chisquare was alsouKdto determineifrypoktgy.numberofpriors.sex of victim, or.rela60nshipofvicrimaJfectectrecidivism. Asignificance at thep<.OSleve lwas requ ired
Thischapletdealswithan analysis ohhe data coUect ed&omeach subject'stile andcriminalrecord
Therela tignshi p
k nru"
lewl o(1h<UNtmfntprogram andWrrKJfrecldtvism OftheentireJ2juvenl1eSoeJOJ&Ioffenders,only1re-offended sexually.This accounted for 3.1%of the totalsexualoffenderpopuiation.96_9~.of the populationdid notre-offeedsewaUy.Therelationshipbetween treatmentprogramandsexualrecidivism isshowninTab le5.As can be seen in the table,the juvenilesexual offenderwho had sexuallyre-offendedtwl.not been otTered the Healthy Lifestylesprcgrwn Dueto this single oecuereeceofsnualre-otrending,therewillbea doscr examinationofthis5e'l(UaI re-otrender(afetinthisrepon.~ i '0
;s i' ! ~
~ "
.
e, i: 0x l
ii- ;s il'
~
a a
c ;s ;s
~ if
[
0 <5 :;;:
'"
•
i!.1
s o ;::;- ~o
~
"' ~
-c
•
:lt~ §<5 ~~
~ :;;:
~
"' ~
- - - - -- - -
~~ ~ ~
i
"
recidivilmisshowninTable6.Ascan beseen.offenders whohadIlOlbeenofferedthe Table 6
RelatioDshipbnwemley c! o(tCCltmenlpro mmandnooKxualrecidivism Nonsxu.a'Recidivism
Treat ment N Yn No TOlal
Complet edHit..
, . ,
935.7% 64.3% 100%
NocotfendHIL
•
75.0-.4 225.0% 100%Partial HIL io
•
40.0";'•
60.0-;' 1000/,Total
"
46.9"10 17 53.1%
~HlL-Healthy Lifestylessexualoffendertreatment program
ll;~"3.4] I.df-2.P=180.
HealthyLifestylesprogram.hadtheIargnI:percentage nonsexual re-offendinS Juveniles whohadany eqx>suretothe HealthyLifestylesprognmre-ofl'endednon-snuallyat lower rates
However••further Peanonchi.squueanalysis (Norusis.1998)revealed thatthere were nosignificantdifferencesatthep<.05level,betweenthelevelof treatmentprogram
