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Optimal succinct representation of planar maps

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HAL Id: inria-00070221

https://hal.inria.fr/inria-00070221

Submitted on 19 May 2006

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Optimal succinct representation of planar maps

Luca Castelli Aleardi, Olivier Devillers, Gilles Schaeffer

To cite this version:

Luca Castelli Aleardi, Olivier Devillers, Gilles Schaeffer. Optimal succinct representation of planar

maps. [Research Report] RR-5803, INRIA. 2006, pp.26. �inria-00070221�

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ISRN INRIA/RR--5803--FR+ENG

a p p o r t

d e r e c h e r c h e

Thème SYM

INSTITUT NATIONAL DE RECHERCHE EN INFORMATIQUE ET EN AUTOMATIQUE

Optimal succinct representation of planar maps

Luca Castelli Aleardi — Olivier Devillers — Gilles Schaeffer

N° 5803

12 janvier 2006

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