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Energy conservation technology in housing
Handegord, G. O.
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'1 d National Research Conseil national
1 0 8 1 . Council Canada de recherches Canada
c , 2 I
ENERGY
CONSERVATION
TECHNOLOGY
IN
HOUSIN(
,-,,dared In
Proceedings, "Building Toward 2001
"
.Toronto, November 1 4, 1981
p. 70 * 73
Reprinted with permission of
Ontario Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Mousivn
DBR
Divis ion of E
Paper I.
".
I v uluilding Researc
This publication i e one of a s e r i e s of reports prcduced by the Divj sian o f Building R e ~ e a r c h , National R e s earch Council of
Canada. N o abridgement of this repar t may b e publia h d with- out t h e written anthority of the Division. Extract8 m a y he pub- l i s h e d f o r p u r p o s e s of r evicw only.
l i e s ai this and other publieatfone of the Division I-y be ob- ledbymailing theappropriate rernittance(a Rank, Express* Post Oflice Money Order, or a cheque, made p a y a b l e to Ihe -.-:eiver General of Canada, credit NRC) t o the Publications
Section, Division of Building Research, Council of Canada, Ottawa. KIA OR&. Stan able. A l i s t of the publica f r o m the Publicati tione of ana s e c t .C ie ava le Divisi Na tiona IPS are 1 Resea not acce on rcque
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA DIVISION OF BUILDING RESEARCH
ENERGY CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGY IN HOUSING by
G.O. Handegord
ANALYZED
DBR Paper No. 1081 of the
Division of Building Research
ENERGY CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGY
IN
NEW HOUSING by G.O. HandegordABSTRACT
Methods for improving the thermal characteristics and airtightness of the house envelope and basement are outlined, with some examples of features that will affect actual performance. The factors that influence ventilation rates are discussed including the effect of fans and chimneys on the air pressure differences and direction of air leakage through the
house walls and ceilings.
An
understanding, by all concerned, of theinteractions between the house enclosure, the equipment and services installed and the occupancy pattern is suggested as the best route toward energy conservation.
Des mbthodes pour amgliorer les caractbristiques thermiques et
lvbtanch6it6 B l'air de l'enveloppe et du sous-sol des maisons sont
prgsentbes, avec des exemples de particularitgs qui pourront modifier la performance r6elle. Les facteurs qui influencent le dbbit de
renouvellement d'air sont discutgs, y compris l'effet des ventilateurs et des chemindes sur les diff6rences de pression d'air et la direction
dt6coulement d'air au travers les murs et les plafonds des maisons. Une
bonne comprdhension de l'interaction entre l'enceinte de la maison,
116quipement et les services qui y sont installbs et les habitudes des
occupants est consid6rbe comme essentielle pour la conservation de l'bnergie.
ENERGY CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGY I N HOUSING by
G.O. Handegord
The amount of energy r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n an a c c e p t a b l e environment i n houses i s determined by t h r e e d i f f e r e n t b u t i n t e r a c t i v e components of t h e system:
1. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e b u i l d i n g e n c l o s u r e and t h e i n t e r n a l p a r t i t i o n s f l o o r s and compartments t h a t make up t h e b u i l d i n g ;
2. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e energy producing, t r a n s f e r ,
d i s t r i b u t i o n and c o n t r o l elements t h a t make up t h e equipment and s e r v i c e s of t h e b u i l d i n g ;
3. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e occupancy and method of u s e and o p e r a t i o n of t h e b u i l d i n g and i t s equipment.
The tendency h a s been t o a d d r e s s each of t h e s e components s e p a r a t e l y and t o develop g u i d e l i n e s o r norms t h a t o v e r s i m p l i f y t h e a c t u a l
s i t u a t i o n .
C o n s t r u c t i o n i s a t r a d i t i o n based i n d u s t r y , i.e., t h e i n c l i n a t i o n i s t o do t h i n g s t h e way they were done i n t h e p a s t , because they worked. I f we do not understand why t h i n g s work, o r how they i n t e r r e l a t e , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t what w i l l happen i f w e change some p a r t of t h e system. Every e f f o r t should t h u s be made t o u t i l i z e t h e e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e p a s t i f only t o s o r t o u t what i s known and what i s not.
TEE
BUILDIN6 ENVELOPEThe d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e w a l l s , f l o o r s , r o o f s and windows t h a t make up a house envelope o f f e r one b a s i c means t o c o n t r o l t h e energy r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n a s a t i s f a c t o r y environment w i t h i n t h e house. Heat t r a n s m i s s i o n through t h e opaque elements i s p r i m a r i l y c o n t r o l l e d by i n s u l a t i o n : t h e t h i c k e r t h e i n s u l a t i o n t h e lower t h e r a t e of h e a t l o s s o r gain.
Thicker i n s u l a t i o n can be achieved e i t h e r by c r e a t i n g a s t r u c t u r a l l y supported s p a c e f o r n o n - s t r u c t u r a l i n s u l a t i o n , o r by i n c o r p o r a t i n g s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g r i g i d i n s u l a t i o n boards on t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e .
I n Canada, wood-frame i s t h e primary c o n s t r u c t i o n method used f o r low-rise r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s ; i t h a s t h e i n h e r e n t advantage of
In wood-frame roofs incorporating an attic space, no practical
restriction on insulation thickness is encountered. Flat wood-frame roof construction and some cathedral-type roofs, however, impose a practical limit on insulation thickness.
One accepted method of providing additional insulation for wood- frame walls has been the use of insulated sheathing boards of foamed plastic, mineral fibre or wood fibre. An incremental insulation increase might also be achieved by using similar rigid insulating materials as backer boards for metal or plastic outside cladding. It is difficult to secure these materials to the structural frame without significantly affecting the overall thermal resistance if high thermal conductivity fasteners, like nails, are used. A reduction in the number of nails or failure to anchor them suitably can cause difficulties. Other problems can arise from the unintentional imbedment of the projections of self- furring stucco reinforcement in soft sheathing materials resulting in inadequate keying of the stucco base coat.
In some regions of Canada, nominal 38 x
140
mm framing members are used to allow an increased thickness of thermal insulation in walls. The framing members, which extend directly through the insulation, may,however, constitute a significant thermal bridge. In addition, the increased thickness of low density insulation may promote convection within the material and a decrease in its overall thermal resistance,
particularly if it does not completely fill the space.
Double stud wall construction, staggered stud wall construction, trussed studs or cross-framing with furring strips are other methods that have been employed to increase the thickness of the space for thermal insulation.
There are some difficulties in accurately estimating the true thermal resistance of these new constructions but experimental work is underway to determine applicable values and to improve understanding of the transfer mechanisms and relationships involved.
INSULBR#6
BASEMENT WALLS
The emphasis on improving the thermal resistance of the frame superstructure has often meant that the question of insulating basement walls is ignored. Clearly, the portion above grade should have a thermal
resistance at least equivalent to that of the superstructure. Where the basement is to extend some distance above grade, preserved wood
foundations seem to be advantageous as they provide the space for both insulation and structural continuity for lateral loads between the basement floor and first floor levels. Concrete or masonry foundation walls are best insulated on the exterior to avoid undesirable lateral conduction vertically and convective effects in hollow masonry.
It may be difficult to predict subsurface heat losses accurately because of the variable influences of groundwater, soil type and moisture
c o n t e n t , snow cover and t h e l o c a t i o n of a d j a c e n t b u i l d i n g s . These determine t h e o u t s i d e environment of t h e basement i n a r a t h e r
u n p r e d i c t a b l e way. A t p r e s e n t , i t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o suggest t h a t
belaw-grade masonry w a l l s should be i n s u l a t e d down t h e i r f u l l h e i g h t ,
p r e f e r a b l y on t h e o u t s i d e . This could be achieved by u s i n g e i t h e r a
c l o s e d c e l l foam p l a s t i c i n s u l a t i o n t h a t i s w a t e r r e s i s t a n t o r a d r a i n i n g
t y p e , such a s m i n e r a l f i b r e . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e performance of t h e s e
m a t e r i a l s a r e underway i n s e v e r a l l o c a t i o n s a c r o s s Canada.
A two-stage approach t o i n s u l a t i n g basements h a s been suggested
whereby some i n s u l a t i o n i s i n c o r p o r a t e d on t h e e x t e r i o r of basement w a l l s
d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n when i t i s e a s i e r t o i n s t a l l . The owner o r occupant
c a n subsequently upgrade t h e i n s u l a t i o n on t h e i n s i d e i n accordance w i t h h i s needs.
It may a l s o be p e r t i n e n t t o c o n s i d e r a d d i t i o n a l i n s u l a t i o n extending outward from t h e f o u n d a t i o n w a l l a t o r n e a r t h e ground s u r f a c e t o p r e v e n t f r o s t a c t i o n on t h e foundation w h i l e reducing f u r t h e r t h e h e a t l o s s from t h e basement.
The u s e of l i g h t metal framing i n s t e a d of wood i n basement l o c a t i o n s
may a l s o have advantages. Metal framing may a l s o be a p p r o p r i a t e i n
above-grade c o n s t r u c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n non-loadbearing a p p l i c a t i o n s such a s f u r r i n g on e x t e r i o r w a l l s and f o r t h e framing of non-loadbearing i n t e r i o r p a r t i t i o n s .
The e x t e r i o r c o l o u r of t h e opaque p o r t i o n s of t h e e n c l o s u r e can
i n £ luence t h e r a d i a n t h e a t exchange w i t h t h e o u t s i d e environment. S o l a r
r a d i a t i o n absorbed by t h e c l a d d i n g w i l l r a i s e i t s temperature and change
t h e r a t e of h e a t t r a n s f e r through t h e element. A t n i g h t , r a d i a t i o n of
t h e e x t e r i o r s u r f a c e t o t h e c l e a r sky w i l l lower t h e s u r f a c e temperature
and i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e of h e a t t r a n s f e r through t h e element. These
e f f e c t s , however, w i l l become l e s s and l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t a s t h e t o t a l
thermal r e s i s t a n c e of t h e element i s increased.
S o l a r r a d i a t i o n i s of g r e a t e s t importance i n h e a t t r a n s f e r through
t r a n s p a r e n t elements (windms and s k y l i g h t s ) . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e
s u r f a c e s i n m u l t i p l e - g l a z i n g u n i t s can a l s o a f f e c t b o t h s o l a r g a i n and h e a t l o s s through t h e element.
Windows o f f e r t h e main s o u r c e of s o l a r h e a t ; t h e y a r e a n advantage
i n w i n t e r and a disadvantage i n summer. Simple s h a d i n g d e v i c e s on south-
f a c i n g windows can maximize t h e h e a t g a i n i n w i n t e r and minimize i t i n
summer.
For houses i n most p a r t s of Canada, double-glazed o r t r i p l e - g l a z e d windms f a c i n g s o u t h o f f e r a n e t h e a t g a i n i n w i n t e r when c o n s i d e r e d on a
providing added insulation to windows at night. Automatic or manually controlled insulating or shading devices may thus be desirable or even required to avoid unnecessary overheating in mild weather for houses with a low transmission heat loss.
It should be recognized that such devices are operational features and the energy savings that result will depend not only on their thermal characteristics but on the way they are controlled by the occupant. A
similar relationship exists between the air leakage of the building envelope and the method of operation of the house and its equipment.
AIBTIGE'JWESS
OF
TEE
BUILDING EEVRLOPEBoth the double wall arrangements, such as those used in Saskatchewan, and the furring method of the HUDAC Mark XI project, attempt to improve the airtightness of the envelope by placing a polyethylene barrier at a location where it is not likely to be
penetrated by electrical services. Double wall constructions used in Saskatchewan also provide continuity of an air barrier on the warm side of the insulation at floor intersections. In the HUDAC Mark XI, air barrier continuity was similarly maintained but the membrane barrier is outward of the bulk of the insulation at floor joist intersections.
A number of studies have undertaken to determine where unintentional leakage openings occur. Many are found where services, such as
electrical components, wiring, plumbing and duct work, penetrate the exterior enclosure elements. Another major leakage opening occurs at cracks that develop because of the shrinkage of wood framing members where floors and interior partitions intersect with walls and ceilings. The floors and interior partitions in a house are essentially flues which
can connect the interior to the cold exterior spaces in walls and attics.
In an effort to cover these shrinkage cracks, Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation has required that polyethylene barriers be carried over the tops of partitions in upper storeys and around the intersections with exterior walls.
Airtightness of upper ceilings and exterior walls might also be more easily achieved with trussed roof construction if the interior gypsum board or air barrier were applied before the interior partitions are erected. Unfortunately, such techniques, or others that involve changes in established construction methods or sequences, are often rejected without due consideration of their technical and economic advantages.
Most current approaches to improved airtightness attempt to use polyethylene film as a combined air and vapour barrier without always recognizing some inherent disadvantages in the combination, both in application and performance.
The i d e a of u s i n g t h e i n t e r i o r f i n i s h a s t h e a i r b a r r i e r was t r i e d i n t h e HUDAC Mark V I I P r o j e c t i n Vancouver i n 1970. A method t h a t
follows t h e same p r i n c i p l e and a t t e m p t s t o provide c o n t i n u i t y through f l o o r and w a l l i n t e r s e c t i o n s u s i n g e x t e r i o r g r a d e plywood i s now being considered a s an a l t e r n a t i v e .
There i s a l s o some j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r r e a s s e s s i n g t h e p r a c t i c e s of i n s t a l l i n g e l e c t r i c a l w i r i n g i n houses, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of e l e c t r i c f i x t u r e s i n t h e c e i l i n g and w i r i n g through t h e a t t i c space. The d e s i r e f o r concealed w i r i n g i n t h e s e e x t e r i o r e n c l o s u r e elements c a n r e s u l t i n many openings i n t h e a i r b a r r i e r . I f s u r f a c e mounted f i x t u r e s could be used and s u r f a c e w i r i n g accepted, a marked improvement i n t h e a i r t i g h t n e s s of t h e envelope might w e l l be achieved.
One of t h e most comon o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s t o d a t e h a s been t h e d i r e c t l i n k i n g of e n c l o s u r e a i r t i g h t n e s s w i t h a i r exchange r a t e , v e n t i l a t i o n and a i r q u a l i t y . Statements t h a t houses have become much t i g h t e r i n r e c e n t y e a r s owing t o t h e i n c r e a s e d u s e o r t h i c k n e s s of i n s u l a t i o n a r e n o t t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y sound nor a r e t h e y borne o u t by measurements t h a t have been made. Published v a l u e s s u g g e s t t h a t
e n c l o s u r e t i g h t n e s s , on t h e average, h a s remained about t h e same s i n c e 1946 and d i f f e r e n c e s a r e r e l a t e d more t o t h e t y p e of house o r l o c a t i o n . The average t o t a l leakage a r e a f o r t h e e n c l o s u r e based on p r e s s u r i z a t i o n o r e v a c u a t i o n tests h a s been i n t h e o r d e r of 0.08 t o 0.1 square metres.
The r a t e and d i r e c t i o n of a i r leakage through t h e s e c r a c k s and h o l e s c a n depend on t h e i r l o c a t i o n and more p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e d i r e c t i o n and magnitude of t h e a i r p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s them c r e a t e d by n a t u r a l f o r c e s such a s s t a c k e f f e c t and wind and by t h e a c t i o n of chimneys, f a n s and blowers. The most s i g n i f i c a n t and perhaps l e a s t recognized i s t h e e f f e c t of t h e chimney and t h e d r a f t c o n t r o l systems employed w i t h conventional f u e l - f i r e d furnaces.
An o p e r a t i n g chimney a c t s a s an exhaust fan. The h o t g a s e s i n t h e chimney a r e l i g h t and less dense t h a n t h e g a s e s i n t h e house o r o u t s i d e and tend t o r i s e c r e a t i n g a n e g a t i v e p r e s s u r e o r d r a f t . This d r a f t draws i n a i r through t h e b u r n e r and a l s o through a b a r o m e t r i c damper i n o i l - f i r e d systems o r a d r a f t d i v e r t e r i n g a s - f i r e d systems, each of which s e r v e s t o c o n t r o l t h e l e v e l of d r a f t o v e r t h e f i r e .
An o p e r a t i n g chimney w i l l exhaust a i r a t a r a t e of perhaps 40
l i t r e s p e r second o r more. T h i s can draw i n o u t s i d e a i r through
-
a l l openings i n an e n c l o s u r e , i n c l u d i n g t h e c e i l i n g , and may even c o u n t e r a c t t h e e f f e c t of outward movement of a i r through w a l l s on t h e leeward s i d e of t h e house.I n a house w i t h no o p e r a t i n g chimney, e.g., an e l e c t r i c a l l y heated house, t h e p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s t h e envelope are q u i t e d i f f e r e n t and only some a£ t h e leakage openings will be involved as air inlets,
As
has been observed, t h e a c t u a l air exchange r a t e in e l e c t r i c a l l y heated
houses is lower t h a n i n f u e l - f i r e d houses not because t h e y a r e any
t i g h t e r , but because they have no o p e r a t i n g chimney.
The excess volume of a i r exhausted up the chimney f o r d r a f t control
purposes i n conventional furnaces and b o i l e r s is reduced o r e l i m i n a t e d i n high-efficiency o r condensing-type fuel-burning appliances. Both of
these systems
will
normally u s e induced d r a f t fans and much less a i rwill
be exhausted through them than i n t r a d i t i o n a l systems. The operational c h a r a c t e r i s t f c s of t h e house w i l l t h e r e f o r e be closer t o t h o s e of
an
e l e c t r i c a l l y heated house, not j u s t because they have improved combustion
e f f i c i e n c i e s , but because they a r e n o t exhausting an added amount of
a i r
t h a t has already been heated t o the indoor temperature.
It should be appreciated t h a t conventional f u e l - f i r e d systems have provlded a form of v e n t i l a t i o n system whereby fresh a i r l e a k s inward through openings i n t h e b u i l d i n g enclosure and i s exhausted w i t h t h e
products of combustion up t h e chimney. It h a s n o t been thought of t h i s
way, but rather lumped i n t o t h e so-called "seasonal e f f i c i e n c y " of t h e h e a t i n g u n i t .
Since 1950, i n many houses on t h e P r a i r i e s and i n t h e A t l a n t i c
Provinces, o u t s i d e af r h a s been provided through a n i n s u l a t e d , dampered
outside a i r duct t o the r e t u r n a i r system t o c o n t r o l the r a t e of o u t s i d e
a i r upp ply t o t h e
house
and allow f o r t h e h e a t i n g and uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of the fresha i r
t o t h e v a r i o u s rooms.AIRTIGETHESS, VERTILATIOE
AND
AIR
QUALITYMeasurements made using tracer gas techniques o r i n f e r r e d from humidity levels i n houses i n d i c a t e t h a t
on
average a v e n t i l a t i o n r a t e of about one half an air change p e r hour was provided by this simple system. The o u t s i d ea i r
i n t a k e adjustment was used e f f e c t i v e l y as a means t o allow the occupant t o adjust t h e ventilation r a t et o
c o n t r o l humidity l e v e l s i n t h e house.This rate of v e n t i l a t i o n i s about equal t o t h a t now being
recommended f o r r e s i d e n t i a l occupancies i n t h e ASHRAE s t a n d a r d 62-1981, "Ventilation f o r Acceptable Indoor Air Quality". I f this r e p r e s e n t s a
current o b j e c t i v e , a s u b s t i t u t e system i s required for houses t h a t have
no o p e r a t i n g chimney, a system that i n c o r p o r a t e s a means f o r h e a t
recovery t h a t was n o t possible i n t h e simple systems of t h e past.
One system being developed uses an exhaust f a n and recovers h e a t
from the exhaust air u t i l i z i n g a small h e a t pump. A slmple a i r i n l e t can
augment any leakage openings i n t h e e x t e r f o r envelope t o provide t h e f r e s h a i r i n l e t s a s l o n g as the a i r flawing i n does n o t a f f e c t t h e
comfort c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e space o r p i c k up any contaminants t h a t might be i n t h e e x t e r i o r e n c l o s u r e o r i n t h e o u t s i d e a i r .
Air-to-air h e a t exchangers, however, r e q u i r e t h a t t h e house
e n c l o s u r e be t i g h t i n o r d e r f o r t h e a i r coming i n t o t h e house and t h e a i r being exhausted t o be brought t o g e t h e r s o t h a t h e a t can be exchanged between them. The i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s should be recognized b e f o r e promoting t h e u s e of an a i r - t o - a i r h e a t exchanger i n a house t h a t cannot be made t i g h t o r where a c o n v e n t i o n a l f u e l - f i r e d f u r n a c e i s i n operation.
There a r e means o t h e r than v e n t i l a t i o n t h a t can be used t o c o n t r o l t h e l e v e l s of contaminants, i n c l u d i n g moisture. These o f t e n i n v o l v e a b s o r p t i o n o r d e h u m i d i f i c a t i o n d e v i c e s t h a t can provide means f o r h e a t recovery.
It i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r t h e source of contaminants i n a b u i l d i n g and t o recognize t h a t c a p t u r e and exhaust a t s o u r c e may be most e f f e c t i v e . P r e s s u r i z a t i o n of a b u i l d i n g t o c o n t r o l t h e flow of
contaminants t h a t e x i s t i n t h e e x t e r i o r e n c l o s u r e may be e f f e c t i v e , b u t may a l s o be i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h o t h e r requirements.
I n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , i t i s t h e occupant who determines how t h e house i s o p e r a t e d and what v e n t i l a t i o n r a t e , s o l a r g a i n , i n t e r n a l energy i n p u t and equipment o p e r a t i n g schedule a r e followed. About a l l t h e d e s i g n e r , developer, b u i l d e r and r e g u l a t o r y o f f i c i a l can do i s t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e house can be operated t o meet some energy u s e requirement under a s p e c i f i e d o p e r a t i o n a l schedule.
I f our o b j e c t i v e i s t o conserve energy, a l l of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s must understand t h e s u b j e c t thoroughly s o they can make t h o u g h t f u l judgments a s t o t h e t e c h n i c a l and economic i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e i r i d e a s .
A Webster d e f i n i t i o n of technology i s " t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of
knowledge". W e a l l n o t only need t o know more, we a l s o have t o apply our knowledge, t o understand e x i s t i n g systems, t o develop new systems and methods and perhaps most important of a l l , t o f a i r l y a s s e s s , e v a l u a t e and communicate i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e performance of systems i n t h e r e a l world.
Each house i s d i f f e r e n t and i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s p e c i f i c occupancy -
p a t t e r n . It would be p r e f e r a b l e t o c o n c e n t r a t e on determining t h e reasons f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n i n f i e l d performance r a t h e r t h a n t r y i n g t o b r i n g a complex, i n t e r r e l a t e d set of systems t o some common denominator f o r t h e sake of s i m p l i c i t y and uniformity.
1. Handegord, G.O. Thermal performance of frame walls, Part I11
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Wall surface temperatures. Transactions, American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, Vol. 63, 1957, pp. 331-346.2. Wilson, A.G., Air Leakage in Buildings, National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Canadian Building Digest No. 23, Ottawa 1961.
3. Hutcheon, N.B., Requirements for Exterior Walls, National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Canadian Building Digest No. 48, Ottawa 1963.
4. Wilson, A.G. and Garden, G.K. Moisture accumulation in walls due to
air leakage. In: RILEMICIB Symposium on Moisture Problems in
Buildings, ~ 0 1 7 1 , Helsinki 1965, Paper 2-9. Reprinted as
NRC 9131.
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on two occupied houses. Transactions, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers, Vol. 70, 1964,
pp 110-119. Reprinted as NRC 7758.
6. Wilson, A.G.
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Thermal Characteristics of Double Windows. NationalResearch Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Canadian Building Digest No. 58, Ottawa 1964.
7. Kent, A.D., Handegord, G.O. and Robson, D.R. A Study of Humidity
Variations in Canadian Houses. ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 73, Part 11, 1966, p. 11, 1.1-11, 1.8.
8. Wolf, S., Solvason, K.R. and Wilson, A.G. Convective air flow
effects with mineral wool insulation in wood frame walls.
Transactions. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
conditioningS~ngineers, Vol. ?2, Part 11;-1966,
pp.
111.3.1-111.3.8.Reprinted as NRC 9649.
9. Sasaki, J.R. Field study of thermal performance of exterior steel
frame walls. Specification associate, Vol. 13, No. 6, 1971, pp. 21-35. Reprinted as NRCC 12443.
10. Tamura, G.T., Kuester, G.H. and Handegord, G.O. Condensation
roblems in flat wood-frame roofs. In: CIBIRILEM 2nd International
:ymposium on Moisture Problems in ~ u x d i n ~ s . Vol. I, Rotterdam
1974, Paper 2.6.2. Reprinted as NRCC 14589.
11. Tamura, G.T. Measurement of air leakage characteristics of house
enclosures. Transactions, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers, Vol. 81, Part I, 1975, pp. 202-211. Reprinted as NRCC 14950.
12. Plewes, W.G. Upward Deflection of Wood Trusses in Winter. National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Building Research Note No. 107, Ottawa 1976.
13. Quirouette, R.L. Energy Conservation and Building Design. National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Building - -
Research Note No. 110, Ottawa 1976.
14. Mitalas, G.P. Net Annual Heat Loss Factor Method for Estimating Heat Requirements of Buildings. National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Building Research Note No. 117, Ottawa 1976.
15. Handegord, G.O. The need for improved airtightness in buildings. Presented at Engineering Foundation Conference on Ventilation vs Energy Conservation in Buildings, Henniker, N.H., July 1977.
National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Building Research Note No. 151, Ottawa 1979.
16. Quirouette, R.L. The Mark XI energy research project
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Design and construction. National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Building Research Note No. 131, Ottawa 1978. 17. Shirtliffe, C.J. Polyurethane Foam as a Thermal Insulation:A
Critical Examination. National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Building Research Note No. 124, Ottawa 1978.
18.
Mitalas, G.P. Relation between Thermal Resistance and Heat Stora~e in Building Enclosure. National Research Council of Canada,Division of Building Research, Building Research Note No. 126, Ottawa 1979.
19. Beach, R.K. Relative Tightness of New Housing in the Ottawa Area. National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Building Research Note No. 149, Ottawa 1979.
20. Quirouette, R.L. Insulated Window Shutters. National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Building Practice Note No. 17, Ottawa 1980.
21. Bomberg, M. and Solvason, K.R. How to Ensure Good Thermal Performance of Blown Mineral Fibre Insulation in Horizontal and Vertical Installations. National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Building Research Note No. 167, Ottawa 1980.
22. Bomberg,
M.
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