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Fairness in MIMD Congestion Control Algorithms

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HAL Id: inria-00070688

https://hal.inria.fr/inria-00070688

Submitted on 19 May 2006

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Fairness in MIMD Congestion Control Algorithms

Eitan Altman, Konstantin Avrachenkov, Balakrishna Prabhu

To cite this version:

Eitan Altman, Konstantin Avrachenkov, Balakrishna Prabhu. Fairness in MIMD Congestion Control

Algorithms. [Research Report] RR-5312, INRIA. 2004, pp.29. �inria-00070688�

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ISRN INRIA/RR--5312--FR+ENG

a p p o r t

d e r e c h e r c h e

Thème COM

INSTITUT NATIONAL DE RECHERCHE EN INFORMATIQUE ET EN AUTOMATIQUE

Fairness in MIMD Congestion Control Algorithms

E. Altman — K. E. Avrachenkov — B. J. Prabhu

N° 5312

Septembre 2004

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(22)

Á Á Á Á

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

0 50 100 150 200

Window size

Time(s) RTT 2 RTT 3

synchronized losses MIMD 1

MIMD 2 MIMD 3 MIMD 4 MIMD 5 MIMD 6 MIMD 7 MIMD 8 MIMD 9

kV6

q Wi

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Window size

Time(s) RTT 2

RTT 3 MIMD 1

MIMD 2 MIMD 3 MIMD 4 MIMD 5 MIMD 6 MIMD 7 MIMD 8 MIMD 9

k

Qcq

WiW W W i

0 100 200 300 400 500 600

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Window size

Time(s) MIMD 1

MIMD 2 MIMD 3 MIMD 4 MIMD 5 MIMD 6 MIMD 7 MIMD 8 MIMD 9

kVp

q WiW W W i

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