Contribution à la réalisation d'une Mémoire Magnétique Intégrée sur Silicium

HAL Id: tel-00153556

https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00153556

Submitted on 11 Jun 2007

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access

archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-entific research documents, whether they are pub-lished or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Contribution à la réalisation d’une Mémoire Magnétique

Intégrée sur Silicium

Christophe Duluard

To cite this version:

Christophe Duluard. Contribution à la réalisation d’une Mémoire Magnétique Intégrée sur Silicium. Matière Condensée [cond-mat]. Université Joseph-Fourier - Grenoble I, 2007. Français. �tel-00153556�

!" # $% % !" # &% "

!

"

#

!

$

' (" ) * + , (" " - ) ) ./ * " 0//1 - 2 ! *$ "% % " 3 4 "" - " % " $ %" , ) 3 , &% , 3 5 $$ ) 6 3 4 "" ) ! $$ ) * +3 4 "" - " % " $ ' (" " - ) ) 3 4 "" - " % 5% % , (" (" $ %$ % , 7 ) 08903 , ):, : : ;

.

8 ) * +3 , ) )' ,3 " - ) ) 3 ) 3 ) ) , 3 " +) 3 5 ?) 3 ) ' ) 5) 3 ) 3 -% ), ) '3 , " @3 , " ' ') 3 % " 3 , ) 3 ) 6 3 & ) ),3 ) ' ) 3 55) ) 3 ) A

1 #%& #' # '%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &( #%) #'* # ' ' + # + # ' ' #, - . /+ 0 1 ' #2# 3 # 4 %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &5 ! "#$ % # &$ '( #%6 ' + +#' 2 ' 0 # '' # ' %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% )) ) *' ) $ # ' + , ) $ ! - . " "# /! #0 1 #%7 + #' #+ 8 #'* # ' +#' ' # ' %%%%%%%%%%%%% )( #%9 ' + +#' ' # ' %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% )5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 / 40 )5 1 2 6 4 + 7 8 /680 )5 1 2 9 :; 8 + /9;80 ) 1 ' . ) 1 2 - 7 < ' ) #%: # ' ' + # %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% 67 #%( - ' %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% 6( ##%& #' # '%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% 76 ##%) + 8 # ' +#' ' # # # %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% 76 ,) * ,, * ,1 $ # = ; ,> ##%6 #'* # ' +#' ' # # # %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% 7( ##%7 - 0 # # ' 0 # '' # + #'* # ' +#' ' # ' 7; ##%9 - ' %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% 9& ###%& #' # '%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% 96 ###%) # # + # #- %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% 97

C ###%6 # # ' + ' #, # + # #- %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% 9( ###%7 ' # ' # + # #- / #+ # ' + ' ' #, %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% :< ###%9 + ' #, # # ' # + # #- =+ - >? %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% :) ###%: + 0 + + #' # ' # - ' #, #' ' ' # + # # ' # + # #- %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% :9 > #? @ >> > A B >C ###%( ' #, = 3 ? # + # #- %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% :; ###%5 - ' %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% (& #2%& #' # '%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% (6 #2%) + #' #+ + + # + 3 # @ # #, '#A - %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% (9 #2%6 + + # ' + , + ' 3 ' #' # ' # # # %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% 5< #2%7 + ' # ' '#, ' 3 + 3 # @ # #, # # 8+ # ' 8%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% 5& D , 6 D86: $8 # D , 6 *E<! #87*E<! D , < D867 $8 # *E<! , D , ; *A!7# # C D , 6 F8$6 % D , 2 ' . %, #2%9 ' # '%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% ;9 #2%: '' 8 / + # + , 0 ' + +@ 8 -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% ;: #2%( - ' %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% ;5 ! 2%& + # @# ' @ # ' = # ? %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &<& D # # 5 D # # 5 D # C 2%) ' #, ' @# ' @ # ' %%%%%%%%%%%%%% &)9 D 2 1 D 2 C 2%6 8+ # ' 8/ + + # #, - ' #, . # ). #=- # ? '# ' + %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &6& D ) 6 # ) D ) # ! # . ))

D D ) # ! # ' - # ,, 2%7 ' # '%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &96 2%9 - ' %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &99 " 2#%& 1 ' #, ' 4 #' - # - ' #, . 83 %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &:& D > D < > 2#%) #2# ' ' # ' # ' - ' #, %%%%%%% &:( D A B >C D ; - . - > D $ ' - . C D ' - . . C) D ' - . 7 . C 2#%6 '' 8 & / '2 # ' '# %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &5) 2#%7 '' 8 ) / + 3 '' + ' - ' # %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &56 2#%9 '' 8 6 / + 3 '' + ' + ' # %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &5: 2#%: - ' %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &5; # 2##%& #' # '%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &;6 2##%) # + # #- 8+ # ' %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &;9 2##%6 # # ' #, # + # #-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% &;: D ) $ B %> D ) $ %% 2##%7 # # ' + + # ' + # + # #- + ' #, 8 # %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% )<& 2##%9 ' 3 0 # 0 2 ' %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% )<6 2##%: ' # '%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% )<: 2##%( - ' %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% )<( $!#

99 & ) " * E "# F 4 " * " G %& *%* - " HI % * "3 $ * " & 4% J /39 K*3 & * 2 $$ L -F E! I 44 3 E! M " 44 " ** 4 $ "" " ! " $ & ** F 44 * J " " " " "I " " F% " " J " E! " F%$ "" # # " *( "I 3 % & F " $ " "" % J " %$ "" " *%* ) $ " " - %I " " %- $$ " * % E & ? * " F E " $ " * " " " "4 " * " %3 4 % % " # F 4 I * " 44% " - " * $ " - "3 " *%* " * & % # " 5 )5 75 & * ) "" 5 * !; " $ ( * % "" "I - %3 " 44 44 * E - & " $ % 7 *$" F% F ";3 $ % 7 " 4 * # # " " * ; 7 " " % E "3 $ " 4 & J F% J ;I , " E$ " - *%* - " ! " % ' )53 $ % )5 - % ) I " $$ " "$% 4 # " J " N - " J " " *%* " * # % " 4 " % "% " " F% # "$ 3 " " F %& * E * * *%* * & % # " $ % % ,5 " I %& " % # * % " - F " F "$ " 4 - 4 % " "$ "$ " " * $ $ " " %* "% $ 4 & " ! ! " # # $ %

& ! $& $ ! # ! $& ' ( )$ * $& !

!& $ # ! + *# # $ $% # B $ $ $ $

$

!

$

90 , "$ " 4 *$ 2 F% " $ "%" "$ "" % * & % # ( 3 " * $ * $ $ & " % " $ "%" "$ - " F% " "% 4 "$ "" ( % * & % # I " % " " "$ " 4 " %4 " $ F - " * " " E % " * & % # "I F 4 *

$ M % & O J *$ * & % # &% % % $ $ " J - " &

*% # $ "" "" " F " E % " 7- 4 & "" ";I $ " "$ " 4 $ " " F 2 " % " $ "%" "$ " " *3 " "$ " % % 4 * & % # *% . I F% F 2 "$ " " " * " % 44 *$ " ( " % "I F 2 " " " * " $ - E *$ " " " * " $ " * " 4 " % # " " " 4 - " # E$ "$ F% I , $ 3 %- $$ * "F " % J F " " * " 4 * & % # " J *$% * 3 F P F % F " *$ " ! *% 4 * & % # :" * 7 * & % # ; 4 $ * F 2 "$ " " * I ' " * 3 44% " " " % % $ $ "% " " "" * " " " ! " *% 4 * & % # :" * QA /9R3 Q5 " ! /0R3 Q5 " ! /.RI 3 F " " " * " * 4 * " $ "$ - " F $$ !$ "$ " 4" (" " # F J " %& " 4 ( & # " *I ' $ "3 % - "$ " " * " F 9/ $" J *$% * 3 F P $ *$ $ " "$ " !$ " * I F "

" * $$ L (" - & " & O J $ " & 4 % F %& "

& ,5 7, *$ * ! 5 E * ; J $ " & % - "$ 3 F 9/ " Q %$ 1/RI , $ 3 * " %- F 2 % # "$ " " * " J 2 J %* I F 2 4 - (" " J % " $ % *( " " # $ - 4 F% & "$ *% 4 * & % # " *I $ (" % G "$ # " " " * " H " $ " $ % *( " $ !" # " 4" "$ " " " * "I $ " *% "* " F 2 "$ " " " * "3 " % "$ " $ " " " " * "3 " # $ %* # "$ I

9. $ % G "$ # " " * H "" - " - & " " * $ $$ E " * " $ % " "$ " 4" "$ # "I " $ "" " "" - " $ * ( " % " E$% * " " *3 # * % $ "$ # I " $$ " ** % % "$ " 4" "$ # " "%" " " *% 4 * & % # : E! :" * Q' "/.R3 Q' "/>R3 Q' "/8S9RI 4 3 " " " F *$ 4 ( " " " * " F 2 "$ Q' "/8S0RI ' " $ 3 % % "$ " 4 " "% " % " F 2 4 * %- F 2 "$ " " *3 " # " 44% " % $ " & # " % "" " J % " "$ " 4I F %& *% E 4 * & % # " - " * " # C/ 0/ , D/ 9/ $ $ %" "# * $ " *I 44 3 * *% E . 7 3 , ; $ *$ 4 * 4 * "$ " 4 * % - " $ " " " * Q & /8R 4 " $ % "$ Q " DCR3 Q " //RI ' " $ 3 " $ %" " % * F E! " * $ *% 4 * & % # I ' " $ 3 $ %" % % % " $ $ % %" % # " " *% 4 * & % # : E! :" *I , % " "% " F !" " % " # " $ % " " " " " I , % " * -% $ 4 # F 2 44 "$ " " * % "" T *% "* "$ % # *% 4 * & % # " *I " $ % "%* 3 "$ M !$ J - " F E! $ " 4 - " $ "" " "$ "" " %" $ " %4 " % # " " F E! J F 4 F E! " *I $ " " % J F% " $ $ % %" * & % # " " % " 4 * & % # " "% " ** " F% " $ "%" "$ I "F & F% " *% "* " * " * " " % " " " F 44 F " $ 4 * " % "I F 2 4 " 4 " F - "% - % " " *$" * E % " 7 2 ; " F *M* "$ " 4 4 $ - G " H * $ F $$ F *$ * & % # E % I , $ * $ "" F % $ ( J % $ ( * " % % %- F E " F " & * & % %" " I

9> ' " $ 3 - $ %" " % " # " % # " "$ " 4 *$ I ** 3 - % * $ 4 * $ * # % " " # $ * F " - * E * * * & % %" " 75 ;I - % "% " (" "F " % % " $ 2 % 5 5 75 * 5 & % # %& % " *;3 $ 2 5 7 %" 5 & ;I " 44% " $ " $ 2 " " % % % % %- $$ * & 7 ;3 " " " * " 7 5 ";3 $ * % # 7 :, ); " " 7 ,3 05 , 5, ;I

98 "

Q & /8R ,I & 3 )I ' 3 I - 3 4 4 * * * " *

4 $ !$ ,U " V 4 4 * *$ E & V 3 $ $ %" % J

4 W & ) ' 4 & & * &!X3 99 3 "3

3 0//8

Q' "/.R ,I I ' "3 ,I " 6 3 I I " 3 I I &&3 I 5I *$" 3 & & " " "$ " " 3 I !"I ' )$$ I !"I .B3 C9 C1 70//.;

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

91

,

-%.

!

' " " " * "3 T "$ " $ "3 $ " & 3 $ "" J - &% % "$ " 4" % # " QZ 4/9R3 Q? DCRI , % " % F - $ "$ " 4" $ - $ 4 * $ "$ $ % - 4 %I ,F " " " ' ' " " " % (- * $ $ Q' D/RI , $ % % $ $ "% 9DD/ $ "% $ 7 $ $ 44 " " ; G " " J "$ HI , "$ " 4 "" * J $ * ( - J " " J 44 *$ "" # 3 ** " % " & I9 \ " 3 - T - " & 3 &I , $ 3 *$ " "F M JI " " J "$ " "% " " " "% 4" "$ 3 F " J $ " F 2 % "$ I F 2 $ "% "$ " "" % " $ " % " 4 * & % # " 7 3 $ E *$ ;I / # %. ! 0 * ! 0% $ 1# ! )$ + $ $ # 2 3 ! 3 $& ! ! $ $ 4 567% & ' ! $ ! # 8!& $ *! 9 ! :; < # $ 3 $ ! $ % * 3 ' ' " $ $ "% T G 4 " H "$ " " $ & "$ " # M Source Fe Grille

V

_g In AlAs 2 DEG Drain Fe

Injection des spins dans le semiconducteur

Détection des spins dans le semiconducteur Manipulation des spins

(effet Rashba) In GaAs Source Fe Grille

V

_g In AlAs 2 DEG Drain Fe

Injection des spins dans le semiconducteur

Détection des spins dans le semiconducteur Manipulation des spins

(effet Rashba) In GaAs

9C 4 " $$ # % " & Q " B/R3 Q ! 6 -C>RI - * E * # F " "$ " " $ ( J F * " % " 2 I - * * # " " $$ "% "I , $ " " " $$ " %& * "* "" % 3 * " " $ "$ 3 F 2 7 " ; 7 ;I $ $ " 3 P $ $ & "$ M & U F% " J E * " " 70 ' ; $ $ 4 F * % % -% $ * " $ $ & % I , J 0 ' $ M " " " " J * $ & 75 ' ; !$ )": ) )" Q' "CDR3 Q' D/RI %" *%3 $ " " J "$ " "% " 9: 2 $ "% "$ " " * \ 0: $ $ & % " "$ " \ .: T $ % "" " "$ " \ >: "% - "$ I " " $ " $ ( * " $ " 93 0 > " " $ & $ " # " - I " 3 " 5 $ %" & *% 4 * & % # , $ " * I %;

'

!

$

*

!&

/ =

3$>

! ?

!

+ @

A

%;%

!

9

$ !

*

!

J $ $ " % # ' ' "3 * *$ - " %* " E$% * $ " " J "$ % % 4 I , " $ E *$ " - E 5 U Q5 U D1R3 Q5 U DDR E $ Q $//R # $ %" " F 2 "$ J $ F *% 4 * & % # 7 !93 , ; - " F )" F 5 ' I * " %- F 2 "% - "$ " "% " " - E " F " - F & * %" " " 5 ' "# " * " " E % " $ "" F% $ ( J F% $ ( I 9 _{" ! $ %" & * ! F " J F & C/ 0/I}

9D * & $ " " $$ % F " - $ % *( " * & % %" " 75 ;3 $ - # 2 "$ " " * Q "DDR3 Q ** DDR3 Q /9R3 Q DDRI , $ 3 %* " $ % *( " F 2 % # "$ " " "$ " 4" J $ " * # " *% 4 * & % # :" * " $ (" - "% Q5 U //RI 44 3 F *$ " & 5 " -% " 4% J 9 ]3 # $ M % J 44 $ T # FJ 2 "$ Q5 U D1RI %;%3

!>$

$

!

!

$

@ >

! "" "

$

*

+

$&

"

/ =

J % E$% * 3 44% " & $ " " " *$ !%" J % " *% "* " "$ "$ " " "!" (* " 5: ,I I * I Q * //R % F 2 % # "$ F *% 4 * & % # " " * 3 " $ G *% * H3 * E " % # "3 G "$ $ H G "$ V HI ' " " 3 4 * "* * ( J E " "$ " $ " $$ # % "!" (* 5: ,I * ( " $$ " # F $ %4 $ " E $ " * # " µ_↑ µ_↓ E " *_↑ *_↓ "" %" E "$ " $ V 7 " " "!" (* " 44 " 4";I " EI " $ " * # " " %" E " - - % σ3 44 44 " ' *$" "$ 4 $ τ"4 $ F * F%# 44 " ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ σ − = ∂ µ ∂ A A A "* C 7 F *; ) ) D C ? = ∂ µ − µ ∂ = τ µ − µ_{↑ ↓ ↑ ↓} 7%# 44 " ; - # - " & F% I σ_↑ σ_↓ $ %" " - %" " "$ " $ V "$ - * I , " - %" " 44% " " " *% 4 * & % # # " " *% * I τ"4 " % * ! $ 4 & F F "$ $ "$ V - - " I ' " * ! $ % % " 44 " 44 " " "$ " $ _↑ " "$ " V _↓ ? ' ' = ? ' ' = ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ + + =

0/ - ↑ ↓ " " %" F% " " % " - * $ " E " "$ I " &% % E %# " $ % % " $ *% 4 * & % # *% * * " 7 " * ; " ? C C = ? C C = $ C D D σ λ + λ − σ + + = µ ↑ ↑ ↑ ? C C = ? C C = $ C D D σ λ + λ − σ + + = µ ↓ ↓ ↓ - λ_"4 & 44 " "$ "" % Jτ_"4Iλ_"4"F% " λ_D = τ_D I

λ4* & 44 " " *% 4 * & % # λ" &

44 " " " * I ' " " * 3λ" $ E % λ4* $ " " " & I $$ # * ( "!" (* * " " # *% 4 * & % # 7 E ^ 9; # "F% E ^ ∞ J E ^ /I , " - " * 7 E ^ 03 /_ E _ E/; # " - E (* *% 4 * & % # 7 E ^ .3 E/ ≤ E ≤ `∞;I E/ "$ J F%$ "" " * I , "!" (* " % $ & I0 $ M $ %" % F $ - % # $ %" %" " " 9↑3↓3 ,↑3↓ .↑3↓3 $ %" " E E "$ %$ " $ " %& "I "%$ " 44 " %" J $ " "$ 4 E * 3 " $ " * # " " " *% E 4 * & % # " $ " E " "$ " E$ *%" $ E A < A↓ ↑↓ ↑ =µ +µ µ / # %; : < !>$ ! $ " ! " !& ! : < + ! 9 " # :/ <B . C% ! 9 9 ! ! ! ! .↑↑↑↑B↓↓↓↓B ↑↑↑↑B↓↓↓↓ C↑↑↑↑B↓↓↓↓% :3< : < $ $ $ ! $ # $ D $ $$>$ :3< E $$>$ : < 4 ! 667%

09 Pµ/ _{" $ * # " " 44 "$ I # $ 7 ^ 93 .;3 F%#} 44 " " $$ # % ? . ? C C == C $ _D A < E A < A =µ +µ =µ + ± − λ µ_{↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓} $ ^ 93 . - E9^ /3 E. ^ E/ " & `7 ; " %4( J F E 9 7.;I ' " " * 3 " $$ " # τ"4 " 4 # λ" " $ " " " & " $ " & # λ4* $ $ " *$ # F%$ "" E/ " * I " $ $ * # " " * C ? < = ? C = _{& A A} A )↑↓ =µ↑↓ +γ↑↓ µ 3γ↑3↓^ " I F " 44 " "$ E 4 " 5: ,3 " " E * " E 4 " " 9: % " $ " * # " \ 0: " - " " "$ " $ V I $ *$ " " E * " "!" (* 3 I * I Q * //R % " E$ "" $ " α F% " 2 %" *% 4 * & % # " " * ) D < $ D < $ D D ? & C ) = ) C * * * * β − + σ σ λ σ σ λ β = + − = α ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ Pα " %- % J F 4 5: , " J - " " * " " $$ "% # τ"4 " 4 I β " $ " *% 4 * & % # F 4 5: , 7$ " * "" 4;I 'F $ (" * ( ( Q ( 18R3β " %4 $ F E$ "" " -↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ + − = σ + σ σ − σ = α ' ' ' ' - ↑ ↓ " " %" F% " " % " - * $ " E " "$ Iβ $ $ " " 9/ ] Q V19R3 Q V1.R3 Q "11R3 Q5 "* //RI " - " !$ # "3β ^ B/ ]3 E/^ 9 K* σ4*^9/ >σ "3 α ^ /3//0 ]

# " (" 4 Iα - * E * %& J $ " *% 4 * & % # βI

, $ 3 - * E * α $ M # $ β $ 93 #

"$ J 4 * & % # * *% # I

"!" (* *% 7 F " J " " * " *$ % $ *%

* ;3 σ4*≈σ" α - "β J F 4 *% 4 * & % # :*% * Q /0R3

00 4 * & % # " * 3 % (" 4 * F 44 % F 2 " $ "%" "$ " " * I , $ % *( " " " * G - ! * "* HI %;%

$

3$>

! ?

!

+ @

A

' E " " $ 2 44 "$ " " * % * % $$ % "" "I $ * ( " " J " " * * & % # ** " "$ J $ 5 4 F - σ4* ≈ σ" Q " DDR3 Q DDR3 Q &DDRI E (* " " J " 4 * & % # * *% # $ - β $ 9 Q " DDR3 Q & />RI ' " - E 44 * % # " " * " " #

*$ "% $ * & % # E5 !A 9 E ! Q &DDR *$ "% 4 * & % #

5 )" Q DDR $ - $ * F 2 " "$ " " " * * & % # I 4 "3 4 * & % "* "$ L "" " F ? -F " " * $ * & % # % "" F $$ F *$ * & % # % -% 7 F " ; Q &DDRI , *$ "" $$ $ # "% " " "!" (* "I F " F *% 4 * & % # # $ " "$ " J 2 " $ "" % $ - J F% "$ " 4" 4 J *$% * I )4 F " 4 * % J 44% - % *% 4 * & % # " * 3 % % % - % $ 44% " " Q " //R3 Q * /9R3 Q /9R3 Q & "/0R3 Q &&/.RI " " J ( " *% 4 * & % # " * I %C

!

*

+

3

>

$

$

%C% F 2 " % " $ "%" "$ $ 44 " " * -%2J % % % "% $ ) - I Q) - D0R3 Q) - D8RI " 2 % - " )" $ F *% F $ 6 F * " $ J 44 * " % & % $ " * " I , $ " * ( "

0. $ - $ %" " , F E (" $ $ "$ " F % % " (& " "% # %& "" * " - - " J - " "$ Q5 C>R3 QZ " D9R3 Q) -1BRI " # $ !" # F 2 "$ J - " ( " "" U 44% % - F 2 J - " F 4 5: , ** %- $$%

$ % % ** Q " //R3 Q * /9R3 Q /9R3 Q & "/0R3 Q &&/.R 7- & I.;I

/ # %C : < " $ " # ! % $ # $$ $ @ ! $ % /! $ 3 ! ! ! / % + + $ 3 ! ! ! ! + $ ! % :3< , $ $ $ !& 3 > $ $ $ " # $ ! % ! $ $ ∆µ₀* + $ ' 3 $ # ! $ ! "" ! $ $ $ ! F ! $ $ " # $ ! % $& + ! # $& $ ! ! / ! 4G # 6;7% "% ( *% 4 * & % # " * 3 % " " "$ " $ *_↑ V *_↓ " 2 " - * " $ " " $ " % * # " µ_↑ µ_↓ 0_{I $ 3 " # %"} ∆µ _{# %} -F * "$ " $ *% 4 * & % # ∆µ_- =<?=µ_{- ↑}=<?−µ_{- ↓}=<? $ 0 _{" ( # " " ** F 44 " F "" " % $ *$} % # # - J - " " $ " % * # " µ_↑A↓ $ " " " $ " * # " ↓ ↑ µ _A ** $ % % ** I µ_↑A↓ "F% µ_↑A↓ =µ_↑A↓+"23 - # & F% $ I (a) (b) (a) (b)

0> " * ∆µ =<?=µ _↑=<?−µ _↓=<? " " & " $$ "%" " " F 2 " # F " % *M* " & ∆µ_- =<?=∆µ =<?=∆µ=<? " " F 2 J - " F 4 5: ,I 44 3 & * % " "$ " $ " *% 4 * & % # 3 % J " % F% " $ " "" 3 4 # F " - $ " & * J F 4 I 3 %$ * $ " " %" F% " E * % E $ F ( I "%# 3 " "$ " V " $ %4% * 2 %" $ "# F " " % F% " $ " *$ " *% 4 * & % # I ' " " P $ % * # ∆µ₀ J - " ( " $ " " " & $ " *$ # " # %" ∆µ_- ∆µ 3 % % * % # $ " α $ "% "$ Q & "/0R3 Q &&/.R "F% β − = + − = α ↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ * * * * P ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ + − = β ' ' ' ' " $ " *% 4 * & % # 3 - ↑ ↓ " " %" F% " " % " - * $ " E " "$ I " # F %" # $ " α "$ J J $ " *% 4 * & % # β3 - 4 " - " " & $ $$ "!" (* 5:*% * ** - $ % % ** I ' " " " ( " * " " ( " " " $ %" " G $ " H3 44% $ " % * # " " *% 4 * & % # ∆µ_- " *M* & # $ " ( ∆µ₀I " " & " " * " "$ *% 4 * & % # " * % $$ "%"3 $ " ( ∆µ₀ 44% $ " % * # " ∆µ_- J % 2 "$ " & " $$ "%"I $ " " - " /I %" *%3 F 2 "$ - " , % "" ( 5 ,I , ( $ M " $ ( !$ 6! " % # 5 ,I %C%3

! $ 3

>

H@

( 6! $ " " " " ( *% 4 * & % # " * I " % " $ - " M 2 %" *% 4 * & % # " " * $$ # " %& - "

08 F% 4 * & % # I ' " " &% % 3 2 % " (" 4 " F E " F U %$ % " " * # # " 9// a !$ # * I , $ 3 & U %$ % $ M 2" % " $ 4 $ & $ % Q) /.RI 6 I Q 6 /0R3 Q 6 /.R "% 2 6! % "% $ "" F $ %$ E J 2 * % " " J $ " # # !$ ) )": )":) )" 7- & I>;I F% & % $ " * ( %* " " $ " # # )" " J * " " % " $ "%" - " " $ "%"3 $ * " * %- 2 44 "$ P $ " % ./ ] J >38 ? > ] J 0>/ ? Q 6 /0RI / # %I , "$ ! ! # * $& " / = $ ! $ ! ! $ $ : < 4J 3 H6C7% %C%

!

$

$

/

#

=

$

=

!

:/

<

I I 5 " ! I Q5 " ! /0R $ $ " 0//0 % F 2 % # "$ " ( " F) E 4 * & % # F % % " " * 7) ;)": )"I " " " - $ " D ] J C/ ? " F 44 # 7 ;I )$ (" $ * " % 3 $ " 0> ] J C/ ? 90 ] J *$% * % % $$ % $ ' $ I Q' $ /.R3 $ " 09 ] J C/ ? 9B ] J *$% * $ 5 " ! I Q5 " ! /.RI ' " 2 5% : " : * 75 ; % $ "% 3 " " $ - - " 2 7 ; " % " *% 4 * & % # " " * \ 7 ; " % "

0B *% 4 * & % # " - " * 7 " "; \ 7 ; " % " *% 4 * & % # J - " ( $ " " * - " % " " 4 F 4 E! :" * Q U BDRI F 2 % # " % " " " * $ M %- % $ " *% " $ # "I " E " *% "* " " 44 & F% 3 $ " & " "" $$ # % J 2 7 3 " ;3 %& "$ " 43 4 * $ 4 I % " "3 " " " F) )" $% F E! )"

7-& I8;I , &

" " F 4 E! :" * % " - " %4 " " 4 " " - " *% I & IB * " " % " % %" $ F% F 2 "$ I ' " " " * " 3 & % $ " " "$ " 2 %" " &% % * T% * " & % $ " * ( %* " $ % * " 7 ';I , $ " % " " * *$ " " "$ " * J " 4 I / # %K !& ' / % + $ ' ! $ " # + $ 3 ! ! ! ! ! B ! $ " # + $ 3 ! ! + $ ! ! : $ ! <B ! 3 + $ ! " *$& " 9@! $= ! 4 @ 6C7% / # %L ! $ ! ! $ $ "3 B + ! ! B $ + $ " ( 4 @ 6C7%

(a)

(b)

(a)

(b)

01 ' " " % " % %"3 F * 4 * & % # " $ " "$ " 2 %" F $ " *$ " " $ I F % " " " * $ " "$ " " " * $$ # *$ * & % # # 7 ; 7- & I1;I " "$ " $ % "" " " * *$ $$ # % " *$ " $ $ J " 4 UI )- " * " F%*

* ( 3 " "$ " 44 $ " " " $ "F & & *$ * & % # I

/ # %M ! ! $& "" J $ 3$ 4 @ 6;7% %I

!

9

$

$& '

!

!

$

!

" - %" * " $ $ E %" " " $ " *% " $ # " " F 2 "$ " " * I ' ! ! , $ ! :N< :O< I I A 70//9; QA /9R : )" 6! 7 3 ;)": )" 0 .// )I I 6 70//0; Q 6 /0R :) )" 6! 7) 3 ;)": )" ./ 0>/ I I 5 " ! 70//0; Q5 " ! /0R , :)0 .:) )" 5 7) 3 ;)": )" D C/ 5I *" 70//0; Q *" /0R 5 )": )" 6! 7 3 ;)": )" B C/ I I 5 " ! 70//.; Q5 " ! /.R , :)0 .:) )" 5 7) 3 ;)": )" 9B .// )I ? V U 6 70//>;Q? V U 6 />R . : )" 6! 7 3 ;)": )" 9/ 08

0C Z & 70//8; QZ &/8R , :5& : )" 5 7) 3 ;)": )" 88 9// +I 79DDD; Q DDR 5 )" 7 3 ;)": )" b 0 B I & 79DDD; Q &DDR 5 A 7) 3 ;)": )" D/ 8 %K

!

!

$

!

% " F "$ " 4 "$ # " $$ " 3 2 "$ 3 "$ % "$ " ,I ' " %& * "$ 44 " 43 $ " "$ 2 % % L E$ * " ,I & % " # % "" " & 44 " λ"I *$ "$ " "$ "3 " % "" L " 44% " *% "* " *$ # %" " E "$ " " " * "I , ** c " $ $ 4 * $ & 7 ; "$ d 3 % "" J *$ % " " *% "* "I %K%

&

E

3

F "$ d " 44 - " # # $ $ ""% "$ " %$ " %& P (& *$ % # I e % " %$ - - "" F " *$ % # E % 3 - " " %4% $ $ *$ * & % # 0_DD F E$ "" " F $ & 0_DD =− ₎ × P " - "" * ( I $ %" F *$ * & % # 44 43 # " % " "" " %4% 3 44 J 4 " ! * # "$ F% " % & I , " $$ % "$ d I 4 & J F "$ # " "" J * 4 F "$ " - *$ * & % # I " *$ * & % #

$ M *$ * & % # E % *$ * & % # 44 4 &% % % $

0D $ - 44% " & " $ !" # "3 $ E *$ *$ % # " ! E " * " % " J " " I F *$ F "$ 3 F%# [ & F % " %$ c " " " % $ ψ = Ψ σ ⋅ × ∇ − − = 2 ? $ 7 " ? = "2 ) _{< <} ) ) - */ * "" F% 3 7 ; $ $% # 3 # % * - * F% σ " * " I " (* * F * " * F "$ d I %" F%# [ & $ * " % # " " E $ %" * $ & "$ d Q 8>RI & IC * F " *$ 4 % " " F% & U 7 =< ; F " * J ** )"I F "$ " "$ " - & - I F% % &% # " E " -% " " % ∆/I !$ # * 3 ∆/ - /39 J 9 I )" $ %" " % "% $ $ & "$ /3.> 3 & * 4% J & & 93> I 3 " * $ %" " % "% $ 4 $ & "$ - & - ∆/ " * F " # F - /3/> F " J # " * 9/ 4 " $ " 4 # " )" Q //RI ' " $ 3 " - " " 44% F *$ $ & "$ )" " " *$ " " " $ $ % %" "$ " "$ " " " *I " " 4 " " " " *% "* " E " % " I " " $ $ E *% "* " "" J $ F " "$ " " / # %P G ! !& # ! > ! =<% E 3 ! ! ! B ## ! ! B E 3 ! ! $ ! B $ E 3 ! ! $ # B E 3 ! ? $ E ""A 4 &Q H +6K7% ∆∆∆∆0000 % & ∆∆∆∆0000 % &

./ " * " *% "* d + 4 7 +;3 *% "* 'F! 6 - F *% "* d ) - 6 "I %K%3

$$

E Q " : Q<

F & $ !" # *% "* d + 4 " $ $ N" E *$ %" "% " " E - " %" 7 " $ ";I F "$ - J $ $ J " " " % " F " "$ " $$ "%"I *$" E "$ F% " τ"4 "$ J * " " 44 " " % $ Q " * 11R3 Q) -C.R ) ! ) < ! < D & & τ ε ∆ + ∆ = τ P) " " 3 τ* " % E " " "" J & * * * G J GH 4 3 ε F% & % # F% 3 & & $ " * I , !$ F -* " * % F "$ % % $ " " F * - " *$ %" "% " Q 8>R $ + 4 Q+ 4 BCR " " F $ :$ I & ID " *% "* I %K%

&Q H

+ 2 ,

$& : ,<

F & $ !" # *% "* 'F+ 6 - F " *$ % # " $ 3 " " " E " " F - " " # " " * " ** )"I , *% "* F E " $ " " " * # " "!*% # 7 _$ =<;I *$ " "$ J *$ * & % # 44 4 0DD & "" " "$ 3 / # %5 ! $$ E Q " % !R * $& ! $ + $ $ % τ G GH # τ G GH #

.9 F *$ *$ %$ F *$ * * F% Q'F+ 6 -19RI 0 _DD=G? " $ % "" "$ F% J 4 %# ωI & * * * F% " J 44 " *( J & * 0 _DD 3 $ " 3 F E $ % "" I ' 3 F "$ & 4 J * " " 44 " " 7- & I9/;I ' " " " % " * "%"3 E " "3 "$ F% F $ " *$" %-" % * " I " * % # *$" E "$ % *% "* ' " F E$ "" " - Q) -C.R ! ) 6 0 D ? G = 0 & _{= τ} τ Pτ* " % E " " "" J & * * * F% " " # % " " ,I %K%!

G B

+

, H :G ,<

*% "* ) %" F E " F F% & "$ " % " * * % # " " Q 18RI F * F F% & % $ E$ "" ? = * 2 $ $ = ⋅ δ − P* " * * % # & " "3 $( " $ " " "$ - " " % " " "3 "$ F% δ 4 ' I *$" E "$ τ_D " - " * $ $ J " % ) " $ " " * $% $ QA CCR _D ' & ∝ τ I *% "* ) " / # %.6 ! &Q H + 2 , $&% !R $$ %

.0 "$ " F $ % "" "$ " % " F E " %3 & *% "* 'F! 6 - FI 'F " *% "* " J % % " "$ " " # F !$ 4 7 "$ " % " "$ % ; Q " * 11R F % " Q? 66 V DCRI %K% " " * " % # " $ % " " & ** " *$% " % F $ " $ "# " " *% "* " " * I " %" " # # $ & & ** " %" F $ " " )" 3 " *% "* " ' + " * " J "" " " %" F $ " " *$% " " # *% "* ) " $ " *$ J " " %" F $ " J "" " *$% "

Q) -C.RI & I99 * F *$ - " *% "* " ' ) "

)"I / # %.. )$ $ "' $ G , , ! $ 4 +PC7% 3 $ # $ $$ $ ! " ! $ ! $ ! % %K%"

$ #

2 3

!

3

F " " " $ F !$ "$ Q " B/R3 Q ! 6 -C>RI " *$ " * " " "!" (* " * " " "# " *$ % # 4 * " $ %" 3 $ $ $ " # " % " "

..

%$ I 4 *$ $ $ " $ %" " " "!" (* " " "# " " % "

" 4 %" " $ " $ "!*% # I , *$ % # 4 E " $

E *$ J F % F % % 2 J * $ & ** F % % 2

)": ) )" $ $ "% % % $ ' ' " Q' "CDR3 Q' D/RI & I90 $ %"

" %* J F 4 F % % " " % " * ) )" 7 & ; " * )" 74 ;I " % " " $ ""%" 6! \ " 4 * U %$ % % " " * I " % " " " 4 %" " $ " $ * " 4 * & U F% " * " 70 ' ;I 4 * $ " "!*% # " $$ F $ " & I , 4 * $ 4 * " " F *$ % # 4 * 7 =−∇2;I " $ "" ** " " $ " " $ " # # %- " *$ * & % # 0 $$ % *$ " I , $ $ % "" "$ & " " " " $ & "" " I F *$ $ % "" $ *$ " " * - " $$ # % " & # " J * 4 $ 4 * $ % E " I F * " " * % ** " Q //R

[ ]

σ×G ⋅ I α = Pα " $ *( F "$ # %$ % * *$ % # * J " 4 ! " 4 & $ " * * "" 44 - 3 σ $ %" * 3 ! *$ % # $$ # % - & G - F F% I F * " $$ " # F 44 " * " " " 4 " $ & - "$ " ^ 6` P 6 " F% & % # F% I " - " $ $ " " "$ " $ _↑ V _↓ " " / # %.; $$ ! $ 3 ! ! ! * $& " !& * ! $ ! ! # % -+ + + + + + + + + + + + 2 DEG InAlAs déplétée InGaAs Grille Schottky Ec Ev Ef Semiconducteur à faible bande interdite Semiconducteur à

forte bande interdite VG y x _z -+ + + + + + + + + + + + 2 DEG InAlAs déplétée InGaAs Grille Schottky Ec Ev Ef Semiconducteur à faible bande interdite Semiconducteur à

forte bande interdite VG -+ + + + + + + + + + + + 2 DEG InAlAs déplétée InGaAs Grille Schottky Ec Ev Ef Semiconducteur à faible bande interdite Semiconducteur à

forte bande interdite VG

y

.> G ) G ) ) E A↓ = ±α ↑ P " & ` 7 ; " %4( "$ - * "$ $ V E " * "" 44 -F% I % F% & G "$ & H # " ∆ =±αG_- J *$ - * I ' " F * F % % 2 Q //R3α "F% α= 7: I P *$ % # * J " 4 ! % - $ $$ # % 3 " I I =−∇2I ** Q ** CCR E$ "" % # # %$ " $ *( " % " # " " " F% & " * % EI 'F $ (" E$ "" 3 >B- ** $$ ₆ ! < ∆ 3 - ∆/ F% % &% # 4 F "$ #

-- & & I " F $ " & # ∆/ " & &

4 I &* F " % $ & "$ " 3 " * J 4 " $ %4% I %L

!

$

$

# F * *$ F% " % % " % J F 2 F% " $ "%" " " * 3 - $ F% " " % # "$ I ' " " " $ * ( " % "3 % "$ % % % % " * " $ J 44 Q U 6 DDR3 Q 6 D.RI , $ 3 "$ " 4 "$ # -% "" # F 2 " % "% " % # * I ! $ $ * E $ $ " "$ F $ " " !:)0 .: )" Q5 & /0R F " !: )" Q /9RI ' " " E % "3 " % " $ "%" " E %" " )" $ * ( $ "% F % % σ %" $ % $ * ! F * " # " " $$ # % I $ # - " F 4 " * " % " " % " F * " " " $ 7 /; " & * $ 7 ;I / " * " 44% $ $ $ " & * ( $ * " $ $ $ $ I

.8 ' " " /3 F % % " $ " σ 7- & I9.; " $ $ J F * 4 * & % # 53 " # " " F % % " " $ ( $ ( J F * I * " $ " # - " F 4 " 4 $ F "!*% ) " E " < < # # # # + − = I ) 44 " F "!*% ) $ $ M % J %$ "$ " " 4% - f"* * & % # # $ E " " 4 * & % # I ' " " $ * !3 f"* * & % # " # " - " & )" 793>0 ;3 P $ " $ " & " " )" Q5 & /0RI ' " - F Q /9R " $ * ! %$ "% " )" $ %$ E * % 3 F "!*% ) $ d % % * " %- J *$% * 7-& I9.;I , 44% "$ J * " $ d %$ "$ # " * - " *% 4 * & % # I F "!*% ) 0/ ] # F% & " $ " " $ F% & )"3 %* " # " 44 " "$ "$ " " & 4 4" E $ "" % F "!*% E$% * * I - 3 5 & Q5 & /0R3 # - % " " !:)0 .: )"3 J F " F 44 F % % " $ " -% * & % # % " ( " "% " F% I , %" %& 4 $ M % J F E " F% " F 4 J F 4 )": " P " % " $ "%" $ - M $ %&%" -- " ( I

*$" $ (& & " $ " & #

*$" E "$ 3 44 %$ "$ M I , 44 E "$ J F 4 % % " % $ " Q "D8R " Q " DCRI " % "" % " % / # %.C , 2 " ! $ $ 9 3 ! $& P6/ ;6= # $ :6< + # $ : < ! $ !& 3 ! : S .6;C 2C_< + $ # !& ! λλλλ :λλλλ S MP6B6 < ! $ 9 % Bias [V] P ho to – co ur an t [ µ A ] Bias [V] P ho to – co ur an t [ µ A ]

.B

%4 " J F 4 " : * I " # " " F Q /9R

F $ " 44 $ "# " % " " 2 %" )" - "

.1 %M

"

Q) /.R I 'I ) 3 'I I * 3 $ $ U "$ 4 * & :" * 6! "3 !"I -I BC3 /.8.>/ 70//.; Q) - D0R I I ) - I 3 " - 4 $ U & 4 * * & )"3 !"I -I I BC 7D;3 9.C1 79DD0; Q) - D8R I I ) - 3 & ' $ 4 $ U 3 !"I -I I 18 7.;3 89. 79DD8; Q) -1BR )I I ) - I I 6 "3 $ 2 " * "3 -I !"I * I 9/ 7B;3 BDC 79D1B; Q) -C.R )I I ) -3 I I 6 "3 )I I 6 -3 $ E 4 " $ !$ *$ "3 -I !"I 81 7.;3 BC/ 79DC.; Q 18R I I 3 )I I ) -3 I I 6 "3 $ E 4 " " & ! "3 -I !"I >0 7>;3 1/8 79D18;

Q & "/0R I I & "3 ,I I ' "3 I I &&3 I & 3 ?I 2 3 I 23 I 5I

*$" 3 5I I 3 , *$ - " ! 4 "$ 2 * " " * "3 I !"I ' )$$ I !"I .83 9CB 9D9 70//0; Q //R )I 3 5 & % % # " " "$ " 4" J " * "3 ) I !"I I 08 79;3 9 91B 70///; Q ! 6 -C>R + I )I ! 6 -3 I I " 3 $ " 4 0' & " V 4 "$ & !3 -I !"I I .D3 1C 79DC>;

Q' "CDR I ' "3 'I ,I 5 3 I ' 3 - 4 "$ "$ & E 9 E)": /I80)/I>C)" " " " →/3 !"I -I .D 70;3 9>9979DCD; Q' D/R I ' I ' "3 & 4 $ * 3 )$$ I !"I I3 I 8B 71;3 BB8 79DD/; Q' $ /.R ' $ 3 "! I 5 " ! 3 5 !6 2 3 - "3 " - I 4 -3 ' "3 Z * !3 " 4 & " ' 63 & ! 44 * *$ $ 2 5 " * & * & ' 3 $ I I )$$ I !"I >03 8/0 70//.; Q'F+ 6 -19R 5I I 'F+ 6 - I I F3 $ 4 " "" V " $ 4 & " * "3 -I !"I .. 78;3 9/8. 79D19;

.C Q'F+ 6 -/8R 5I I 'F+ 6 -3 "$ $ !" " " * "3 (* # , & "% $ ' )5 " W $ " " * " !" # )$$ "3 0//8 Q 8>R I I 3 ! 4 44 4 $ , $ & 5 & " * * "3 !"I -I DB 70;3 0BB 79D8>; Q /9R )I I 44 ("3 , " 4 44 "$ 2 4 * 4 * & * " * 3 !"I -I B>3 9C>>0/ 70//9; Q /0R )I 3 I 5I & 3 I 44 ("3 I 3 $ 2 E$ * 4 "$ * 3 I !"I ' )$$ I !"I .83 0>>. 70//0;

Q &DDR I &3 5I ? *3 I " 3 ZI "" 3 I * 3 )I Z &3 I ZI

5 6 *$3 2 4 "$ $ U & * & 3 >/03 1C1 79DDD; Q $//R )I I $3 I I - &3 I I * 3 I I - Z "3 E$ * " 4 "$ 2 " * 3 !"I -I B0 798;3 DDDB 70///; Q " * 11R I " * I *$ 3 $ E 4 $ " $ !$ & * " 3 !"I -I 9B 70;3 C0/ 79D11; Q "DDR I "3 ,I I * 3 ,I I ZI "3 I I 4 3 'I )I 3 $ -44 " " * 4 44 " " ) "$ - 3 !"I -I B/ 799;3 11B> 79DDD;

Q &&/.R I I &&3 I I & "3 I & 3 ,I I ' "3 I 23 I 5I *$" 3 ?I

2 3 $ 2 44 ! "$ - "3 I 5 & I 5 & I 5 I 0B83 01> 0CD 70//.; Q ** DDR I I ** 3 I I 3 5I I + &3 5 6 " 3 " - 4 $ 2 * & * 4 3 !"I -I I C. 79;3 0/. 79DDD; Q 6 /0R )I I 6 3 I I 6 3 I "6 "3 I ? " & 3 )I 3 44 "$ 2 4 * * & * : " * 3 )$$ I !"I I C/ 71;3 90>/ 70//0; Q 6 /.R )I I 6 3 I 5I I - g - 3 I 5 & 3 I ? " & 3 ,I I 3 I I 6 3 I "6 "3 I 5 !3 5I 5 !3 5I + " 3 )I 3 ) !" " 4 "$ $ ""

$ - & "$ 2 & :) )" 6! 3 )$$ I !"I I C0 70.;3 >/D0

70//.;

Q /9R )I 3 +I I @ 3 ,I 5I 3 I )I ,I 3 I I * "3 $ $ U

"$ 4 * & :" * ! " " ! $ E 3

.D

Q /9R ,I 5I 3 " 6 3 )I " 3 I I " 3 6 6 ! & 3 $ $ U

"$ V * & " V & 4 * & "3 !"I -I

B.3 908... 70//9;

Q " DCR I " 3 5I ZI I "3 I - ? *$ 3 ! 4 "$ $ U "$

$ E " * :4 * & 2 "3 !"I -I 81 71;3 >/.. 79DDC;

Q * /.R I I * 3 5I I 2 3 )I I $3 I I - Z "3 $ 2 "$

* * * " " $ "$ - - "3 !"I -I B13 /C8.9D 70//.;

Q ( 18R 5I ( 3 & V 4 * & 4 *"3 !"I I 8>)3 008 79D18;

Q? DCR I I ? 3 ) " " "$ # * *$ 3 .D.3 9.. 79DDC; Q? V U 6 />R )I ? V U 6 3 5I *" 3 I 4 3 I I [ 3 I ? " 3 ?I I &3 $ 2 4 * . )"3 )$$ I !"I I C8 79B;3 .>D0 70//>; Q? 66 V DCR I 5I ? 66 V 3 'I'I )V" *3 " $ )*$ 4 !$ )"3 !"I -I I C/ 79D;3 >.9. 79DDC; Q DDR ZI +I 3 I "3 I ,I , 3 +I I @ 3 ,I I * 3 ,I I ZI "3 'I )I 3 I I 4 3 I )I ,I 3 5 & U - " * & " " "$ 2 - 3 I )$$ I !"I C8 7D;3 BBC0 79DDD; Q ** CCR I ** 3 I 5 3 I ["" 3 & 4 4 " - " ) )": )" " " 4 → /3 !"I -I I B/3 10C 79DCC; Q5 & /0R I 5 & 3 +I U 6 3 I * 3 "$ $ $ " 4 4 * & : " :" * 2 "3 I )$$ I !"I D9 790;3 9/9./ 70//0; Q5 C>R I 5 3 I I A ! 3 $ 3 3 )*" *3 9DC> Q5 "* //R 'I I 5 "* 3 I I I 6 3 $ $ U 4 & 4 *

4 * & :)0 . 4 " " & $$ $ * * " $ & 4 *"3 )$$I !"I I 11 78;3 10/ 70///; Q5 U D1R I I 5 U 3 5 6 " 3 5I I 6 "3 & - & * ! 4 * & :" * * " "3 )$$ I !"I I 19 709;3 ./C1 79DD1; Q5 U DDR I I 5 U 3 5I I 6 "3 $ 2 44 )" # * V "3 I 5 & I 5 & I 5 I 9DC 9DD3 B.0 B.8 79DDD; Q5 U //R I I 5 U 3 I @I &3 5I I 6 "3 5 & * * & * 4 3 !"I -I I C> 709;3 8/00 70///; Q5 " ! /0R I I 5 " ! 3 I ' 63 I ' "3 ZI !3 I & "3 I - "3 I I 4 -3 "$ 2 4 * & : :" * " 3 )$$ I !"I I C9 70;3 0B8 70//0;

>/ Q5 " ! /.R I I 5 " ! 3 I ' $ 3 ZI !3 I - "3 I I 4 -3 I & "3 I ' 63 $ - " & 4 2 " * "3 !"I -I BC3 0>8.9D 70//.; Q DDR +I 3 'I ?I + &3 I " 3 I 5 " 6 3 I 3 'I 'I )V" *3 "$ 2 4 * & " * " 3 >/03 1D/ 79DDD; Q " DDR 5I " 3 I h 3 'I i& 3 I I ? 3 ZI * 3 ZI ZI h 3 'I I )" 4 3 I 3 $ 2 " * "3 )$$ I !"I I 1> 7D;3 9089 79DDD; Q "D8R 5I ZI I "3 I - ? *$ 3 I - 6 3 I )I 3 ZI !3 I ' 63 $ $ "$ * :" * 2 "3 I !"I , "I 5 13 D>>1 79DD8; Q *" /0R 5I *" 3 I +I 3 )I ? V U 6 3 I I A 3 5I ?i" 3 I !3 I

'iV U3 I I 3 ?I I &3 "$ 2 4 * 4 * & 5 )" *

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

& , " & & & 5 " $ V $ ! *$ )"3 $ I I

)$$ I !"I .03 I 9 7B ;3 0DCD 79DD.;

Q & />R I & 5I 6 3 ) "$ * E " * 4 44

" " " & 4 * 4 * & " 4 " 3 )$$ I !"I I C> 79.;3 0./1 70//>;

>9

Q U 6 DDR +I U 6 3 ZI 3 I 3 ?I + * & 3 I ? ! * 3 $ " "

-" & & * " $ " & )" $ ! $ *$ $"3 I 5 & I 5 & I 5 I 9DC 9DD3 8>/ 79DDD; Q U BDR I 5I U 3 !" " 4 * ' - 3 Z ! j "3 I3 V + 63 9DBD Q V19R I 5I V I 5 " - !3 $ ' $ & * & 6 3 !"I -I I 0B 7>;3 9D0 79D19; Q V1.R I 5I V I 5 " - !3 $ U 4 " & 4 * *" 4 3 , 3 3 3 !"I -I 1 79;3 .9C 79D1.; Q " DDR I 5I ' " 3 )I % %*!3 )I 3 I I , 3 I ! 3 I 5 & 3 I

3 )I ("3 - " 5 & " " , : .: /I1 /I.5 . V "

$ U &3 !"I -I I C0 709;3 >0CC 79DDD;

QZ &/8R I Z &3 @I &3 I 5I !3 I 5I 5 4 3 I I I 6 3 I I 63 I I

"3 " "$ 2 44 ! 4 , :5& 79//; "$ 2 V * &3 )$$ I !"I I CB3 /80D/9 70//8; QZ " D9R ,I Z " 3 I 3 e * * " * " )$$ "3 ) * 3 " 3 9DD9 QZ 4/9R I )I Z 43 'I 'I )V" *3 I )I * 3 I 5I ' & 3 I - 5 k3 5I I 6 "3 )I +I , 6 - 3 'I 5I & 3 $ " ) $ " " " 4 4 3 0D>3 9>CC 70//9; Q+ 4 BCR +I + 4 3 , "$ E ! " * *$ " $$ 3 4 )$$ !" " .D3 C8. 79DBC; QA CCR ?I A 3 I 3 I # 3 I 3 I 3 $ E

$ !$ & * " " & !" "3 !"I -I .1 7.;3 9..> 79DCC;

QA /9R I I A 3 5I *" 3 I ? " 3 5I Z "" * 3 I I [ 3 ?I I &3

>.

,

-%.

!

) " $ 3 " - " - # F "$ " 4 "$ # J " " * " $% " " - " 2 44 "$ " $ "%" " " * 3 " - "$ " $ " " "$ " " * 3 "% - "$ I - ** # F 2 % # "$ F *% 4 * & % # " " * % "" F " F ( 7 ( F E! ( 6!;I " * %2J % % *$ !% " " "$ " 4" "$ # " E$% * E ** G " " J - "$ H Q5 "* D8RI 4 "3 "$ " " $ "%" "$ " " * F $ " % % E$ %I % # & " * $ %" $ " D/ ] * % " * 3 F E$ " $ % *( " "$ %$ "$ " " * $ - " 4 %" " " "$ " 4" % # "I , $ "" ** $ F% " $ $ % %" "$ "$ " " * " " ( " " " " *I %;

! !

!

$ 9

!

!

$

$

%;%

!

" *% "* " E "$ " " * %$ & *

" F% & I & I9 $$ " )"I

" " % " " "I " " " & " E " _9//l 7∆ @; $ 3 J G=< 7Γ; $ )"I , ** -$ % % ** 3 " " - $ )" " *$ " $ " " " " " E %* % " " J G=<I - & ∆_/ G "$ 44 H 7 N $ & "$ ; " *$ " " )" 7∆/^ /3.> ; # " * %& & " " 7∆/^ /3/> ; Q //R3 Q, - "" "/9RI

>> / # %. ! 3 ! !& # $ : < $ :3< 4 + $ 6.7% 4 % % &% # ∆/ # # $ & "$ " 4 " " * # F $ "F J " % " - " "$ " " $ " *$ " # " )"I %;%3

! +

!

!

$

$

!

*% "* 'F+ 6 - F E "$ $ $ " "F $$ # " * % % # " "!*% # 7- $ & $ I8I ;I ' E " *% "* " $ - M " % %" *% "* + 4 7 +; 3 ) - 6 " 7 ) ;I 3 *% "* ) " *$ J "" *$% J F $ " 7- & I99;I ) *$% * 3 $ "F J # F *% "* !$ + $ "" *$ " % " - " "$ " " " * $% I F% *$" E "$ " " * $% % % 44 % $

7 %" * & % # # ; Q %$ 9D1/R " & & ** *$% "3

0/ J .// ?I ' " * " " *$% " 798/ ?≤ ≤.// ?;3 P $ $ " % " " E %" " 3 - %$ *$% & " % " $ *% "* E + 4 I *% "* $ % * " 44 " " " $ "3 $ % J " " % " - " *$ %" "% " % %& & I 44 3 " " " - # FJ *M* *$% 3 & - " * 9/ ] % $% 7% "(# ; % $% J CI9/9B *. $ "$ I

(a)

(b)

(a)

(b)

>8 & ∆ J *$% * " C "" " %$ $ I & ∆ *$" E "$ τ"4 " D + ) γ τ = ∆ 3 - γ 4 &! * & % # F% I γ " %4 $ γ = !µ 3

P& " 4 % F% 7&≈0;I ' " " "3 - # τ"4 ^ 93>I9/

C "3 J *$% * I % & 44 " λ"4 "$ " " * J *$% * J $ 44 " D D = τ λ P' " 44 44 " I $$ # ' " 4 * % " % " µ F $ (" F " 0 " G µ = - # - " & F% 6 " U* I * % " % " " " * J *$% * " F - 98// *0_{:- m" $ $ 9I9/}98 _*. _{Q U BDRI - "} & 44 " " "$ " F - 1 * "3 J *$% * I

& - (" $ 4 $ & 79/ ] 138I9/9>

*. CI9/9B *.;I "3 * % " % " µ * F 4 0 "

& ** $ & Q U BDR # & 44 " "$ " " *

$ " " * " 2"# F * " 9I9/91 _*._I

%;%

! +

!

!

$

$

!

' " " * $% $3 " % " $ "%" "$ & "" - "

"I *% "* ) - M " & 4 43 "F J * &

44 " "$ I - " % $ F% " 44 % " "

" * $% * " (" $ 3 J "" 3 " " * $% $I $ "

- E Z 6 9D8. QZ 69D8.R3 2 " $ 3 " " * $% $

3 - $ - 8I9/91_{J 8I9/}9C _*._{I ' " % 3 &}

F " $ F - > J 8 "" % % -% J 1C ? $ " E !$ " $ & I

, # # FJ 1C ? " - " & 44 " "$ *$ # # "

>B %;%!

$

$

*% "* ' * " )"3 " $ - " " % & 44 " " "$ "λ"4 7- $ & $ I8I ; E 6 0 ! 0 D 0 D D ? G = 0 G " G = τ µ = τ = λ - " % " # " ,3 E * "" 44 - F% & & $ " * I " # 3 " "3 & 44 " λ"4 %$ $ " * % " % "µ # $ % "$ " J F " "!*% " " I ' " " !$ 3 "F J # *% "* + % - " & " 44 " "$ 3 *% "* ' % E " 7 " "!*% # ; *% "* ) F% *$ # FJ " " F $ "I *% "* + * " )" 3 "F J # *% "* + " * " 44 " " * J " & " 44 " $ " *$ "I 44 3 *$" - "$ τ"4"F% 3 # + * 7- $ & $ I8I ; ) ! ) < ! < D & & τ ε ∆ + ∆ = τ - ) " 3τ* % E " " "" J & * * * G J HG 4 3 ε F% & % # F% I " 44 " F " 3 % # G " E 0 ! < ! < D _{∆ ε} + ∆ µ = λ 5 & % $ " * % " % " " )" *$ % " * 7µ ^ C/// *0_{:- m" $ )"; Q5 DCR3 $ " "" - $ & "$} 7∆ / ^ /3/> $ ∆/^ /3.> $ )"; * % J & $ - * $ " 4 $

" * 7 &^ 9390 $ &^93>. $ )"; *( J " & " 44 " $ "

*$ " $ " * # )"I

# " " *% "* " T E " "$ " 4

*$% $ & " $ " $ 4 * *$ " " " " * "3 "

% " E$% * " * " & " % "$ $ " *$ " #

>1 $ " " * " J "" " *$% " Q %$ 9D1/R3 Q i& DCR3 Q? 66 V DCR3 Q? 66 V DDRI , $ 3 J *$% * 3 " " * " - " & " 44 " F * Q %$ 9D1/RI , %" 4 " * $ F *$ " " "$ # " J " " * $ - 4 J *$% * I - 3 " "$ " 4 "$ # "% " " *3 " $ " - " & F " F 44 " $ * $ "$ " 4 $ & "$ " QZ * V"6 /0RI * $ " 4 " $ "" " " * " *$ * & % # E % $ 3 $ E *$ 3 $ $ " " $ % "" * I , * E " * " 3 " * F 4 F 2 3 J 2 3 # $ - E - " J % F 2 "$ I " " " %" " F % % " " *3 # $ %" J " ! E $ % " & 4 - " * I %C

'

!

!

$

$

' " % 3 ' " I "% "$ " 4 " $$ % G " " J 44 " "$ H Q &&D1R3 Q' "/.R3 Q' "/>R3 Q' "/8S9R3 Q' "/8S0RI / # %; : < ! ! * ! "" ! % :3< ! $ "3 + 3 $ % & $ $$ ! ' $ " # 2 $ 2 ! % ! $ 3 :' $ " # 2 ! <% $$ 2 ! ;B; T $ 23 ! ;; T 4 6C7% , " " 3 " * J " " J 2 $ 3 *$ %* 4 * & % # $ F 2 " % " $ "%" "$ - ( " " *I , " % " - " " " $ 44 " " %" $ " (a) (b) (a) (a) (b)(b) (a) (b) (a) (a) (b)(b)

>C

% 4 * & % # - ( I " %* " " " $ %" % $

& I0I

" " " % "% " " " 7 " ;

-" * 4 !$ $ 4 * $% 7 %" " - % " 91 .. ΩI * #

"$ J $ & 9/9> _{J 9/}98 _*._{; Q' "/>RI " % " 4 * & % # "}

7%* ; " %$ "% " $ $ -% " # " - $ F " * 4I "F & F " - - " " " " J F ( " " I ( . > " "% % " % " " * $ %$ E J "" $ "" I ) " 3 F%* " " 2 " 5: . >: I " " * # *% 4 * & % # U " * 4 * $% 7 5: $% J≈ 9I9/0/ _*._;I " " 4 * %* ** - *$ * & % # $$ # % " $ " " 7$ $ ;I " % " 4 * & % # " F%* % % c " * ( J # *$ 4 7 *$ * F * ; " $ " " # F%* I ) " 3 F $$ F *$ * & % # $ * F - " * " F%* " % $ ( $ ( 3 $ "" % F " - 44 * & % %" " 7 5 ; % - * I 44 3 " F 2 " "% - " "$ 3 "$ " 4 - * & %$ *$ * & % # I , * & % % " % E$% * * Q' "/.R3 Q' "/>R3 Q' "/8S9RI $$ # * ( ( Q ( 18R3 ' " I Q' "/>R3 Q' "/8S9R % $ " "$ 038 ] - $ " * $% $ 9/ ] - $ " * $% 3 J *$% * I - E$% * $ " "$ " $ " "" # - % # # " F - >/ ] $ *% 4 * & % # # , I , $ "F E$ # $ " *% "* " "$ J - " ( . >I 44 3 "$ $ ( $ *% "* G " H 7G $$ & H; " " %4 " " ( $ " 4 " - " " $$ # % $ 7 !$ V *; J $ " " " "I $ * %& * "" " % $ %4 " $ % $ " "$ Q5 DCRI 'F "3 " & 5 F " " -% " %& * I ) $ " " " "3 $ "F J # %& * 3 # * 3 L %& " & 5 I , " %" " " & " " " * * 9: # " % " $ "%" $ - M 2 %" %" J - " ( " " * \ 0: # F "

>D $ "" * % " " " " * $% $ " " # # " * " 7%& J "%$ %* ;I , $ 3 - " & % "" % F - " ( " # % 7 " *% "* " -" %4 ";I %I

/ 3

! 3

>

$

$& '

!

!

$

!

)4 F 2 44 * " % " $ "%" "$ " " * 3 F 2 "$ " $ %4% J 2 " " * Q " //R3 Q * /9R3 Q /9RI , $ 3 % "" 4 ( " # % # $ %" $ "3 " " " ( " (" * "3 G $ " H Q & "/0R3 Q &&/.RI " " " F 44 % F 2 4 E ( " 3 0 )0 .3 # " - " " F " $ "$ " 4 " I ! _; ' ! I Q' !DCR $$ % " $ $ % %" "$ 3 * & % # " * " 7, : 0;I , " * " " " % " " $ " , !% " " * 0 * $ %$ "% $ $ -% " # 7-& I.;I F%$ "" " " , - 98 J 08 J ₀ .8 J 8/ JI " $ $ % %" " $ 7, ; $ $ $ 7, ; " % % "I " & * & % %" " " % % " " E 4 & "3 , , I , " & " $ % % * %$ "$ " $ " , J - " 0 * $ I " # " " *$ " 08/ .8/ Y, " * $ " % / # %C !& + $ !& $ ! : = ;<% $ # $$ ! ! * + $ 4 @5P7%

8/ F E! "%-( E 4 " , : 0I " & * & % %" " 75 ; " # # " ] J *$% * I , " %" & # * - F% F 2 F% " $ "%" F % 4 * & % # J - " E! 0 " " *I " "$ " 4" " 3 $ % $ ( 0 * # 3 "" " 4 J $ " * " * "$ ( F E!&( I , E! " $ M (" # %3 % "% 4 c " " & ,5 I ! $; C " ( " F)0 . " "% " 4 c " " " 2 " * & % # " 75 ;I , " ( " $ * F 2 " "$ " F %

4 * & % # - " % 4 * & % # F " * & % %" " "

7 5 ; $ " 8/ ] J *$% * Q " /0RI *% &% % $ 4 # " ( " " " J %$ " F * * $ " J F E! I , $ 3 " 44 "4% *% $ 4 # " ( " F)0 ." " *I 44 3 F) 44 " " " *I $ - E$% * F 44 " % % $$ % $ " % " 5 " $ # J "* "" 7 5; ** " % $ & I> Q' "/8S0RI - * 44 " F) F " " *I " $ "" $ " * $ (* " F " " E! " 5 * ? F)_{0 .} %$ "%" $ ) * ! ' $ " 7) '; -4 0 % % * # * " " * Q, &/.RI " %$ "" " > * F)0 . ) ' " /31 * 03 % % * % # " % " - " ( $ *% "* V * # # # ( " # %I # # " " " 3 $ % $ F " " ( " I / # %I # 3 + : $ #@ @< !& !& $; C % + $ B $ # $& $B $ 3$ $& 4 6KU;7%

89 %K

"

Q & "/0R I I & "3 ,I I ' "3 I I &&3 I & 3 ?I 2 3 I 23 I 5I

*$" 3 5I I 3 , *$ - " ! 4 "$ 2 * " " * "3 I !"I ' )$$ I !"I .83 9CB 9D9 70//0; Q //R )I 3 5 & % % # " " "$ " 4" J " * "3 ) I !"I I 08 79;3 9 91B 70///; Q, - "" "/9R I , - "" "3 I ) 3 ?I 2 3 I " * 3 &! " 4 )" ) "$"mG⋅ * 3 !"I -I B>3 9980/1 70//9;

Q, &/.R +I , &3 % " * % E % # " & J 4

$ * - % $ " & " ,5 * "3 (" F " " "

)$$ # % " ! 3 0//.

Q' "/.R ,I I ' "3 ,I " 6 3 I I " 3 I I &&3 I 5I *$" 3 & & " " "$ " " 3 I !"I ' )$$ I !"I .B3 C9 C1 70//.;

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

80

Q &&/.R I I &&3 I I & "3 I & 3 ,I I ' "3 I 23 I 5I *$" 3 ?I

2 3 $ 2 44 ! "$ - "3 I 5 & I 5 & I 5 I 0B83 01>

0CD 70//.;

Q i& DCR 'I i& 3 5I " 3 ZI ZI h 3 $ "$ )"3 )$$ I !"I I 1. 799;3 98C/ 79DDC;

Q ( 18R 5I ( 3 & V 4 * & 4 *"3 !"I I 8>)3 008 79D18;

Q? 66 V DCR I 5I ? 66 V 3 'I'I )V" *3 " $ )*$ 4 !$ )"3

!"I -I I C/ 79D;3 >.9. 79DDC;

Q? 66 V DDR I5I ? 66 V 'I'I )V" *3 & 4 "$ & *

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j "3 I3 V + 63 9DBD Q " /0R 5I " 3 ?I " 6 V 3 I & 3 5I 6 " 3 B/ ] * & " " * *$ , :) :, 2 " E U V ? 0 $ "* 3 )$$ I !"I I C/ 791;3 .9.8 70//0; QZ * V"6 /0R AI Z * V"6 3 ZI " 3 I 5 "" 3 I ["" 3 - - 4 ! 6 - " 44 : : # * V "3 !"I -I BB3 9D8.98 70//0; QZ 69D8.R I ?I Z 6 I * & 3 * & " !$ 3 !"I -I D93 90C9 79D8.;

8.

,

&

,

/

,

&

V,

&

W

,

%.

!

, * )"3 " * $ %" $ " & $ I "%# 3 " *% " $ # " # % % %- $$% " $ " " * " $ - $ " M "% " $ % " $ % *( " %" "$ " " *I 44 3 F $ # " " * 7$ % *( # " " J % " % " $ "%" " $ * ( $ "% * ; *$ % E " * " " (" $ 44 I " $ " " "$ " " 4% " J 9 ] Q *$ BCRI %" $ * & % # % # 7 ; $ * " F% " % " - " "$ " " " *I , $ 3 ( $ * $ " %* $ % *( F 2 "$ " " *I ) * 3 " "$ " 4 " ' " I Q' "/.R3 Q' "/>R3 Q' "/8R " * - * % 2 44 " "$ " " *3 * " " %- $ - %" " "# F * " % "

4 * & % # " $ "" F 4 & $ ( J 4 & $ ( I

/ # %. : < ! ! ! " % :3< $ $ ! " # ! $& ' ! $$ + ! 9 " ! "" % X ! $ ! " # ( )$ *$X ! !X $ # ! + *# # $ $ : < * $& ! !& # 9 $ $ ! " # ! ! ! "" # Y * $& ! " :3<% '()*+),- .+)*+),- /00)*+),-101*1,2 13')4)*/,-5'+

(a)

(b)

< 0 = < 0 ≠ < = < 0 ≠ 0 '()*+),- .+)*+),- /00)*+),-101*1,2 13')4)*/,-5'+

(a)

(b)

< 0 = < 0 ≠ < = < 0 ≠ < 0 = < 0 ≠ < = < 0 ≠ 0

8> & I97 ; * " %* $ $ "$ " 4 " # " - " 4 # % % % $ F% F 2 F% " $ "%" "$ " " *I " % -% " " J "$ $ $ "% $ ' ' " Q' D/RI *$ 2 F% " $ "%" "$ 3 " * $ * $ $ & " % " $ "%" "$ - " F% " "% 4 "$ I F 2 " " 2 " !$ 5% * & % # : " : 7 5 ;I " E % " " %4 " $ F - "

* " " E % " 4 * & % # "I n* n% 4 * & % #

n 2 $ M T% " J n n & " - J

&% % *$ * & % # 7- & I97 ;; " J F F *$ * & % #

E % " " % " 4 * & % # " n 2 " *$" 4" 7 * ; 44% " " & O J F " $ 4 * 7- & I97 ;;I " 3 " " $ %" F "$ " 43 F L * & # $ * " % " 3 " # " $ (* " & # " %" " " 4 I %;

! !

"

" " *$ Figure III.1$ %" E " M M I "%# 3 $ $ " $ "" F 2 I " - " " F " !$ " " $ $ " % # * F 2 "$ " " *I & I0 " %* % % "$ " 4 " I F " * # " 7 " ; $ * %& "%$ %* F 2 % I $ 4 " U " *$ % " ` ` _{" $ " " 9// * 7 - .//} *;I $ 4 U *$ % " " " F - ./ *I " *$ 4 3 ** G "" H " *$ " " 4 ` `_I F $$ F " %& - " F 2 $ * F 2 " % " $ "%" "$ " " * $% $I " $$ # % " " $ " - 4 " % " J $ " * $% I " 7 "" `<sub>; $ * * J * "" " " " * $% $I</sub> 7 "" `_{; $ * F%- " % " - "$ $$ "% J F * I} " 3 " % " - G * - " H "$ "F * " " I )$ ("

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ll/ 4 c J " $ " %& * F - " I , " "$ J F% " (" " " * # & 2 I '()*+),-6 6 /00)*+),--51' 758) ,98+-5+ .+50 :)--/253'.+1;,) <=4)+,'')0 2>05'+5+1/' 2>05'+5+1/' 6_{?*/'+5*+/@21;,)} 2>05'+5+1/' 6_{?*/'+5*+/@21;,)} '()*+),- /00)*+),- '()*+),-6 6 /00)*+),--51' 758) ,98+-5+ .+50 :)--/253'.+1;,) <=4)+,'')0 2>05'+5+1/' 2>05'+5+1/' 6_{?*/'+5*+/@21;,)} 2>05'+5+1/' 6_{?*/'+5*+/@21;,)} '()*+),-