Calibration of the surface array of the Pierre Auger Observatory

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HAL Id: in2p3-00115164

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Submitted on 15 Jan 2007

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Calibration of the surface array of the Pierre Auger

Observatory

X. Bertou, P.S. Allison, C. Bonifazi, P. Bauleo, C.M. Grunfeld, M. Aglietta,

F. Arneodo, D. Barnhill, J.J. Beatty, N.G. Busca, et al.

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peak

9Sl C<;O<<= ;G< } [rZA OBA YY 9Sm

ZG< <=V_;D_<=V ?B@= I<BAL><I<=; @IUN@<A ;GB; ;G< [ r ZA @= ;G< AL>XBH< V<_ 9Wn ;<H;D>A O@NN GBE< <TL@EBN<=; ?B@=A _ @=V<<V F <E<= [rZA O@;G@= ;G< ABI< 9W9 ;B= Q IBJ =D; GBE< <TL@EBN<=; ?B@=AY X B OB;<> ;B= Q U>DVLH<A ID>< UGD;D=A 9WS U<> E<>;@HBN ILD= ;GB= B= BE<>B?< ;B= QF ;G<= ;G< [ r ZA @= ;G< ;B= Q O@NN C< 9WW B; B NDO<> ?B@= ;GB= B= BE<>B?< ;B= Q ;D HDIU<=AB;<Y @ Q <O@A< F @X B [rZ GBA 9W\

B OD>A< DU;@HBN HDLUN@=? ;GB= ;G< D;G<>A @= ;G< ABI< ;B= QF ><ALN;@=? @= X<O<> 9W` UGD;D=A A<<= U<> E<>;@HBN ILD= F ;G< [ r Z O@NN C< >L= B; B G@?G<> ?B@=Y ZGLA F 9Wc

(8)

Gain

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

600

3

10 ×

PE

n

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180 at 1st Dynode vs. Gain

PE

n at 1st Dynode vs. Gain

_PE

n

) "

n

pe

'' ) ) +" & " ) # ~ , " ) .) !

n

pe

n

pe

"" *

3.4 × 10

5

,

n

pe

/VEM

94 pe

AL>XBH< V<;<H;D>Y ZG@A @A AGDO= @= @?Y |Y ZG< @=E<>A< ><NB;@D=AG@U @A TL@;< 9Wm HN F AGDO@=? ;GB; ;G< @=@;@BN <=V_;D_<=V ?B@= A<;LU @A DU<>B;@=? HD>><H;NJY 9\n ZG< HGD@H< DX

50 ch/I

V EM

peak

><ALN;A @= B I<B= ?B@= DX BUU>DM@IB;<NJ

3.4 × 10

5

9\9 XD> B I<B=

n

pe

/VEM ∼ 94 pe

Y 9\S g f 9\W ] =H< ;G< ?B@=A DX ;G< } [ r ZA B>< A<; LU F ;G< V>@X;A DX ;G< EBNL< DX

I

V EM

peak

@= 9\\

<N<H;>D=@HA L=@;A XD> <BHG V<;<H;D> ILA; C< HDIU<=AB;<V ;D <=AL>< ;GB; ;G< 9\`

AL>XBH>BJ ;>@??<>A L=@XD>INJYZG@A HDIU<=AB;@D= @A VD=< E@B BVLA;@=? ;G< 9\c ;>@??<>N<E<NA CBA<V D= BHD=;@=LBND=_N@=< HBN@C>B;@D=YZG< [ r Z G@?GEDN;B?< @A 9\e =D;HGB=?<V VL>@=? =D>IBNDU<>B;@D= F OG@HG @IUN@<A;GB; ;G< VJ=BI@H >B=?< DX 9\l

;G< ab O@NNC< AN@?G;NJ=D=_L=@XD>IYD>=D>IBNDU<>B;@D= F

;G@A=D=_L=@XD>I@;J 9\m

@A I@=@IBN P

∼ 10%

R

Yb<;<H;D>A OG@HG GBE< V>@X;<V A@?=@ o HB=;NJ P

> 20

HG R X>DI 9`n ;G< =DI@=BN

I

_{V EM}

peak

DX

50

HG B>< ><_@=@;@BN@^<V XDNNDO@=?;GDH<VL>< @= a<HY}YjY 9`9 ZG< BE<>B?< EBNL< DX

I

_{V EM}

peak

XD> ;G< [rZA DX ;G< ab @A HL>><=;NJ

(46 ± 4) ch

Y 9`S ZG< EBNL< DX

I

V EM

peak

BA V< o

=<V @= A<H;@D= |Y | @A =D; DC;B@=<V D=_N@=< A@=H< ;G@A 9`W

ODLNV @=H><BA< ;G< V<BV ;@I< DX ;G< V<;<H;D> ;D L=BHH<U;BCN< N<E<NAY =A;<BV F 9`\

;G< ;>@??<> N<E<NA B>< A<; O@;G ><AU<H; ;D B= <A;@IB;< DX

(9)

Q 9cn ZD DC;B@= ;G< EBNL< DX

I

est

V EM

F B

σ − δ

HD=E<>?<=H< BN?D>@;GI @A LA<V F OG<>< B 9c9 ;<A; EBNL< P

I

est

V EM

R @A BN;<><V CJ B= BVLA;I<=;

δ

@X B I<BAL><V EBNL< P;G< >B;< R 9cS @A DL;A@V< DX B CDL=V

σ

Y ZG@A BN?D>@;GI @A @IUN<I<=;<V BA XDNNDOA 9cW Pj R a;B>; O@;G B EBNL< DX

I

est

V EM

= 50 ch

Y 9c\ P | R r<BAL>< F XD> <BHG [rZ F

;G< >B;< DX <E<=;A AB;@AXJ@=? ;G< HBN@C>B;@D= ;>@?_ 9c`

?<> CJ HDL=;@=? ;G<A< <E<=;A XD> B ;@I<

t

cal

F @=@;@BNNJ A<; ;D

5 s

Y 9cc P} R X F XD> B ?@E<= [rZ F ;G< >B;< @A BCDE<

70 + σ Hz

F @=H><BA<

I

est

V EM

CJ

δ

Y 9ce @ Q <O@A< F @X;G< >B;< @AC<NDO

70−σ Hz

F V<H><BA<

I

est

V EM

CJ

δ

F O@;G

σ = 2 Hz

9cl B=V

δ = 1 ch

@=@;@BNNJY 9cm P R X ;G< >B;< DX B=J A@=?N< [ r Z @A ID>< ;GB=

10 σ

BOBJ X>DI

70 Hz

F BVLA; 9en

I

est

V EM

CJ

5 ch

@= ;G< BUU>DU>@B;< V@><H;@D= F A<;

t

cal

;D

10 s

F

δ = 1 ch

F B=V 9e9 ><U<B; X>DI A;O@A< F @X

t

cal

< 60 s

F @=H><BA<

t

cal

CJ

5 s

Y X

δ > 0.1 ch

F V<H><BA<

δ

CJ 9eW

0.1 ch

F B=V ><U<B; X>DI A;B;@D= ;>@??<>@AB A@=?N< [rZ ;>@??<>O@;G@= B }_XDNV HD@=H@V<=H< F B 9e` AIBNNV>@X;@= ;G< HBN@C>B;@D= ;>@??<>>B;< DXD=< [rZ AGDLNV =D; B<H; ;G< >B;< 9ec DX B=D;G<>Y a;@;GI ;D AO@;HG CBH Q ;D B HDB>A<> ;>BH Q @=? 9ee IDV< ;D I@=@I@^< ;G< <<H; ;GB; D=< [rZ HB= GBE< D= ;G< D;G<> ;ODY = 9el U>BH;@H< F HGB=?<A DX N<AA ;GB= jt @= B U<>@DV DX

t

cal

VD =D; B<H; ;G< D;G<> 9em [ r ZA A@?=@ o HB=;NJY 9ln : I@=@ILI EBNL< DX

δ = 0.1 ch

OBA HGDA<= ;D BNNDO

I

est

V EM

;D HDIU<=AB;< XD> 9l9 V>@X;A @= ;G< CBA<N@=< DX <BHG HGB==<N BA AIBNN BA

0.1 ch

O@;GDL; A@?=@ o HB=;NJ 9lS B<H;@=? ;G< <>>D> @= ;G< <A;@IB;<Y ZG< EBNL< DX

σ = 2 Hz

@A <TLBN ;D

∼ 2×

9lW

;G< [D@AAD= KLH;LB;@D= DE<> ;GB; ;@I< U<>@DV F B=V @A ><BAD=BCN< ?@E<= ;G< 9l\ ><TL@><I<=; DX

< 10%

BHHL>BHJY 9l`

: A@IUN< ;<A; DX ;G< ALHH<AA DX ;G< HD=E<>?<=H< BN?D>@;GI @A ;D NDD Q B; ;G< 9lc ;>@??<> >B;<A XD> ;G< A@IUN< ;G><AGDNV ;>@??<>YOG@HG @ALA; B }_XDNV HD@=H@V<=H< 9le ;>@??<> B;

3.2 I

_{V EM}

peak

.

] = B ><X<><=H< ;B= QF O@;G } [rZA ;L=<V ;D <TLBN

I

_{V EM}

peak

9ll EBNL<A F ;G@A ?@E<A B >B;< DX

∼ 20 Hz

Y ZG< }_XDNV HD@=H@V<=H< >B;<A XD> |j ;B= Q A 9lm C<XD>< B=V BX;<> ;G< HD=E<>?<=H< BN?D>@;GI @A BUUN@<V @A AGDO= @= @?Y}Y ZG< 9mn >BU@V HD=E<>?<=H< ;D

∼ 20 Hz

AGDOA ;GB; ;G< I<;GDV V<AH>@C<V <=BCN<A ;G< 9m9

L=@XD>I ;>@??<> N<E<NA ;D C< <A;BCN@AG<V >BU@VNJY 9mS

: HDIUB>@AD= DX ;G< HD=E<>?<V

I

est

V EM

EBNL< O@;G EBNL<A DC;B@=<V X>DI B ULNA< 9mW

G<@?G; G@A;D?>BI ?@E<A

(10)

0 Time (min)

Rate (Hz)

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

* & *'"

3.2 I

est.

V EM

∼ 20 Hz

"

2.5 I

est.

V EM

" # ' - " !

t ≈ 20 min

)

0

! ' " " BN?D>@;GI D=

Q

est

V EM

F V<;<>I@=<V @=@;@BNNJ X>DI ;G< HGB>?< DX ;G< o >A; ULNA<Y 9mm : HDIUB>@AD= DX ;G< HD=E<>?<V

Q

est

V EM

B=V

Q

peak

V EM

V<;<>I@=<V X>DI B U?< G@A;D?>BIA J@<NVA

Q

est

V EM

= (0.96 ± 0.03) Q

peak

V EM

Y bL>@=? DU<>B_ Sn9 ;@D= F

Q

est

V EM

@A LA<V ;D ID=@;D> ;G< A;B;LA DX ;G< V<;<H;D> HD=;@=LDLANJ B=V ;D SnS

U>DE@VDAA_HG<H Q

D= ;G<

Q

V EM

G@A;D?>BI I<BAL><I<=;Y a@=H<

Q

V EM

@A SnW LA; ;G< =LIC<> DX UGD;D<N<H;>D=A U<> ILD= P

n

pe

R ;@I<A ;G< [rZ ?B@= F ;G< Sn\ VJ=DV<zB=DV< >B;@D F B=V ;G< <N<H;>D=@H ?B@= F

Q

est

V EM

HB= C< LA<V ;D HBNHLNB;< Sn`

n

pe

XD> BNN V<;<H;D>A BA O<NNY Snc ZG< G@A;D>J DE<> ;G< NBA;

t

cal

P

60

A R U<>@DVA DX ;G< BVLA;I<=;A ;D

I

est

V EM

@A Sne @=HNLV<V O@;G <BHG <E<=; F BND=? O@;G

I

est

V EM

F

Q

est

V EM

F B=V ;G< NBA;

70 Hz

>B;<A Snl XD> <BHG DX ;G< } [rZAY Snm gg f f fff f f f S9n ZG< >B;@D DX

I

_{V EM}

peak

;D

I

est

V EM

OBA XDL=V ;D GBEJ AN@?G; U><AAL>< V<U<=_ S99 V<=H< F OG@HG @A <MU<H;<V A@=H< ;G< D=_N@=< HBN@C>B;@D= LA<A ;G< >B;< DX B;ID_ S9S AUG<>@H ILD=A B;

1.75 I

V EM

peak

;D V<;<>I@=<

I

V EM

peak

YZG< V<U<=V<=H< @A HN<> XD> S9W ;<HG=@HBN ><BAD=A XD>

Q

est

V EM

/Q

peak

V EM

F B=V @A AGDO= @= @?Y Y ZG< HD>><NB;@D= S9\ @A

(11)

tYu tYuy tYus tYu tYux xy xyt xyy xst xsy xt xy xxt [><AAL>< PG[B R & "

Q

est

V EM

/Q

peak

V EM

) ) ' ! "

1 hPa = 1.020 g cm

−2

) )

∼ 0.1% g

−1

cm

2

"" )) ."

3%

30 g cm

−2

F @IUNJ@=? B IBM@ILI

3%

JNJ EB>@B;@D= @= ;G< ;>@??<> N<E<NY S9c g

Q

peak

V EM

f f hf h S9e ZG< ab <N<H;>D=@HA GBA B A<UB>B;< ;>@??<> V<A@?=<V AU<H@ o HBNNJ XD> HDNN<H;@=? S9l

G@?G_>B;< VB;B O@;G X<O<> C@=A P |t C@=A @=A;<BV DX sx XD> ;G< <E<=; VB;B R B; S9m NDO ;G><AGDNV P

0.1 I

est

V EM

R Y ] =H< ;G< HBN@C>B;@D=U>DH<VL>< GBA A;BC@N@^<V

I

est

V EM

F SSn

;G@A;>@??<> @A<=BCN<V B=V A<;A DXG@A;D?>BIA DXEB>@DLATLB=;@;@<A B>< HDNN<H;<V SS9

DE<> st A<HD=V @=;<>EBNA _ BUU>DM@IB;<NJ jyt F

ttt <=;>@<A U<> G@A;D?>BIYZG<A< SSS

G@A;D?>BIA B>< A<=; ;D ;G< db:a BND=? O@;G B=J <E<=;A ;GB; B>< ><TL<A;<V SSW

_ ;G<><XD>< F

<BHG <E<=; GBA B G@?G_A;B;@A;@HA A<; DX HGB>?< B=V ULNA< G<@?G; SS\

G@A;D?>BIA X>DI ;G<E@DLA I@=L;< BHHDIUB=J@=? ;G< VB;BY SS`

ZG< G@A;D?>BIA H><B;<V <E<>J I@=L;< SSc

•

dGB>?< G@A;D?>BIA XD> <BHG @=V@E@VLBN [rZ SSe

•

dGB>?< G@A;D?>BI XD> ;G< ALI DX BNN } [rZA SSl

•

[LNA< G<@?G; G@A;D?>BIA XD> <BHG @=V@E@VLBN [ r Z SSm

•

@A;D?>BIA DX ;G< CBA<N@=< DX <BHG :bd HGB==<N SWn

ZG< BE<>B?< DX BNN ULNA< AGBU<A O@;G B= @=;<?>B;<V HGB>?< DX

1.0 ± 0.1 Q

est.

V EM

SW9

@A BNAD A<=;Y := <MBIUN< DX ;G< G@A;D?>BIA B=V ULNA< AGBU< BE<>B?< A<=; O@;G SWS

(12)

FADC channels

34

36

38

40

42

44

46

48

50

52

54 Counts

0 10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

Baseline histograms, LS 267

PMT 1

PMT 2

PMT 3

(a)

FADC channels

900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800

Counts

0

500 1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Charge PMT 1, LS 267

PMT 1

PMT 2

PMT 3

(c)

FADC channels

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

5500

Counts

0

500 1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

Summed charge histogram, LS 267

(e)

FADC channels

50

100

150

200

250 Counts

0 2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

Pulse height histograms, LS 267

PMT 1

PMT 2

PMT 3

(b)

FADC bins (25 ns)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450 Pulse height (arb. units)

0

500 1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3

10 ×

Shape PMT 1, LS 267

PMT 1

PMT 2

PMT 3

(d)

~ .)" " ! ( ! , " )) ." #% ,%%% )" "" ) - " " "" * ", )" ' , , , )" ) )" !

1.0 ± 0.1 Q

est.

V EM

)

I

_{V EM}

peak

" * !

3.3%

)" $$# ( !

4.4%

" )" bL>@=? VB;B B=BNJA@A F ;G< A<HD=V U?< G@A;D?>BIA SW\ P @?Y yH R @A o ; CJ B TLBV>B;@H XL=H;@D= ;D DC;B@= ;G< EBNL< DX

Q

V EM

LA<V ;D SW`

HD=E<>; ;G< @=;<?>B;<V A@?=BN @=;D L=@;A DXpqrYZG< B?><<I<=; DX

(13)

Q

V EM

Q SWl

I<BAL><I<=;A DX;G< HGB>?< V<UDA@;<V@= ;G< [rZ CJ;G< dG<><= Q

DE N@?G;X>DI SWm

B V<HBJ <N<H;>D= X>DI B A;DUU<V ILD=Y ZG<A< ;OD I<BAL><I<=;A O<>< XDL=V S\n ;D B?><< ;D

0.5%

F O<NN O@;G@= ;G<

4%

L=H<>;B@=;J DX ;G<

Q

V EM

I<BAL><I<=; S\9 X>DI ;G< V<HBJ <N<H;>D=Y S\S 5582841 3 23 S\W = BVV@;@D= ;D ;G@IB>J HD=E<>A@D= X>DI @=;<?>B;<V HGB==<NA;D pqr L=@;A F S\\

;G< HBN@C>B;@D= ILA; BNAD C< BCN< ;D HD=E<>; ;G< >BO :bd ;>BH<A @=;D @=;<_ S

\`

?>B;<V HGB==<NAY ZG<>< ;OD U>@IB>J UB>BI<;<>A =<<V<V XD> ;G@AY S\c Pj R ZG< CBA<N@=<A DX BNN s :bd @=UL;A S\e P | R ZG< ?B@= >B;@D C<;O<<= ;G< VJ=DV< B=V;G< B=DV< PHBNN<V;G< VJ=DV<zB=DV< S\l >B;@Dv R S\m ZG< CBA<N@=< @A HDIUL;<V X>DI <BHG DX;G<

100 Hz

HBN@C>B;@D= ;>@??<>ADC;B@=<V S`n

DE<> B st A<HD=V @=;<>EBN P

∼ 6000

;D;BN ;>@??<>A R

BA O<NN BA ;G< A;B=VB>V V<E@B_ S`9

;@D= DX <BHG DX ;G< s @=UL;AYZG@A @=XD>IB;@D= @A BNAD @=HNLV<V O@;G <BHG <E<=; F S`S B=V HB= C< H>DAA_HG<H Q <V B?B@=A; G@A;D?>BIA DX ;G< CBA<N@=< XD> ;G< } VJ=DV< S`W HGB==<NAY S`\ g f f S`` ZG< VJ=DV<zB=DV< >B;@D Pbz: R

@A AN@?G;NJ ID>< HDIUN@HB;<V ;D I<BAL><Y ZG< S`c D=NJ ULNA<A BEB@NBCN< ;D I<BAL>< bz: B>< ILD=_N@ Q < ULNA< AGBU<A _ <@;G<> S`e X>DI B;IDAUG<>@H ILD=A D> X>DI B= D=CDB>V q b KBAG<> PLA<V XD> N@=@;J S`l I<BAL><I<=;A R Y : ILD=_N@ Q < A@?=BN HB= C< V<AH>@C<V <AA<=;@BNNJ BA B XBNN@=? S`m <MUD=<=;@BN BX;<> ;G< U<B QF O@;G B ;JU@HBN V<HBJ HD=A;B=; DX

∼ 60 ns

PA<< @?Y Scn yV R

Y ZG< A@?=BNz=D@A< DX ;G< ALI ;G<><XD>< V<H><BA<A BA C@=A XB>;G<> X>DI ;G< Sc9 U< @=HNLV<V @= ;G< ALIIB;@D=Y ScS ZG< =DI@=BN ?B@= C<;O<<= ;G< VJ=DV< B=V ;G< B=DV< @A }| _ ;GB; @A F y C@;A ScW DX DE<>NBU DL; DX B jt C@; :bd F ?@E@=? jy ;D;BN C@;A DX VJ=BI@H >B=?<Y D> B Sc\ A@?=BNOG@HG @A=NJAB;L>B;<V D= ;G< VJ=DV< P

∼ 950 ch

O@;GB

50 ch

CBA<N@=< R F Sc` ;G< B=DV< A@?=BN O@NN C< I<><NJ

30 ch

BCDE< CBA<N@=< F ZG< r a =D@A< DX ;G< Scc B=DV< B=V VJ=DV< HGB==<NA @A

∼ 0.5 − 0.8 ch

F OG@HG @IUN@<A ;GB; B A@?=BN O@;G Sce B V<HBJ HD=A;B=; DX

∼ 60 ns

O@NN D=NJ C< BCDE< ;G< =D@A< N<E<N D= ;G< B=DV< Scl XD> C@=A P

200 ns

R F BA HDIUB><V ;D j C@=A XD> ;G< VJ=DV<Y Scm V<BNNJ F

(14)

F SeS

CJ bz: _ ;G< VJ=DV< @A BIUN@ o

<V CJ ;OD :=BND? b<E@H<A :bxtj| BIUN@ o <> SeW A;B?<A F <BHG DX OG@HG GBA B UGBA< V<NBJ DX BUU>DM@IB;<NJ |_} =AY ZGLA ;G< S e\ VJ=DV< @A BH;LBNNJ V<NBJ<V CJ _s =A F OG@HG @A BUU>DM@IB;<NJ jz DX B

25 ns

Se` HNDH Q HJHN<Y ZG@A U><E<=;A B V@><H; U@AD=Y := BN;<>=B;@E< Sec BUU>DBHG ODLNV C< ALII@=? ;G< A@?=BN B=V V@E@V@=? ;G< ALI DX ;G< B=DV< See CJ ;G< ALI DX ;G< VJ=DV<Y ZG@A F GDO<E<> F @A BNAD =D; UDAA@CN< F BA ;G< <>>D> Sel

BAADH@B;<V O@;G ;G< ra =D@A< DX;G< VJ=DV< B=V B=DV< C<HDI<A TL@;< A@?=@X_ Sem

@HB=;Ya;>LH;L><V =D@A< PC<NDO ;G< ra =D@A< N<E<N R

VL< ;D HGB==<N_;D_HGB==<N Sln

H>DAA;BN Q

D> D;G<> ;<IUD>BNNJ HD>><NB;<V =D@A< ADL>H<A U><E<=;A DC;B@=@=? B= Sl9

BHHL>B;< P

< 5%

R

bz: I<BAL><I<=; <E<= O@;G NB>?< A;B;@A;@HAY SlS bz: @A ;G<><XD>< I<BAL><V CJ IDV<NN@=? ;G< B=DV< A@?=BN AGBU< P

A

R X>DI ;G< SlW VJ=DV< P

D

R BA Sl\

A (t) =

1 R

((1 − ) D (t) + D (t + 1))

Sl` OG<><

t

@A ;G< ;@I< C@= F

R

@A bz: F B=V

@A ;G< X>BH;@D=BN C@= DA<; DX ;G< VJ=_ Slc DV<Y

R

B=V

B>< V<;<>I@=<V LA@=?

χ

2

I@=@I@^B;@D=Y

D

B=V

A

B>< V<;<>I@=<V Sle O@;G BCDL; jtt ULNA<A ;B Q <= O@;G@= } I@=L;<AY <>< F

@A Q =DO= ;D C< UDA@;@E< F Sll CL; @A BNNDO<V ;D EB>J XD> ;G< o ;Y ZG@A U>DH<VL>< BNAD GBA ;G< BVEB=;B?< DX Slm

I<BAL>@=? ;G< UGBA< V<NBJ B=V B=J ;@I< V<U<=V<=H< @; IBJ GBE<Y Smn := <MBIUN< DX ;G< o ; P B=V ;G< o ; ><?@D= R @A AGDO= @= @?Y s F XD> B E<>A@D= DX Sm9

;G< X>D=; <=V <N<H;>D=@HAO@;G G@?G<> =D@A< HGB>BH;<>@A;@HA ;GB= ;GDVLH;@D= SmS

E<>A@D=Y ZG< ;OD ULNA<A O<>< ?<=<>B;<V CJ B ><A@A;@E<NJ_V@E@V<V ULNA< ?<=<>B_ SmW ;D> F OG@HG GBV =D UGBA< V<NBJ C<;O<<= ;G< VJ=DV< B=V ;G< B=DV<Y D> ;G<A< Sm\ ULNA<A F ;G< VJ=DV<zB=DV<v >B;@D OBA }}Yu CJ V<A@?= F B=V I<BAL><V @=V<U<=_ Sm` V<=;NJO@;G B= DAH@NNDAHDU<YZG@AU>DH<VL>< ?BEB;@D DX}}Y } F Smc BHHL>B;< ;D O@;G@= |Y ZG< o ;;@=? U>DH<VL>< HD>><H;NJ ?BEJ AIBNNEBNL< Sme XD>

XD> ;G@A o ; P jt

−6

R Y D> BH;LBN A;B;@D=A F GDO<E<> F

@A I<BAL><V ;D C< Sml D= BE<>B?<

0.23

F O@;G B= @=V@E@VLBN U><H@A@D= DX

0.04

Y ZG@A HD>><AUD=VA ;D B Smm V<NBJ DX

5.8 ns

F

@= B?><<I<=; O@;G DL><MU<H;B;@D=AYbz: V<;<>I@=<V O@;G ;G@A Wnn I<;GDV B>< BNAD @= ?DDV B?><<I<=; O@;G V@><H; I<BAL><I<=;A DX ;G< bz: D= Wn9 ;G< [ r Z CBA<Y DO<E<> F <A;@IB;@=? ;G< BHHL>BHJ DX ;G@A HDIUB>@AD= @A TL@;< WnS V@ HLN; BA ;G< V<U<=V<=H< DX bz: D= ;G< G@?G EDN;B?< DX ;G< [ r Z @A UDD>NJ WnW I<BAL><VY Wn\ 4176841 Wn` ZG< IB@= HBN@C>B;@D= ?DBN XD> ;G< AL>XBH< V<;<H;D> @A ;D HD=E<>; ;G< @=;<?>B;<V Wnc

KBAG :bd A@?=BN @=;D E<>;@HBN <TL@EBN<=; ILD= Ppqr R

L=@;A F

(15)

0

200

400

600

800 1000

260

280

300

320

340

360 ADC counts

25 ns bins

Dynode

33.33 x Anode

Fit region

$ ~ .)" "' )" ! ) ) ' " )" ** , ** *,! . *%%

∼ 1 ch

,! "" ) ) " " " ) ) )

< 1 ch

B A;BCN< B=V L=@XD>I ;>@??<> XD> ;G< V<;<H;D>Y ZG< HD=E<>A@D= ;D pqr L=@;A @A Wnl VD=< CJ V<;<>I@=@=?

Q

V EM

;G>DL?G ;G<@> ><NB;@D=;D B U?< P

Q

peak

_{V EM}

R Wnm G@A;D?>BIA F OG@HG @A V<;<>I@=<V ;G>DL?G B= @=V<U<=V<=; <MU<>@I<=;Y

Q

peak

_{V EM}

W9n

@A I<BAL><V O@;G B G@?G_A;B;@A;@HA Pjyt F

ttt <=;>@<A R

HGB>?< G@A;D?>BI <E<>J W99

I@=L;< F

B=V B?><<A O@;G B= @=V<U<=V<=; NDHBN ADX;OB>< <A;@IB;< ;D }Y W9S

dD=E<>A@D= DX;G< B=DV< A@?=BN><TL@><A;G< V<;<>I@=B;@D=DX;G<VJ=DV<zB=DV< W9W

>B;@D P bz: R

F

OG@HG @A VD=< CJ BE<>B?@=? NB>?< ULNA<A B=V U<>XD>I@=? B N@= W9\

;@I<_AG@X;<V o

; ;D V<;<>I@=< CD;G ;G< bz: B=V ;G< UGBA< V<NBJ C<;O<<= ;G< W9`

;OD A@?=BNAY ZG@A I<;GDV F

OG<= U<>XD>I<V D= ;OD ><A@A;@E<NJ V@E@V<V A@?=BNA W9c

V<;<>I@=<V ;G< bz: ;D |Y W9e

=@XD>I ;>@??<> N<E<NA B>DE@V<V CJ <A;@IB;@=?

I

V EM

peak

_ ;G< UBI _ E@B B

σ − δ

HD=E<>?<=H< BN?D>@;GI D= B

70 Hz

A@=?N<A >B;< W9m @=A@V< B

100 Hz

}_XDNV HD@=H@V<=H<YZG@A I<BAL><I<=; @AU><H@A< ;D sYZG< LA< WSn DXB >B;< ;D V<;<>I@=<

I

V EM

peak

@=;>DVLH<AB AIBNNAJA;<IB;@H U><AAL>< V<U<=V<=H< WS9 @= ;G< ;>@??<> N<E<N DX BUU>DM@IB;<NJ

0.1% g

−1

_cm

−2

N<BV@=? ;D N<AA ;GB= B } WSS <<H; DE<> ;G< HDL>A< DX B JY WSW

ZG< HBN@C>B;@D= UB>BI<;<>A I<=;@D=<V G<>< V<;<>I@=<V <E<>J

60 s

B=V WS\ ><;L>=<V ;D ;G< H<=;>BN VB;B BHTL@A@;@D= AJA;<I Pdb:a R O@;G <BHG <E<=; B=V WS`

A;D><V BND=? O@;G;G< <E<=; VB;BYqBHG <E<=; ;G<><XD>< HD=;B@=A B NB>?< BIDL=; WSc

(16)