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DijrtOPtn.lIt AND nSTING 01 AN'ilfSTRUCtI ONAt.

PACKAGE TOTEACH TH!BASI CtW'READINGSULLS

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The PUrp?5E1'o£thh,s t udy was

tr:

^{dev.elop'andteat:}

instructi.on~l

^uniton.

th~

^topic:

"iatitud~:~.d .Longi~ude. " ~ndto

. .. .';

-' .

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d~cl~e.~lle.t.h~r"~ucha .•llodel~.t~dlea.i~_B.t~uc:~10nalunit-produced positlvsachievellientfot s10l.-1ell.mlng

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atudents'a t,^{,. -}

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h.1gl\

scho'ollevel.TheunUwas devefcped.iIire,sponae

to

an.edu~3t 1onal .

p~obleQ\that;

_.

ceni~r~r~u~d

" .-

th~

.^fa-ct',

th~t'

^children~ ^vary.in di vidua lly ..

~

intMirle8rnlng.~8pD.cltles8Sth e y enter jun.l orh1~school.",Pd?t

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~o.and.incoriiunct~~? vit~.t~e'develo~entoft~\lri8tr~<:;.tlonal. ptick~.&~a~Vl17Wof l it er a t u r eandreslla~chrelate~to ins truc t iona l

. '-:.

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development

and

le arn ing the er l eaiil,generalandto IIl8p skUls

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"speci fi c'ally was.conducted.AlllO,itvee hypo"thes::Lzedthatthe

. " ' "

.

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inBt:ruetional tlD.!~Leads to a greaterachieveme nt t!lanthetrad::Ltional.

_text~oO:k':'lectu~e·

^methodoi:

in8tro~;!on

^...

The~te'painvolvediiide~:i.gntng-theins tructi~nal'packag e

w~,r~ :deB~;~be~ '"~d ~~V1aiOnS

^Yere"made"enth e

b~1s

of cri t i dsll1s

"fr omteachers , i..prb fesll ional'geographe r. an inst r uc.tionaldevel op-

-"cc~~-=~-.-, ~ ' . " .~n',-,. ", -pa ",,,, \.,,, l1 ,,,.,,,.~and ,~

^{groupof 6t}'de"ne '.The ac:ks ewas subec:te d

to

the -'tor'ge-Thorndl~~'

word rr ee and"

re~is'io_ns' we~'e

^eede,__

wh~r_e~

^{_ _}

~_~>_

neceeserr ,

i~ o7de~'

^to

an;-:~;;a

^{at a}

v~c~b~ia~

^{lav el}

~PP~~p; f.at~ :

^for

/ -.a

slow-.iear:ninggr~de:

^{seven'c.bss: . , '}

A£t~rthep~ogr8.lI\w8s ',developed .it~'1.l1te steda~ds,:8lua ted '1

L

c'

atBeo'i:bUktollegiate,,Baie

v~rte·,NCwfoilnd'l~nd .

^{'The'kit was.}

.

^{." ,}.; :.

. .

^{,, '}

. .

^" . .-'

.comp a.r ed~ith.thetex tb ook-l e c t.ut e methodof,1nstruct1bninan

"1!l<Pe.r1me~tI1l 'vers~s^ac~ntrOl:^{gr oup.}sit~ation:.'nirOUgh^{a table of} ran dolll sele.c.tionthe .stu,dentsi.na'slOY-leam l ng'grade sevenclas~

~ieass i gn ed't o t'reatme"nts,'A pretest-po aUest.de9i~nwa s usedto

; , ' " .

tes tthehypot hese s . Ac- ea sewas used totestfori1i $1l1U cant

1 - . ...

differ ence s . )

, ," ;' . /

.Ttu,\limi t at i ons.and'fin d ~ng s o fthestudywerel1s t ed llnd described briefly.

Also~

s'b ggeet1ot\s,for

fu~~re

re.ae s r eh and develop""

tionalpackage;

th einternship re p or t •

(v) Mr. ClarenceBr~~Jr.,geograph.yteacher. for'assia -

. " '.

-.

^,

tunce and's,uggest 10 D!inpr oducing the graph1cdesi gn s and li ne'draw:",.

~ngiilemployed,i n.th epac~ge;

":,.

.

(i~i) 'Mr.~· ·

Edwar d

~ey '

for assiotance In.the.eelectlO!!of

, ;,. . "

theexperiClental designand in the statieUealanalysisofthedata

c~lle~~ed d~r,lng

the

e~erhental ~as,~ ofth~ ;rOje~~;

(iv).Mr. D.,M,;Parry,prindpll1"of BeothukCollegiate.Bale. Ve rt e , for·.all'ov1ng.hfJllJ touae a:grade sevenclaaainorder to carry,

out the,exper~rnen ~;

~·Vr1ter'giatefuli,.llcknowl~dges~ co~tributionsof

, . ;. ,

~.HauriceBrewstcrlor.his~ncouragetllent. g~idance .andw11Ung- eeeeto' d'lec:uaa,

oft~n

^through

let.te~s a~d,long

^{Jstancephone •}

. !

'calls.~any problemsIl~Bing ~urlngthe developm en tandwtitingof

.The vri,ter

~b

also deePly'1ndellted"tt :

(i)M~.G.a. Farmer of the GeographyDe pe,rt lll'ent at Memor"iU

un1ve .r!'1~y

^.fO,r

,sug.(.",~" ".nce~ing th~:cont~~t pat<er~al

^{lnd Ud..ed}

inthe programl .' \ : , • • . •.:

(ii ).Dr .,Colin'Danes of the LearningRe~our~e.B·'Divis1onof . thelaculty:.ofEducatiorrstKemoriil lUnivers,ity.f orceeeeaesand Bugge~tione.renderYdduringthe actualdevel~p~ent'of theinB't~e-,

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Cn)the.~udenblat.Be.othultCollegia t e .mohe lp edv1.ththe

:

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I I

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OV'erv1ellof·Rele.va nt;tharacter1stlc~9.~•••:.. 87

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,L.~a~n~r'~slysi8 ;'~: ',' ,,:,; '"'.',86 Int r o d ucti' on'••, ••: '.'••• • • ••••• ••- 86.

. " . '-- .- .

SUMMARY.,:" ••.•••.•,••,~2;·

.., ,_ ._ .' :,_

~

.., .

3: INST~UCTION~IDEVELOP~T PROCEDU~~•••• ••••••;•••_•• INT~DUCTION...;.•• •••• • •••••~,/•••:••\••••_•••••·••,

&4

SYSTEHS ANALYSISANDDESI GNI NG

INSTRUCTIO~ALPACKAGES •• •• • • ;•••• •• ••,' •,'", .;•• •

DE~~~~~;:~~E~~~~~~~"~~'" ". ..: :' ..

Id~t1fy:1ng'the lnstruc t to"na:tPr oblem.... ... 76

;.'ck~rQund

^{•.. .•'••}

~,~ ",

.';':'.;.:'••.;.:•••• '. :.•••'.. 77

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^{.1'urpOSI!.~••• •~.-;,.;:.·;.••,; '.~· ,: , ~,·<}

^•..

^~.:.:".,78

" ASlle$smentof Student

'~~~~'s : .-. :

^{;,••••,••.}

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^.79

'pro';id i ng'fQr, Stude ntNeeds . :.• • •••'••,,;. :.. 80

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"LARY, ": "'".::.. " '/' :~ ' ''' ' ; ' ':"':'; :'!', : .

.REVIEW~FRELAT E DLITE RATURE ANDJ{ESE.Alt:CH••••:.; 26',

INTRODUCTIIJ~; .', ;~'

. ] . :"••

,.:.~., ~ ",~,_

^••,:'..

,~;.

^:.

~_~~ ;, ,~'

^••:26

GEOGRAPHY AND-GEOGRAPHICEDUCATION•••;·;••••••••~.,.27

~

^NEEDFORMAP,

~KiL~~.;

^{.,':.-; ,:.:•••}•,:',••;••'

~'

^{•..31 :,}

,'DEVELOPING MM'·Slcl.LLS'••• ••,;.,

;;'.-.' . ~~' .:

^••

;~.

^39.

,aRAllINC,MAP·-SKnL S ; AND THI,SLOW·LEARNER•• • • ••••'

MAxi~G

^..

PROVISIO~

^{-; OR}

rae '~LO'/u~hm:l. ~ .. .', '., . ... .

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j"

~pter

) I,'

;T••

~ 'andSubta.sks ~ :·:.:.'.:. ~

^{••.•.••: .;".:•••;,(}

"ae~",o'l:la~ Obj~CUve.~;.:^•••": " ','" 94

.... UDDal. fortho'letofMedl•••• ••

~. :

••:.:.: 99

, _, ::::~:::d;~::;' ;:i;~: : ::: ::::::f:::: : : ^I::

:'Sel ect"i oiJ.ofMedia', ' ..~:•••• ••ID2'

."

^" '- .

'.

De~elpPlllen't'P[~e edure!l

and . .

• ",-, ' Poni.ativeEval t1on••••; : 107

'Init ial PrOduct ioo ·•• •,;;••• 107

,

... '

-. - . "

:

... . .

.

S~y•••••• •• •••••••:;~•••••• •:•••••••~.••~. :·.·••110:'·.··

'· L ','

^{.4 ••}~IGATIVI ~THODOLOGY^{. '} : :•••:; .'; ••

^.

••.

112 :

· .-PIEVlEw••••• ••••• •••••.•';••• ••••

:~

^•••• •., •• •112 ./"

UST~'OF^THE~RQ31DI.!'.:

.•. .

~

:.•.•...,.

113 .MMOR

BJ~IS

,,:•.••••••• ••••• •

,. ~_ .:'.:

••113.

:".sub:"l!1pot he . e•• • • •••• •••• •••••;••~•.• ••'.~'•••• ••'114

.

^'

... . •~L'«TAtIOliSOF TBE.STUIlt••~•.•••••• •• •:••••'.:••:~~ .-·114 . '.

.5EL~IOIi

^OF

~~LE. ~

^{-•••:•••••}

\: ;. ~ . ~~·.;·:. ~-

^.'116

· ,v.ut.iA:aLEs••••••:••••.'

~

.••••:•••••

"';'!•~•• .•• •.117

.~nlpulat:lon.of Var1abl~' .

. " ^••••~ ^{• •·•• ;••}" .

:.~'

^{••r•••-•• •'}

l~

⁷

Oba. i-vat:lonof

.

V8 'I"iables.;:;

.

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.

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.,, :

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y .: ,

Pag_

DATAANDST,ATISTlCALANALyStS :•••122

SUMMARy•• ••••• • • : .: :••126

CONCLUSION,SAND1l.EC~ATIONS••••; 12.9

rnID I NGS : -••• •••~••••:..'; ••••.••• •.,"129

, .

CRITI CALANALYSISOF STIIDY•• • • •'••• •••• •••••••••• •130 CONCLUSIONS.., •••;•".•• •• ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 131

RECOMMENIlA'r·lciN~

^{•• • ••}

:::·: ~

^{••:•••:'••••••••' 133}

St1P~EKENTAB.YBIBLIOGRAPHY: •••• _•••• •',\'''''' , '/' APP~ICES

SLID~S ~D,T/Il'ES'

UNDER ...

SEP.W.TE

COVElt;.,.: ,•.••••:" .; ., i.5'i .

B•.AUDIOSCRIPT•••••••••••• ;•.•••• :: ~••••• ••••15S

~: :=::=:: :.~'::::'-: ~~ :.: !:.:.:~: ::: :::.~: :::::: : ~ :::

E. PRETEST

~

^{POSTnST.• •• •.}

:. ~·:.~

^{••.•-'•••••••: 239,}

F•.1"ICURES13;'14 ~,1'5,~~d.16.,...:;.: ·•• •• • •••'·.·••:11·.·,261

1l1BLIOGRAP1IY••••• ••••,•••••••· ~•.•• ••· '141

\

.

I;

crsphof,ControlCroup'sScoreson

Pretestandl'ostte8t ••••'•• ••• ••'•• •• •••• ••••• • ..:.•• •• •265 Guph of Eltperiment alandControlGr oups'

".5C01:e8' on1'0sttest. .-•••••• • ••• • •••••• •• • •:•••.•••••,.,263

Graphof E>tpethentalCrou p's Sco r e son . .' "

. ,'l'r et ea t andP0 8 t tes t ••••••·•.;'•...: •••••• ••.•••.•• •••264

1: Seq~en~iBil.St~uc'turefor Map Skills" " , . 2.'

Sy::::o:::t~~~~~::

^::':::::

~ ;::: ::~ :::: - ! ' I ::. :: _{:~ ::: :} :" '''~~ ' '

Sys.tems ~p;toa<'.h

^i'n

Desl~ing ~nd De~~lo~l~~

Ins truct i o nal.5y.s t ems:~ ':,••••• •.:•• ••• •~.. . . 11 s;at ems

~p~O~Ch lW~~ei,

^fO,rDCslgili ,ng" .. ,,\ '

Ins truc t i on••• • •••~...;•••••••• •• •' .• •'••.•• ••• • ••~.-. 12

.' "'---" .

.

^"

5.'Th eF~ur'BasicElements ofIru' t ruct io na i'

neveacre eee.••••~.·.•., ••... •;·•....•.. .•.. . .••~:·•••.•• 14 6. Th"e4- D

. .

Mo~slof InBU'uctionalD,eve l olll';en t^, •• • • ;·.;••, •.-.^. 75' 7. Graph.fo rEatimating..lteadability •••.••.•• •••••••• .·~:•• • • 82 .8. TaskAn alys isf'otLatitude' andLongitud e'••••;:,'.~.. . . 90

9. S~lectl:n

^of'

theSimpl~st,Hedi';

^Class

for.•,1;o e s 800 Segmerit ,•••••~:• .- :.; 104

10.- The·Colllllnmif;at:ons,Me~ia^{••,•..•••. .\••}• ••• ••• •:.;.:·~;^{•••1.0 5"}

A

/:Flo~Ch a r t fot;Sy~tematicEvaluation'.

..ofInatructio~alPackage's•••.•• •.'•• • ; ••'••••'. ,••• :. ..10 9

It.".'Locat1ol:L.OfBaie Ve r t eandSurroWl dlng

.jeeedcrCOllllllUnitie ~••••••••;•• •••.••• •••• •..••:••• •'.115.

.GUph of Exper imen t alandControl,Groups' , . Scores on Pretest ••••. ••.•'.••••••••.•• •••••, •••: •• •••262

_ __ __ ,..~.. . _._'c.--='", .._~._,.~,

.TheP~~PO&~~fthb'pr oj ect"loI&$to devdop.aa dte~t^{':n in-':}

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ncrllODOC'tl O!'l J . "

stud ent:

. '- . .

-,-

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Specific dlyth. write;~riedtoanBWlltthe.,followingqvee-

.~ ,',

ti on:WillaniDa trueUonal pa cbge especiallyde sign ed':0i.prove

•student.~.u~e.nt.n'Un8_^of_tl:\ene<:.e"~.1"Ypnraquhl te_P.sk Ula

&0 thathlLc:-.·a·contim.evl rhtheuor--ld. IITOO,.~et lvit ie.i~ailp. readingprovetobe fea sible!

" •MCXCIIDUlIDTO Ti!EPROBLEM

.... , :

. .

, " ' . , ." ." : - '

., , '"

atruc tionslpachgl!bas,"'donthe~suppodtlonthat stud..ntllenr er in s juni or high

' Il:~~l ':'r~>.ot '~il·o~e:rai:i~&

^{atthe.. .}

~e

^level

~f ~'og­

nitive"d e v eloPllle nt.an,cs..as..eonsequenc ee e r r a inlIoci~l^{'Illud i e a.}'sk~ils

.may~~may'no t,ha~ebuntau gh tby•te'.char'or. . .~lla te4.b~-a

-.developlllentb"t~"^{all a}'p!"lvateindividua l

'.aoci~t~·. ~ll . ,,:

''-

;:

"

Newloundla,.n~,^{and the}instr~ct1onal.^method.s.·whi~hha v e'o,ftenbeen

elllP~oyed ~heriein

^{ha,vetendedto,make}i t:clif f i c u l t for-an,i'n divi:dual ' to'a chi eve? :tsf'ulle~tpotent~,a1.^Inthe~a8t ~ore^{than's fewBocial.}

8t~die8.teachersthrou gh outNewfoundland 7'avepbcedundue eIllPhasi~_

on tha,lecturetyp e ofin struction.a nd theUei'e'o f the'f1inglete?<t-

b~~r Th1~' metho~ ~f

^{pr oviding}

inli~ruction,' -al~~g "'i~~ ,~he ~ar~~;

^".

of t e n ovel'Cl"oWded,ciaa s e a,p'r e a uppo s e s-t ha t all students inIIp~r-

\ ^{. . .} -,- ,: ' .' -.-

•.ticu l ar class.cov e r i n g the same textbook·JnS.te d,a l. and at th e sallie rats,'<rl.l1'.beable to

sSs1ll1i~ate

^_the

~~er1al

^{atthe same'}

pa~e~ "

PROBLEM

.Ileg i .m i n g

~:n

^{19 65,HOdgetts2'}d irected atwo.,.yearinve st i- ,gat~on,intothe·t ea chi n g,~-fsocialstlldie\.~ntheele~nta:.and

secondary schools throughout Cana da.Theconclu sions ofthis study

," . : . . I ,

indicatedthat-t heDocial st ud i es progiaos.lnCanada were in

a

de-

,

.

plc:il"able'condit i on andthat_students waredevelopingvery peex at ti-

~ , ,'..

.

^-

.

^' .

.tud e s'towa l"c1,t h e socialstudies-.Ala~geportionof thi sproble min thesocialst u dies,Rodgatts'co nc l ude d,vasrela t e d to two.teaching methQds mostcO\l'Jllon.ly.inuse-thelecture and.theaasi gn~n t.me th od.

Thelec t ur e llI8thodwaa a recitad.'onby the teacher of facts taken

d1i:ectl~ 'fr~

the textbook;

a~d

the asa1gl\lllCt1t .,e thod was.the pIari

.

^{- ,}

. '

.

.

' .' - '-- ' . ,

of a;signing a;~w.pages of

e

tex t b ookto st udya~_homa.~.andspen d-'

.,,:,,' .2..\.B.noei'ett~•. What cUlture?I>'hatH~dta8e?'(Toronto,

ontario :<lntar1o IJls t:1tut efo r Stud1e_sinEduc ation,196E1), p.1.

l

"' - '.

QUa'Utyeducationa l

pr~'gra

..s

W~ieh ' ~ve ~;

.theirra::son'd

'~~re

tne fullest,dev el. o pmen t of a,st u d ent should bestre s singgro....thin a wid e varie,tyof

skil~g' 8~

att i,t"udes::Henc e'

~eacher&:'~Ug~t

^'not

.t~-

^rely

on

th~ tradi~iona.,;

^selectionand

iIllP~~mentatlon

^'.O.f

.\llateri~1s .

^{,Di \,rerait y:}

"8lIlongstudenti!'.nis-tbe~ef1ected^{i,ntheselection}

,,of,.t ea chin g techniquea:

ROd ge{ t s••ststesth8t

co~"ternp~r~'ry ed~cstionalbts

^voukdecn-,

sld:rthe'co=? nl yus'edte,,;tb~ok-ac t~re^met'hod;a~h1~hlyu~desira&'l e. 1n'that'itvlolat'ea re eo gnb edprineiples of pedagogy}One obs!!,rVer who'wouldconcur.w1r,.h,Ho dgettBs~es~heperaist1ngeducationaltrend

.

,

.

as beingtowa r d the pro g r e s !ll1v e ,philoaophyof educationwith an em- pha ds'on

~esta1t

^th.:arie.9

of" l~arnil\g,

^5This

.se~ol

^of'

thoug~t"

^...

t~e"gelll

thatlearning must.bl'! ac compUsh edby-the ind1v 1dU3lhi ms el f,

, , . .

Succ'easfulteachin'gof subhcts'~~~has'BocialS:t~dies~anno-!,'

" , " , '.

be achi eved.until th ete ache r co"'-e9togtipsre a listic ally,with.the problemof't he,widerang eo~abilH~~ssodbackground~which·",dst

a,:""ng:~tudentB:.:~articul~r,~l th~a~

fr()lQ·th!l:u rs l

"?" .. ~nd:r

^tbe

presen t edu.c:a tion al system

til.

Canada(andehewhere)the r e is.a sub- st'an~ia~^group.of~tulients'~hG a'r~^{,unableto. IIlBke..nereet.}prog;e~a^in.

3i..:Ji;

HOdgetts.

~at

^{'Cu ltur e ?}

~t

^{Herita ge? (TOronto!.}

Ontaritl.Ontario In sti t ut eforStudiesin .Educatt,on.

1968) JP,

^{45. ...}

4 I bi d , /

5Nel~on

^{L.Bos sing.'Teachingin}

~eeondary

^{Schoo16( sto n :}

Houghton-Miffl in. 1952 ) .p~61,

'7

---~---

. J

" .

I'

>

Due 1npa r t"to.cultural condi tion s,'s u chchi-l dr e n

re",d'

at"a

. "

. .

aearehonth eeffectivene88,'~f..dvan c·eorgan i zera fo r teach:inggeo-

6La~ry

Cuban . "Yetoro Be Tau ght:

The T~aeher, .iI.~d ·'Student:

^as

SlowLe~rners, "Soc ialf.duc a,tion, X:o : rv. 2 (February.jg70,l. 145.

.lev elthre e Or fourgra.desbelo w

th~ir ~?rmal' develoPl:lent; Th~y

^obvi-<

·9ua1yach ievein ac.ad emi c~,r eiasat,~'con~ ide r ablysl.Ower pac e.t~ando

otherchildren",cifte nt,he yd~notexhibi tthecurosi~and cr;eativity shownb~bdghte r·chil~.ren.

Alarge'proportionof theee youth eome frooiower-el.aas homes

(aodologicall~ ;speak~n~)' ~~.

^{J'h i ch}

t~e

par en ts may havehad a min imum of f~rmaledue~'t1on.'TIl'es efa~tot8exertprofou~dinfl~en~eson·the cognitiv est ru c t u resof theehildre n;Steinbrink,whodi~,ollie"r e.-

- .. .

^'

.

tb~1;r'lic~OOl

_{".'i', "' ,'}

i~arnl~g'.

_"

· Tha~e

_{-,', -}^are

pred~:i.n~ntlY

_{','-,, :} ^the_"

l!Itu'd~nt8'~~se

_{,.", ";}

earlyBicpl!X'ienc:esin thehome,'\/hose soede-ecoeo afe ba ek gr cu n d,an d

Wh08~

lriotlvatiOn"

fO~ seh~l l~earnlng ~lIlces

^tbem

in.

^the'

c~~eiory

^o'l:

"-',

'-\ '

'. "

.

^{' . ' . .}

8low:-learners •

.\:

cu~sn}u~e~ent~

^{-a'l e ven}

fa~torB: fO~: 1den~ifYi.~g

^the

9~O~lea~er :

\. ;: ~ '~::~b~ ~;~dl:e~::~~a~~i:~: :~d

^{ha s d lf fic ult}

Y

-1Dll e.arn .2-..

inglIymbolic le.ljguBga •.. , . .,' _ :.

\

"~: :~B~:n~~:~~e:~~:,~~~~:~~~;

^slowerthad'

~hat

^of"nonaal

~~~. ' '~

. . ' . - I

.:S~ Uehasllnsy stcmsti cthou ghtprOce&B~B.I- :" . • :6,.'He.ha,.~imitedpowerstcf1.ndependents , nitiative and j-e-

source fulnes s ; ' ., ' . - . •

7. Hehas, a.te n de ncy to.U v e onlyfOl".thepeeaeae, 8; Hia'a 't tentionepaniseho rt.

9. Hl!has8tendencyto be a followerrather thana leader.

10.,He haa alowself concept ,'6 11".H~8 valu~$are,uncla rif1ed ,

1, L

\

-.

,':"

"':",

, - '

"\::' . ~

'. , _ '.~~4e."t,1~.~SPeri~n.tl.\?,~Ia~Van_~.led.'ee~rcl~n~

. to

^;hec~~~er~~..•~t•

. ', d.OWll by the hools,..t._ which""'Pha ahu ver b. ll ••rning.adfOn:l&l .:.-..

~~gu.g~- "?"

^{,res ...}

⁷ t~~~~:rd.i~' ^.. ;~ ' AU~·:.bel.'~~ ~~~~~~.8_'.a~- -~.iao.:"~. , ',.

. Davis ,and.He. .,initial·langu a gede fi c itstend to increa sethe lon ger

~h.~'d~BadV~nt8&e;d

^remaln'.!n

~ehool:

^.

.I f~e~~.a a~e:.t!i.a:.8IJllle re5~ns.i~11.1.t'for~n~uringtha t the

si~~~arner ~'~ ~b~. oP~o~.t'u~~·t)' -t~" ~~"~l~,P.,:,·'tl:.:., ~e~,ess,,~~

^{_skUl s:,to.}

fun~~n dfeF~lvelY l~

^a"

democra~~; t{"en_.hb>~~:~n.i!'.K P~C~.1~8

^{ne -:}

~l!lIire·.te^{that,the..tl!8Cher}gobeyondthe~.~ ~owly ~onceivedconUn...

. o(t;e-';re8i:~ ^{'eun 1cu lu ....} _ili.oo~. ~'~res~~s ~hi~ p~in~:

^..

~'~7y .1I~r~n~/.~.'

^.

whe n heexpl&1la:

r:'

•••thecul turall y depriv'e:.t·childC~lIto achool with defic i t ainl.a n in i ae ts'an d theabUity·to'learn-to ",."

learn'.Si ncehe lacllspart ic ullr experienceaandainc e .he-isat a rel at helylaw lev..l.oflinguhtlo;:develop -

.. ent, beb uauallynot'r e~ytobeliDhi _1....rnlo& at;. ._c th .._ _1...e1andby theBal'leapproachaab dt..rac t e r- . 1&Ueof childrenfroafavorabh cu1tunl enVir OIll'>ll' l'ltl, . U1Ileaathe8cllOo,1re llhap e s,its cu r rlculu.'and...thod sta.;".. beiin viththe childviler I"' heill,hamb,cannotpracl"'l"d ,inafrv.1tfuland eeantng!ul

VII;

,I0 ., ~ '-. -" -s,,-.

:;.

- - .-,':;

..

10Ibid, p.." ,20.

" - -" ,'.""j ".J

.

, " ~

1388r a

J;

^Odl';';',

"constr~ctin'g'

^and

AdaPtin~ Ma'te~'ial~;"

Ind,iv i d";'ali:roing Educatio nalMater ialsfor'SpecialChild ren·inth~

.~ , ed••Itobert,M. "'nder Gon,J ohn G..Greer, sn d'Sa. aJ., Od ie(Bal timOre: Un iversi tyPar k Pres s , 197 8) ,p •.ISS.

/

^{' .}

.

. .

: .

-K~p~'at~Q "ug,gell,t':'thll~"to;llchlng the ' s l ow-lea rner involvllB

':. . ' .,,'" ', ,::.. , 11: I

'lllaking adj,:,stlllentlilan,dli~i tingexpec tl!-tions."

TheloW-abilitystude ntneedslIIIlny concr et e, first.,.hand expe'ri e m:e s:

Ins~rU~~io~"ust",~e'

^{based Onactivitiu}

requl~ing, ~itt1-e

r;ead~ngoranaly:roing.,.Learning ee e se JlIu.st be Ilpecific,and simple or .,-a a Kopp aUS'gests;''''t heloadofabsr r a ct andv~rbal'8)'1110 01smUst'De'

· :~,~nimi:roed-. "12 ·'

^{'.'"• . " :.'" -;,-:',. '}

"j ," .,. , ' ...

"

,,~ O~l~ 'expl~in~' that"l~\:l.Il _.tb~ ,t;,ache~'Il·respOn~lblli~Y:>0:.1IUI'k~··

certain.tha t"the slo wer Iltude~t'.~,n~~ds are,pr ov ided.fla' :, NOlllatterhowwe ll equippedthe clas!'{IoolUis ,the re will always,bethe childwith Bprobl"'"that,requiress~e~

:~;:~t{~:eo~o~~:~:i:t~~~~e~~;~~r~nt:d;~~::1~nf~~, '~:~

.child's,needs.It alsobecomes nec essary to ada p t,or / cbnetruetlIlateria la whe n there'19nothingcommerc i a lly' ava~1sblethatade quat -:l I 3a nd~Uectively pr~sl!nt9a concept,ski l l,or idea., ,' . '.',:

r

', - :, ' "-,' '. ' ','.- . .

,.t he~portanceof" prov idingfor,ind i v idual differencel!l.,:

.

~ ~~:d~;Bt~B~;~~i:~n~~:k:; :::in;no~p~~;;:~:~~~:;l

,- p~an~and.inatruetional,pr acticeB.nd8~ekbet.te r':ways

-"---~--"-';'-- '

---"-'"..

. ^'

^'.

;; -.

IICeorse'~.^{'Kop p,},"Provid i ngfor.IndiVldu~l,Differences,^,,'

-,;,---,_--,~~ ;~~1~~_'~~'~~~::i~~~t~~:a:~~~~~o~:a~~9.~.~R~~i~~~lt~~u'

St ud l es,1960},'p.87. , , ' ,

f~eEfi~o~:~~l

. 12~bi~.

util1~&tion

^if

.~~rning· _re8~&~~h a~'d theo~y i~ th~ f6~m.a.tto.J\

^of,in':"

strue-tionalprinciple s.He cont1!nds that"Lear n Lngtheo r ies and-,iti-

,, ' ,. " _. _,' i .,' -,

st1:uct.:lonalt.h~ori.cs.a r e,int.erde pe n dent,and,that bothacre"n e ed ed.f c r' 'II

cOllpl~~8 ~c-i.enc~of

ped a g og; aine'e-neither'c a n adequa.tely

seiv~

^as

alIub stit ut efor't h e'o th e r ? 6

~

^{, - "}

S~9uencing In Btruc t ~on'.

ca~ne- Bilgg'e~tB -th~t "th~' act ^'of " instr'~ct i~n

^is

amatt~r o~-"

~f1Jin:llati~gtlie 8t~o:ient

in-certain wa.ys.·',2J

S~1mula~ing'_

^{thestucien,t: "}

lIc:!wever,meansth a tthel~elofinBtrtictia"~ ~nd informati~nmust be

.~tched·to"^{the lev'el'of}ctigniti~ed~velopmellt'-o f^{thech il d.When the}

chUd 's ' cognlti~e

^strli'ctureandsubje·ct.m'atter,a r e llli Slll3.tc hcd ,

l~rn­

ingis1mp~ded,and81owed

d'Own.

Eac~^futureat;pinth e cognitiv e

. ".

,

dev'elopcentse quenc e,.de pend s uponthe.successful1m.plelllentati0tl:pf paat,s t a ge s...

Jaroi.~ekem.phasii~d' ·thene~<lfor s{quence,part.:lcUla.rlY,in the are. of sodal'shidies skill developmentI

.Sequencemaybe importsnt

-~~ all C~gnltive lear~1ng. Ye~

in concept-attaimnentandsk il ldeve loplllentwhe.r e it ce u bee8tablishe~that:thereis_anincreasing orderof magni- tud e.,:incomplexityandwhere"afunct:Lonalrelationship existsbet we e n el e.mentril onthis,cont,in uU1Il of c.omple.xity,

26DaV1dP.AUllUbe1 ,

~~cllt1~na1"PsYChology:

^ACor.nitive

~(New York :Holt,Rinehart&~ina~on~1968).

27 , - " ,

labertM. Cagne,''Learni",¥Theory, Educational,Media.sud Individualiz,dInst.r uct i on, " To-Imp r ove Learning:An Evaluationof lnatr uction li.l Technology ,II"ed.•,.S id ney G.TiCkt.on.!'(NeWYork :,R.R.

BowkerCo.•~1911),'P' ,63 . ",~ ' . " .

1 • : ' ."

" :j

28Jobn Ja~oViilek,Guide line"afor El eme n tary Social Studies (Wa s h i n gton,D.,C.:"Ass o c1e.tion forSupe rvisionand CurriculU1llDe- ve.J,opment~NEA.,1967);s-16.

29~e;d·"E~ 'Hti~e'r, "Gr~pbic

Cormroniu t lonand theCrisis"i n Educat ion,,"AVColIDtll,lniution aRev ieW,V.3(1957), 6.

":~ ' ^, 30ROb~rt^H.Gagne,I^1..i.ea'rnirig"Theory,.Educat lonalt;ledi~,a~d

In dividua li ze d Ins t ru c tion, "ToImprove Learning :AnEvalua t ionof

InstructionalTe ch nology,'II, ed ,SidneyG"Tie k t on,:(liew Yor k:,R.R.

Bowker

Co.'.

197I),"p.63 ., ' 'C

, - .

. "

.

^' . ' ,- :

.

"Clnz"ulat1v~.:lell.~.lng:~'.'j.~18isthe principle"thatthe learning.,o~any new capac itybuil dsupon prior learning.:Unlessthelear n er canrecall

~ " , , '31

thb'pr e r e qu i si t e capability,hecanno t learn thenew task, Gagne hasapp~oachedthe pr ob l e m of"human learningand itacontr1~utionsto development fr olllthepoint of'v iewofdeten.ining'tlleprerequia i tes

" "' , "

forIIR!!,c1fi clea rnin g"t'aaks.Accordingto'"his modal'o f"i e a rningthe' ac,quis1tion of"complelt'cotlce p t or IIki{1

i~"

^II

hiersrch~'cal,"p,ro~egl!l,

ⁱⁿ whi c hlOWer or der

conce~ts

^or

'~ki118 ~re gene~allY i~tegrated

^{,.t o}

fo~ .

.

.

^{..' ' . '}

.

s~uden~.Skln~er'sanalydaof'in9t1:uc tlof\ssseees~hat'''lIlotlvatlo_o''

"must

be

preaent.'"30

Gagne,

iii.

his bookThe"COnditionsof Learning,"refersto';:."

It,18Miller ' se~.tendon.tha t "aneff,:c~lv~sequenceof.1u"- struetion ,in any medium,"'ustinc:1~deprovidon,for.fourcondltl~,,:

.;.J:lOt~vatlon^•.cue,res pons e , reward.,,29·"fhatthl~,Illeans,l stha ttob~, mo s teffe e t 1v e;the1III)tl~at'lons~rouli~dbyins t r uctional materiab

~stbui1d

upori those:th a t arealready inthe

l1fee-;;p~;iC:nees ~f 'the

. .

", . "....:

31Robe~t

^M.

Gagn~, '

^{nieConditions}

?f

u."a rntng"'(New

Yo~'k;

.Rol'll!',~inehart-,&Hlnston,,Inc.i'1965'>.... . '

I

-

-

't.hefol l owing way.:

,..In anoth erart icle'Au aubelre inf or c e s his opinions whe nhe

-1--

says tha t new'id.ea sandinf or ma tion'ar.egr asped'a nd're'ta ined by th e

" .:.' , .' ',

From....here dOllathe"s t tid <:tn t beginandwh e e... is hegOln g7 What srtf,thespeci ficprereq uis i tesfor learn in g , and .what \lllihe be'a ble to lear n next?v,"What"ill;lIeBn t.by

"pX"erequl sl te "la nctthatfourthgradeaDela-I.,studies. lllUSt.prec ed e fif thgrade, social studies .Rather ,the aeanfng:isthat learningto pronounceforeign."orcbIlIUSt.

pr ecede lea rn in gecu ee themin sentences ;or tha t lear n,",:

lng tocs~nt nillBedCa.~lymust.precede learni n g

to

add

numb ers. .."

. ., AUBubel , inhi sdefens e

,~f ·~erbai learn1ng. eXPlaln~

^:

;'~htln~' ~~iedge, se~e8' a~

^the

';ide~~~ona~ BCl1f~~~d1n~' t~ ~~~ ,'

n~1I"

knowi eage can be'reh, t ed.,,34 In"s still laterbook.ca lled

~ ',

Psy c.hology of,_~ni~gfulVerbalLearn ingAusubel_~.dersto"c ons ol-:- ida t ion..-e-themast er y.of ongo inglessons'befo re newaater La l.e ace intr odu c e d.35Thi a is,

~'1JIl~lar

^to

Gag~e

^'s,,"cumUla t i ve

le~rninatl.

-0

. "

.

'.le~iner."onlytothe'extent tha t mor einclus ive andappr~prill.tely

..··rel~vant'conc:e~tser eal ready'.availab,~ein thec:og~itive struc:~ureto

. " I .. ,

3~bert

^{K.Ga gUt!,}

"Co~t~1butiona

of Lear ning't oHumap. De-·.

v~lopment , "Psych ologi c alRevi ew,LXXV ,.(1 9 6 8 ),177 ...191.

33 Robel"tM,'Ga gn e,Th eCond it1on s'of Lear~in8^(NewYork:

Bolt,Rinehart&Wins t on,Inc. , 1965)"p . 26. .

. 34DividP;Au s ubel ,

"Cognit~~e Structu're

^and.the

FacUi~a;ion

ofMeani n gfUl,Ver~alLearn ing,"Journal'ofTeache r Educa tio n ,XIV

Ucee,19 6.3),222 . ' .

3'5Dav id,P .Ausubel-, "ThePsyc holo gy.of

lIean~gful

^{Ve r bal} Learning,"ToImproveLe arning :AnEvalu atio n,ofInstr uctional Techno logy ,II, ed.,S1,dneyG.Tic kt on(NewYork:R.,R.~ker,1971),

p. 61 . , ," .' ,

.t'

· ' , ' . '

li~Ausubel,al~oidentifi e s the attainment ofa,cle a t.stable.

o;~an~zed'~;;dy ~f ,know~ed8e '8~ '~' ~eans foJ;

^enhancingthe learner's' eapad .t Y to.l.esm'nell

iil.foma'ti~~J7

^Hetakes in toeccccntthe'de-

"velo pme.n t alfindingathatcbildreninitiallydeal\lith,thefr environ-

men t,'at'a

~o~cr~te

^{.leve l,andt}ha't·.tlley l:ter

'I1ppl~

^1\ore

abs'~raet ' ~on­

ception~.Thushesuggu tstaat'in s tr uc t ion ;likei.ri~~,sho;'l1dp~occ~d' fr(illi

_~o~~reie')'JUl.'."~le~ t~

^mo're

ab~~ra,c'~'fo~t':LOns :

If i t:i.s·'true'thatthe usualco''; r s e'of intellectual'de.,. · velopmentmovesfrom enactive thr ou gh iconiC.'t o symbolic representa tion,ofthe worl d, it ia'likely,t,hatanoptimum sequencewil l progress,in,t h e samedi~ectlon'.J8 · "

'~~ prciceed~ng ,

^frOIn

eoneJ::ete ~~ .I!-~~,tract

^{format ions;}

B~ner :d~e~1

~o~

_.',.^{oVerlookthe factthin}

it ma~ ~e

nece e sary

to retur~ 'to ~~r~~'in

" , " ",\

ideas toreinf ot ce·'a nd exp snd, c o neepts."Thus he advoc'atesi:heep iso d i c

.--

., ^{'" , "} ,

.

ora'pi r al curriculum ,apprc:i",i:h:

. ' .' , " " .',r

••~id ea !lare,p realintedin,hoao'lcgue'f ol1l., returnedto later, ' with moJ;eprecisionandpoWer, and,fur ther'developed'and

·.".ps n..' . . ..n.tl l•.inthe end ,astuden.thasa9~,se^Of.IlIastery",

over,a t'le a s t some body of knowledge.J9 .. '.

,." ,,' ," '.-- :',' , ' ."

r

~ ~h e" 'other -h~nd

^{'ther e}

i~ ^Pisset,

^{..ho· .haa.}

eOlli.'lle~ted

^{"t hatth e}

~" " 'e~c~lient p~yt:.hOlOg'~st.' Jer~me .Bruner. ~as·

^gOt!';

~~ f~r.uto .

^atate

~h~t^{you'can.teachanythingto any'childatany}"';&8 - 1£':onl Yyou sat

• . ,"" .','•.•. .4'0 . •

about,itinthe ri ghtwa y."

Piaget:reject s

-thi~_ ~ot:f.O~'. h~s

^reason

being' t~t ~s

dev el o p":' eenttakes placeinse ve r al 1llajorst e p s , thereare certalnthlngs

I

\

.

^.

^{. ".}

^{: .}

thatare beyondth egr a s p of 'the child untilth eearl iutof mese

Btep~'ha"';e

^beenBurmounte<t.He,

lIlaintaln~

^that-developmentoccurs"i n

. . - - - ". _' - I -",

an invariantsequenceof stagessuch·t.ha t lowerlevels arene c es a a -cy

. . .. .-

.

for,the.?ccu~rence^{,o fhigherlev e h,in}Fhah:L~rarchy^=- To character izethe stages or co gn lt.ive devekopment...e.' .there f orenee d'to integrate two necessaryconditions, ,

~ithoutint ro dueingany contradd ccdons ,These condi t ions for stagessr e (a) that,theyKlU,st be definedto guar':' entee a constant order of succession.and,(b) th atth e -

::~:~~~~;nt~~:~p;~~o=~~~~:ly~'.conat~ctiori

^,without

","

"

I'lll ge,t1s.,acc~unt^ofdeveloPllli~t'^mr,kJs," "fo ur.broadst a ges: sl,!ns or illlo!:or,preoperational, concre t eope ra t io nal, andformalop-

-

"\; ^"

'erat~ona\;"He maintains:tluatthe orderofdev~lop^..ent.t hrc ugh the

fou r'st a ge sis constsnt:

Ast a ge systell ofth1s,kind..'.make aup

a

seque n tial process:

itiill notpE's sibletearrivest'~conc r ete ' operationsu-lt h-. outundergoin g aome aensorimotorpnparar lon(whichexplains

"hy , for el<s.. ple .blind people ,havingbadly'coo rdin a t e d ac tionach emat s ,'II\&Y be,r e tar ded).Iti!il also1l1poasibl.e to

:40 jeanPiage.t,"Btel o gy and. Knowledge(Chi ca g o:UniveJ:dt y ofChicagoPress, 1971 ),p.'20.

• 1 " r

" i41Je an Pia get•.''P1age·t'-s!heory,"

Ca'nnich~el

^'s'Han...

;l

of

Child. Psychology ,~d.Pall1H.Muuen .)'rd.ed .(New York :John

""n oy '{"'"

'00. .197 0 ) .,. 710. .

' ,'

I

--c--. : --'1 -- - -

" ,

, L

pros~~ss\o' ~O;~~~tiO~~l '~~~~~t~o~~ WH:hout sUi'Port

^froll

previous,con creteo~erations"etc;4 .',:

west 'a~~

^{F? s t er}

:Ln"~~tin~' ,o~ 'Th~, P~yc~olo'~v"

^of

lI~lIl-an

^Learn-

ing sndInst ructioninEdueatio~^explain,thatPi~get" ~heo~ies,h.ave,', ·

~'Pli~ui.on~for

^{le,a rnifS}

'an~,·instr

^....et iOn. His

f~k

^{serve.s·asebe,"..}

theor e t ical frs",evork for Wes t and Fo s t er'ssta temen tthst"i ns true-

tiO~~l_ e~erien~es ~y b e 1IIa~'<:hed:'~1th th~ cog~it1ve dev~iopment

^of

thesi udeot·snd't i med to

~he :;~te ;f, ·deV810'p~e:ot.,,43

^{. '}

Bas ed onthe'1;""11cat10ns0'£

learnin~ ' th~o~ ~o instr"':~ticin

• .:Wes t

';':~d Fost~;"have '~isted seven.pract~C~l sugge"st:i~ns tha·~

^':artse

.:. . '" I.

outof an.ins tt"uctionaltheory:

; , .

.

1. Whe n studentsare having difficul tyle a rning,abstr a c t gL3teda.1 tryto re presen t themated a l 1n a'concr e t e, manner.

2.'The,tMchersho uldanaly:i: estu d e nts',pred isposit i ons' rQt;'srdlea,m i n g.Aretheatude n ts r e ady tolearnthe lIla-

teri al'l " , ' "

inat~i1a~r:::~::~ :~~~~~ai:~:~d:n:d~:~~:r~:~an1ie~s.

^for

4. The teach e rsho uldatt e mp,ttore d uce excessive anx1et y . " , "

.5. The teache rsho uldtry to,Hnd out,if students'think' th e'mater ialismeaningles s,andonl yworthle a X'ni~8by:rot e.

6• .The't ea ehel;sho uldearef~l1yanal y ;>;e andeefecttll.e cu rr1eularconten t for1ta me an i ngfuln e ss. Also.'1$it .

logieaU . ,'..

7. The'teacher ahould·ge t to knoWindi vi d u a lstudents :~~d~~iI~oc~~;~~:t~:~~;~K4env1romnen tswhich.lStc~,th,e

,.

4lJ e anPh ge t,Bi o logylind Kn owledge(Ch1cago;uniJe.r d t Y

'ofChli:alloPre u~1971),p.'18. ' . ~.

- ";

r

u..

A8

~'i::~t~ ea~l'~r~: the pu~s;,'Of':~hit prOjl!Ct"';~. 't~

developand:

.

\. tt

.

an

i~t~ctionai ~nit.

" . ^{Alt hough'the}"

l~tUal

. ." ^d.'USUS'

..urrol,lll.d~ng^""eboi~~ o~topi~;^tnd.developmentof~~~ns:tru~t~~~};~^{. :}

'"paehge Yin bedh cu a aedlater , it_ nba eaphasbedthat

any '".

~i('

, '.'..'._conc:ep.~s..ee

t~

...

Tut

^{..,.. .t J}

..

sk^.l~s ~.t u.k~

!ltruc:.tiO.~

^...ltnt o,·a c eO\1ft.t^{_.ted.•lo..}.

~ .o

th~

d~V~.l(lP

fadt,that

'OC~i.

~IIPU^{i.t udl}var^{.••.:.. ·}-'.^{. :}. tattonstre of vc.h ru tmagntt udeendthe overla pof achie vement'.

tn.killdeveleP-ntfrOO!lonegradetoan~th~r'h80exten8t~1!^thet pup:t1s within.a'gn deorcl alltean be'upactedtodiffer':'ld~lyln

tha iratt ai nmen t of

~ '~~eep~\~d'

¹ⁿ

the·~t ·

^{,ki ll}

prof1eien~y .

^Fo'rthiB

.

r~;l8~n. i~

^{18unwi. .toutahl1s h a,}

f~~an'd ~t!lid ·'e~uenee

^tiedto

,p~dfie !I;.dea~

^{M J}n ol1l11Ck,

·exJila~e:·,':'~~:':i;,~e

^{ill\/bichIeM U}

.~,

"'--'it~te'~

^hu

:1~1t ~o"tMng ~t" d~'~~~' ~~ ~~~~ ~I~.~~~

SIQfI FJ:oo;CEOF

ntt : " 5'i'tmt

" '. ; .

.

theprojtct va l con cehedas aco~eqUl!oceofthewrite r'o,

", . . ." " • ",..J

invo l v eeel1t.withIc:1.•••of low-aeh ieriD,artde.evetl.t udl!:ilta at

"" . ~. ' . ^" ."

koth ukColle giatt,~1evee ee,¥ewf0un6ltn4. Aceord1JlBto.;thiI·1.0-

" I . '. . '.

nrue t ianalandlearningthe e d.. deacrlbe d'inthe foregohl'1Ib-.

I· .

le cti on,anyiD.t~uet.iolltolbedesigned fo rthe~elaw-a c:hievtn& student."

. .". \ .. '

^{. . .'}

' .

45 . .\' . ' . I

JohnJarolillleir.,Gu ide linesforEle\ll~tarySocialStu dies (Ilashingt on,D.C.lA8ao ~ia t. ianfo rSuperv1siollandCurr ic: ulWD.De-:-

;-'el~~en~ .NEA••1967) , p."17. . ,

; !

I q

',~

I

, L

i _ , , . '_.

t~ehl~~ ~o'c1al

^{studie$'t od}ow-le a rning.gradeseven

8'tude~ts a:~"

Be~th~k COll~g~te.

Frustrat ionhas'a ri s en"

bee.a\ls~;';;i';-~he·

^her.-

th~t.

^a

lot - oi theile.,8tud~nt8a:'i:e not being'p r epa r e d to take thei.rpositio nas

'eee beeeof society.

I

Te xt book s lindQtherteachlng-lea~ing,socialst ud ies

: . . ,. .

^"

devalopingthe imi t ruc t i onalpacka ge wasee e e e t v ee,The basic solution;.

. ' ,

.

", . -'. ' . /

wa sto a t ar t.withth e child,w ereheisand proeeedby a carefully developed and'a e qu enti a l programto,b rl n'ghimup 'toa lev elwhe te

.

.

~!:\:Uld ~earnasWC!~~.asoth.e~~inhi S.011s8and avenr uak fy unde r. the\~candl.tiona88 the,o the r students •

.Ifthe,res ul ts ofthb'a tud )' ..1us tifyit,theuscofIn~t~uc-:-

'. ", .

tiona l packagescouldprovid~te~chers.^{"ithonepOssible}.s o l u t i on"'to ,

.'

th~:'folloW1ng deff.niti~ns'aJ::e:

prBleOted (in

~lPh'abet.1.Cal

^order):',

- .i->:"...

~',.,.

".

. ; ,, ~

·~....aB operatiOnal.!Y defi ne d as test. 'cor e sobt~tned, by_.

~tudentl up~ CO~l~tion~ "Il\i~' cif'stUd~

^{by bot h}

cont~~land '

'. .,~ ,

.. '

."

,eXp8l'bentalgroups•

.,

paekage .

.'Cdte~ion-ReferencedTe s tt ai-e.tanda r d s ofme asurelllellt'used to

p~~id~

inf orma tion

c·o:Uce.rni~g wh~t' ~~ec~tlc

^{akUia',(ma p}

~eadi~g)

~ntrol^{Grcu pw;asthe}.gr OUp of _stude.ntawh.ichvae.as dlll1lar, as p,oss:tble tothe experuentalgroup

:iii

tem~fsele c.ti o n'proeed u l'ee"

.

^{, ~ ', '}

.

:.\.''l'ie x;IDCntsl'age; and'readingabiiity~,The con trol,group~asta·u~t.by

., .t e xtb ook-I e <:tu re.

Ile~~od

,Using' 't he'same',

ln~tru;aen~<i1 conten~ '.s·

that'1ih:tch;ppe ared in tbeinstl'uction'alpa cka ge •

. "" .. """-=='"

targe t,eh~Ol;\.' ,. ',

" .~.,,'~::"::::::;~1~· ^,:; '::::1:,';::1.:::. ~ ^{' :: : : . C ,: : :': : : lt ·••}

.:,'i t s;c oTlten t,';

ll~~. th ~ 1I! te~,e,~et',

^{us edth}

tl :Chd~bollTd

^,ilndIdiei:.a t ed1...-.

r, .,.:-

llo~bOOl<;. .;

.

.' . '

:.:.:..

:

' .

:: ..' " ""

'J" '.Kedh . ..na theh.8~re·~~tVIl. Dt!~easlll'J"~o.,hcU~t.t••the.

':\l6e,'';ftileiD8tru~~i0fl81kit :

. ->:

~.ret~.ebasic:to·o-l.!ofl....~in&.',.Intbisstu dy.',unll.,

.'

: . . . . , .' , ,".

low'a~ad~e^.cM e v lftllant·•• dete~~1Il.fro. ,'.eh"ool'ra cord..'.nd~.'

~s

^1&

~~lOu. :re'd'iDI·~~f.iri:it~cy (U~':'l~Y

^tllO'

o~:~~ee·.Ye~;s beh~~

" t~e

^{pru ent}

sr~deJfi.vel)

^...

dete-rwill~ 'fra.

^the

ean.~iaD iut~,

^of

Bas te

Skill

e, " " .

,System

APP~OICh i~

^-the

.a~Plieati~1l

^{,o f ....}sctent lfi e,

GYSu~'tle

." " " . . ' " , .' . I '" ". ,.'

::.~pro.ehIndesign ingins t ruetio,n ,fr.o~ pr/)b,~llD\..lde nt ~f lc.i1onto,the

f!ni ehe d product, tnIple n nedandllleth o dicil manlier

:In'

^{or der}to'get

'the'

learn~'r' ~rOll

^{where .,}

~1I !tO

^{where' i t}

i~ '~dt th&t' ~~' Iho~1d

^b••'

s\IBlIIl8f1_

Ev~~~ti.on

^vas

~bI!

^{aS8 e. .}

~'~t

^of

th~ i~tr~~~~~

.

" ~it : ~O~ tb~ ~rpo~" 0~':,"-Wafd1n8 'f~1 '~rl<'~ ~for·'~le :: 60%.

^{79%:' :.•,}

'.•tc .)for,t b•• t...d,..Itai.oacted

I''••

tate-e~t^of'~he'd~gree^to

~'ch'~ l~a~er'

^-.

tendM~ ·perf~~e-~app.rox~~adf.t~at ipeC~f~ed.'

bythe1n5tt'u~tlon.lo~jectl"8 :

,. ",.: .'

.

:

. ...

, . .I

.:-;,.-....

- _

^...:.-:.-~--.~

REVIEIf OFuUTED LITERATURE,

ANn

RESEARCH INTRODUCTION

Earlier in Chapter Oneitwasstat ed thatthe PUl"po s e"of

!. , ', ' "', , ' . • .' {

this study wa s todevelop andtest aninstrucUona lunit to,te ach baa i c ma p"read'ing sk:llls .BP~~if1callyla.t hud e 'end long i t ud e;to low<-~s~~evell~ntstudents enter 1l'lgj,~nior.hi gh'schoo l.Ac:cor-ding'to,th~

desip of the pres ent,Ne,wf~~ndlsndge ograph ycu r ric ulum·,ch.Hdr e n a r e suppOsed

ee

nav e--. l re ady learned'these' s~lis"tloWe ve r, thiaisnot al"Waya

thec~~'e

^and

as

a cons equ ence

i~

^isne ces s sry'totI.I1k e

prov~sion

for theseind1vidua:ls ~

I

₁

Many,studi e s ofchildr e n' smap tea ding abilities have been conducted duringthe lastthreede c ade s.Samest ud ies havebeen'di - rected'towards~'i:ocrprehen~ive^{'a ss}e$5ll\en t' ofc:hUd1;.en's'!la prea di n g

.

. .

e~udie~'

^have

deal~w~th

^{spec U1c}

llla~

^re a di!! g ,'ski llsstich'4Sme-a au ring .

abUitie~;

ot hera twsrde a

comprehensive' pr~gr8m

^of

i~~true tiono

^{see e}

'I-

. .

' . ' ,

Still

others'ha ve'beenecneesnedwith spec:1ficareasoftnstt'uct1.Cm suchas

h~to

^{.t ea1ch'scale,}

proj~~'t'iO~S,

^and

coo'rdin~te

^{sys tems,In'}

this",hapter,'a reviewofU:t eratu r esnd

empiri~al

^{research;i s'}

diVid"~d

.

^{'. " . .}

A.intothree IIl8.jor se c t iona.be ca~s e o~,t he'nature.of t~.prob.lelllo~ection onelooks atgeography s~8i1i~e.ipl1~eand geographic edue.at'ion8$'~

I .

26

I i

.

^{. .}

It'ha~b~'en'^{saidtha t}wi t hin'theverYbr~ad^{are a,0 social}

.'; 'u.;... I., ."", p~."",, ^,i" dr;... of hu';'. ova.I, ,n: "m • wh."'.' ' .

teographystud~estheat age~whichthes~eve n t stakepi ac•Thevery nat~re Of'geo~raphY.hoWeve~.1stvericOll,lpl ex and thl;!r e by'v,e r y difficul t to deU nE; pre ci s e l y .Never~heless .'1~maybesddtha tthe subject1,8 <.I broadl yc~ce:lved bygeographyeee ebees,geography'e~ucators,and

academi c ge ograp'hersal1kec tobe one th at,~n. HacKi~der 's~rds,can do

''-4,BJialfordJ.MacKinder,."On'the'.sccp e-and'Met hodsofGeogr aphy,"

proceedi ngsofthe-RoyalGeogra phical Societ y. Vol.9(1887).p.,145, cite d in R.G~Boneybone,"BallinceinGe ographyand Educa t i on ." cec- ra h and eInte.rate.dCui:r1culUll'l: A Reader .ed,Michael. Wi ll1ams_

London,Engl and:Hein emann Educational,Books.1976? ,po85: .

\

^{. .}

.. . ..

· , ',,49RiCha:~Hart shorne.The Nature ofGeography (Lancas ter ,Pa,~:

.ABS?ds~iOn,~,~',

i\lII. '\; ...

".<".n,~eographers ,1939).p,147.'

.... \ . , I

~IlI\Ichto''bridgethega'P•• •betweent~enatu ral,sciencesandthe,s tudyof 'hlllaanity: lt48or,BOfIl,ewb:itsWl ariy,thathas

'b~enid~nt1fied

bynere-

· shorne

as''an

1ntegra~ing

^'"science

cutti~!f throti~h

^thephys i cal and

sOe1a~'

··s c1ences.' 49.

. ^, . ' ' .

i

~,~

:- _/ _I v1~';"l-P;;;;f:h~::SC:O: _'

pr ogr am.'

S ection ~o

^{deni s}

_• ^spec1

ⁱ

all~

withJ,:lteJ:'sturepertain1p.gtotheililpo r t a n c e ofmap skillsIII l!ss e n - t1al·partof thesoci alstudies curric ulum,an d empi ri calres ethan howIIl.8pskil ls aredevel op.ed ,Wit hpart iculareefe eeneetoIsitd"

-, ' .,;-.,;3"'- ~~d:l~n&itude .;.Sectl:~" thr~'e

^{,I Dolta,a t}

J::~searCh 'ie'la~tn~

^"IIlSP

ll~S t~-'

·

.i'~im';"".

pmi' u" r ' y thesew1<h ••

=

road,",.b11 1<y

..J

^bow

" . ,. !

,.

,j'.

:' "j.

I

·f l

,

", .

.

^. '"

Scarfeals o lI,t re s ... the conceptof placewhen he,expla ius that the _t,rulygeosraphlc~lang le"illt'neIntera~ting'influenc e

of_

placell'

andPeopi~-

.•••

,,5~

. ...

. . '. ... ... • _. '.,- I : . _ .

chara cter.of,place,. ·•••th~inte gr a tl!dvho ltof •people andIts"'

~ahlt.i.t.- .'~_ t~e

int er r el a tions

be·twe~ ·pl a~e·i·.,,51 ·

'I.;

. :The

~~'llCI!~t oi ·geo&~'.·Pb".~·. _4Ul1nif~ U~l.n:.:tio~ :Of t'~e

.. i

~~lati~~b.ip becv~ea ~l.ce.

^ud

--p:~le'- ·~ppe.n

^to

~ , t~~ ceo~'~a'~

^.

~~e:.e ~~ini' '~hrOUCb t~e_'~Ul~~~~f ·..o .t vd~

^boVn'

geo~J;~~lie~-~.

·:.:V1dal·i~

¹⁸

:Bl~~he

^Hell

~eolr

^..l.phy

.i

"the'Kie ncl!

o~ pla~el 'no ~ (~hat)

. '50 .~. ", . . . ,." . .. ' .., '

.of me n.".)Iro..kalso,explalnllthatgeos.ra phy1.coac.ernedwith"the'

.

- ..

\. . . ' '" .

_Gr~:"" ~~,~t~II~'that ~.eoll~aPhY

^ilI.a

~'tudy

of ' " a.1Id

;~8

l"elat1on':•

-. " IIhl p_t~theland11tbe_"pe~a lling pa~adi~'of leaseap hy .... 'He later

.

.

goes ontopr od datMot,beCllu,ethepr evaili n g p.atadi pfor geo gra ph y

. .

^.

'isthe'area l

dlfferent~~io~'

^{orngloo.al.yut heais}Dadel it fiuv';l l '..

1I1t~ . ~ 'j~'tifle~tlon

^'fo:r,

geo~aPh1ea1 ~uc~tion .

^{54Othe r."}

geo~rapbers

^.'

,,~P.ul

^Vidal

~e

la:'Biacbe':

~t~· ~ ~s. v. ·Voolridg~ ~nd ~" 'G ; :~"

.','Ea,t~Th eSp irita'ndPurpo lleofGeogra p'hy .Vd ed.i.r evis ed'(Lo ndon. . '.Bn&land: Hutchi nson ,1966).p.2S . .

si ''. ' , " . .! • ' ,

~',

'

'~

.

.JanO.H.Broek.Goonap h! :ItB ScopeandSpirit (Col-.bul,

.Ohio.:CharlesE.H.errUlPubliahingCo., 1965),p.3.

5~evllle

^V.Searle,

Geogra~hY in ~Sehool, G"o~nPhic E<lu~'atIOli

SeriesNo.5 (No rmal,Illinoi . :Na Uo ~COIl-DeilforGeographic Edu-

.icatIon, 19 65),p.1.' .

53N~na.n

J.'Grave.; Geographyin

'Ed~eat~~n; (Londo~"

^{England :}

Ilein eman n Educat ionalJ.oo ka, 1975),'p.82) ', • .

~ ~bU.,,: ,P. 8~ ,'-

. [ . : ' '!.

,.,\

:.,

l':'

L

.29

. . ., " ' . ' " , -"55

.uch a.sPatt1scm argueforth eIIp.&Ual oqanhationpattern . 11le t •

.

-

". - ' . .

·dU~e~tlg PI:~dif:l".of.lleo graphy have.ledGnv~.

to

clr~the ro'nowi,;,g

c~nclus~on us',rdina

aaolr aph; 'Sposi tion inth e _rybro a dfieldof

·educatio n: I

. I.

1.£ODet.~• •viewof educati onas.a ninlt a t ionin t o V('Irth- ' ,.. wtdl eactiviti es;then bothpara digms arere levant ; burIf

·onev ilNSeducationas havin gan essen tiallyinstrument al

·ro l e inecon Olll1e an dao e i a l life,,',t he nth e spat ialorga nl';'.

zatlonparad1p~y_eelllmo~relev ant.nd80th ebroad ai N of geog r ap hic aleducation1llay be eeen.as.ehe se'o f"

:~:~n~h:~~;:r:~~;t:~~concePts

and

.p~lntiplell '~bsuilled

..

.Wha t e vet: the

p~·r~dlg'lI.

hoW'

~l~e ca~·.teaChel:'8

help

IIt~dent/l u~~er&tand

^{th eidu llof sp a t ial}

loclltl~n; ·llP.t1~1

^{. .}

soc~atl0n.

^and

apa t ia1intetact ion"thanth rough th e st r uc tured cont ex t.~fgeog t illph ic

·eduCillti0ll 7

J~es

^{_ku ...aU'ougpitchfor,the}lnelu.lion -.nd

b.p~rt-.nce·

ofgeography inedueationwhenhesay sI

.if geog;aPh1ce nestoi: tt odu c e

stude;t~to

^a

syat~

^__

^f

at1.ca lly orga.o.1u d pi ctur sof.theworldin wichvelive ..

=:

::~::5,ubjeC~~tte~vUl be.ea~ledupan~O'f~~

- -of 0 :

.

. .

,Bowar th IlIIlintainathat...ge o gt aph y.~,C01l.j unctiOUwi th all

o " :~

other school aub jecta.is,inaPOSi ~ iOll~to. .kevaluable cont r i b u t ions'

· 55W:D.Patti~on,^"TheEdueation~lPurpoaeao f'ceography, ".. Evaluationin Geographi CEdu c ation,ed.D. G.Xu dll4n(BeblO n t. . C&lifo mi\:.Fea ronPubl ish ers •.1970):

.

S6N~t;IIl<1ln

^{J.Gu ve s,}

Geosr~p~y :in

°Edu ca tion

' (LondO~.

^{'Eng land;}

HeinemannEduc.~ionl1Boo~. 1~15).p,9!J.

. .

..' ..,.57P1;eII t onE.'

J8lIleB~ "I~ti:Odue'~Ory

^Geography!

T~pieal' or

!",.'~1."

'0.=.' of ""o".phy.

LXVI(r.b.~

^{•.,..·'96').53. /;.:..',\ .}

j

.»

(

580•J.R.Howar t h ,

:"Th~

Commoriwe.a l t h in,th e'Ge og r aPh y Syllabu s, "Geog ra ph y " XXXI X,(1954), 5-13:

59J ohna.'-Iu ae.

'''Geography~

^intheSec.on dary

Gr~r

^andCOln-

prehenaiveSchoolsofF.nglandand I /ales:A'Brie f Apprlii a.. l ". (pape r '.pr.asentedto a·meetin g ofth eCOl!llllisstonforGeography inEduca tion ,

tWenty-secondInterna t i onal 'Geographical,Corigress,Tor on t o; Can a da,

.Aug ust,1972.,ERIC ED 066362. ' .' .

." '.' . '

.;~anun~er9tandingof,geographi cal,conc ep ts.,pr in c i ples;,aM ide asa,re'ne e ea eary if • student'is toatt ai n those goals

r.a nd.obj~~ tivesoutlined forth~_soe1a l atud i e s , pro,gr8l!l.in:'

i

I

> '.

I I · · .

,toward~llede,:,~loPDlent.o f Bocial, rC$ponslb i lityupon-s n'int.erna;io nal-'

8ellle. ,,5~

I . .

le,searehbyWise in dieBe~ondat"ygrammarandcomptehenS1ve schools

~ _I.

^{l;:ngiand'an d}

W~le9 _{. .}

^in197'2

C~[irmed

^{thatgeog raphy1',;an}

_.

impor t ant 8ub jee t inthecurriculum.Inee eer- e ree.etr eeeetee,it18

.. I ' _ _ 59

Jlu rpsssed'onlY,byIll3themat les,En8~1sh.a~d.Fre nc h.

AI'thoughWise'UggeB~stha t.geography"cannot be,r e ga r.de d

IellSentiallyasa

kubje~t

^havingfun c t ions n:,rmally ascri bedto S?c1al .studi escunleui.,~^,.,60

he

does agre ewi ;hLongandRob~r;son

:.rho

have .statedthat-"geog~aphy^1aneces s arytoa"••:.kn~ledgeof other ways

. . "," . . _ ' ., ,' - ·"61

oflife._ofeond~tionBoflivin g,and ,ofworldinte r dependence••••"

'MeTe er ecn du e t.edvreeear ch 1nto highsch o olst~denta1at t i t ud es

,.'towar dge~graphy.,A1thou~h~isfi':'di nga Bugg est.a>e~sthan pos i tive at ti t ude t ow.. rd the'subj ect, MeTe'ar,b lame s'the at titudeon instructional deficicn cie s'and main t a in sthat:

r

61 ,, ' .

• , "M•.Longand .B.S.,Rob e rson', Tea ch i ngGeograph y(London.

'Eng la nd:Re1ne lll8nn,EducationalBook a,-Ltd . ,1966)t34. "

\

~ '. . '.', " ,,'~ ,'. r . , McAuley's tr e ss esth'" impor tance'of geographyto'sec!';"l st'Ud i(!8'.

.: .. . . iIt/ .

especiallyind~ el op inga se nseof place;

:Geographyhelps·g.ive;j'tl:u'::t~re'^to~Ha~·stud'ieS; ,Yith-.

out,th isst r u c t ure socialstud i es hasno properexplana-, tion of theint e r r elat io n sh ip s be tweenpe oples and the

earth,63, .

Thus , it wouiq ."lI;ppearthati tis"geogr~phy; ~8afi el d

or'·

THE NEED FOR HAPSKILLS

SkUl'dev ~10 pmen t,iss'YitdlyimportantcOlllponen·tof,the'

social.stud i~ac,urrieulullI ,Jar011ia~kexpl.i~sthat"skillsat:e'the 1>aa'i <l: toolapflear n i n g,,,64Jar ol 1me\<:. goesontosay that:

Inad~quately cieve'i~ped skill~^for e s hor te n't h ..,oppoit~nitf

tocon tinue learningandlea d invariably,t opoo r 's chi ev e";

eeeeinth e soc.is1'studies..It .issimply1r.lpos,aiblef'o ra

62J •Hu ghxc'r e e e , "High''Sch~~lStudent s' Atti tud e sToward' Geography.II:.rournalofGeography,LXXVllI;

t

(Feb r u a r y;·1 9n ),55•

.63J•D.He.Auley,

"~P8

^{,a nd}

G10bes'~n t~~ Ele~entl'try

^School

ProgJ;am,".Journalof Geography,LIX,(December, 196 0) , 431. .

64;O hnJa r OI:1mek, "Th",·PsYChOlOgYOf511.111

D",vei~Plllent ,,,

SkillDevelop_otin Social Studies,ed,Helen Mc:Crackcn Corpenter ,. Thirtj-thir dYe a rbookof' th e NationalC?unci lfor the Social Studies;

.,(Ya shington,D"C.: National,Councilfor the SocialStu-dies , 1963),. P'18.