Enregistrement du flux d'impact par les critères rayés lunaires : conséquences pour les datations des surfaces planétaires
375
0
0
Texte intégral
(2) . . . . . . . . 7+(6('(/µ81,9(56,7('(/<21 HQYXHGHO¶REWHQWLRQGXJUDGHGH Docteur de l’Université de LyonGpOLYUpSDUO¶XQLYHUVLWp&ODXGH%HUQDUG/\RQ (V6FLHQFHVGHOD7HUUHVSpFLDOLWp3ODQpWRORJLH /DERUDWRLUHGH*pRORJLHGH/\RQ 7HUUH3ODQqWHV(QYLURQQHPHQW (FROH'RFWRUDOH3K\VLTXHHW$VWURSK\VLTXHGH/\RQ SUpVHQWpHHWVRXWHQXHSXEOLTXHPHQWOHGpFHPEUH SDU%HUWUDQG75(< . Enregistrement du flux d’impact par les cratères rayés lunaires : conséquences pour les datations des surfaces planétaires . 'LUHFWHXUVGHWKqVH $SUqVO¶DYLVGH -85< . 3DVFDO$OOHPDQG &DWK\4XDQWLQ 'DYLG%DUDWRX[ )UDQoRLV&RVWDUG. 3DVFDO$OOHPDQG. 'DYLG%DUDWRX[ )UDQoRLV&RVWDUG &DWK\4XDQWLQ 3LHUUH7KRPDV 6WpSKDQLH:HUQHU.
(3) .
(4) .
(5) .
(6) . . . . . . . 7+(6('(/µ81,9(56,7('(/<21 HQYXHGHO¶REWHQWLRQGXJUDGHGH Docteur de l’Université de LyonGpOLYUpSDUO¶XQLYHUVLWp&ODXGH%HUQDUG/\RQ (V6FLHQFHVGHOD7HUUHVSpFLDOLWp3ODQpWRORJLH /DERUDWRLUHGH*pRORJLHGH/\RQ 7HUUH3ODQqWHV(QYLURQQHPHQW (FROH'RFWRUDOH3K\VLTXHHW$VWURSK\VLTXHGH/\RQ SUpVHQWpHHWVRXWHQXHSXEOLTXHPHQWOHGpFHPEUH SDU%HUWUDQG75(< . Enregistrement du flux d’impact par les cratères rayés lunaires : conséquences pour les datations des surfaces planétaires . 'LUHFWHXUVGHWKqVH $SUqVO¶DYLVGH -85< . 3DVFDO$OOHPDQG &DWK\4XDQWLQ 'DYLG%DUDWRX[ )UDQoRLV&RVWDUG. 3DVFDO$OOHPDQG. 'DYLG%DUDWRX[ )UDQoRLV&RVWDUG &DWK\4XDQWLQ 3LHUUH7KRPDV 6WpSKDQLH:HUQHU.
(7) .
(8) 7$%/('(60$7,(5(6. 7$%/('(60$7,(5(6 . Table des matières. . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . I. Les cratères d’impact. . 1.1 Origine et morphologie des cratères d’impact /DFDYLWpGXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFW /DFRXYHUWXUHG¶pMHFWD /HVUDLVGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFW . . . . 1.2 Processus de formation des cratères d’impact &RQWDFWHWFRPSUHVVLRQORUVGHO¶LPSDFW ([FDYDWLRQGXPDWpULHOGHODFLEOH )DFWHXUVFRQWU{ODQWOHVGLPHQVLRQVILQDOHVGXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFW /¶DQJOHG¶LPSDFW ,QIOXHQFHGHODFRPSRVLWLRQGHODFLEOH 0RGLILFDWLRQGXFUDWqUH . . 1.3 Dégradation des cratères d’impact /HERPEDUGHPHQWPpWpRULWLTXH /¶DFWLYLWpVLVPLTXH /HFRPEOHPHQWSDUpSDQFKHPHQWVYROFDQLTXHV /¶pURVLRQIOXYLDWLOH /¶pURVLRQpROLHQQH . . . . 1.4 Utilisation des cratères d’impact en planétologie. . Références. . II. Datation absolue des surfaces planétaires . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Observations de la distribution de taille des cratères d’impact /DIRQFWLRQGHSURGXFWLRQG¶+DUWPDQQ +3)
(9) /DIRQFWLRQGHSURGXFWLRQGH1HXNXP 13)
(10) . . . . .
(11) 7$%/('(60$7,(5(6 /HVIRQFWLRQVGHSURGXFWLRQPRGpOLVpHV . . . . . 2.3 Calibration des densités de cratères avec les âges absolus d’échantillons lunaires /D/XQHHWVDVXUIDFH /HVpFKDQWLOORQVHWODFKURQRVWUDWLJUDSKLHOXQDLUHV /DVWUDWLJUDSKLHOXQDLUH &DOLEUDWLRQUDGLRPpWULTXHSDUOHVpFKDQWLOORQV$SROOR 0RGqOHVG¶kJHVpWDEOLVjSDUWLUGHVpFKDQWLOORQVOXQDLUHV /HPRGqOHGHFKURQRORJLHOXQDLUHGH1HXNXP &DOFXOGHVLVRFKURQHV $XWUHVPRGqOHVGHFKURQRORJLHOXQDLUH $SSOLFDWLRQDX[DXWUHVSODQqWHVGXV\VWqPHVRODLUH 0DUV 0HUFXUH ,QFHUWLWXGHV +pWpURJpQpLWpGHODFUDWpULVDWLRQOXQDLUH /DFUDWpULVDWLRQVHFRQGDLUH (FKDQWLOORQQDJHGHVGHUQLHUVPLOOLDUGVG¶DQQpHV . . . . 2.4 Evolution du flux d'impact dans le système solaire interne 6RXUFHHWQDWXUHGHVLPSDFWHXUV /H/DWH+HDY\%RPEDUGPHQW /+%
(12) /HGLPLQXWLRQGXIOX[G¶LPSDFWMXVTX¶jPLOOLDUGVG¶DQQpHV /HIOX[G¶LPSDFWSRVWpULHXUjPLOOLDUGVG¶DQQpHV /DFKURQRORJLHOXQDLUH /HVPRGqOHVG\QDPLTXHVG¶pYROXWLRQGXV\VWqPH VRODLUHLQWHUQH /HVGRQQpHVJpRFKLPLTXHV /HVHQUHJLVWUHPHQWVJpRORJLTXHVGXIOX[G¶LPSDFW /HVJOLVVHPHQWVGHWHUUDLQPDUWLHQV /DVXUIDFHWHUUHVWUH /HIOX[G¶LPSDFWDFWXHO . . 2.5 Conclusion : Les intérêts et enjeux de l’étude de la cratérisation lunaire Références III. Traitement des données et méthodes d’analyses 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Les données utilisées .
(13) 7$%/('(60$7,(5(6. . . . 'RQQpHVG¶LPDJHULHRUELWDOHVGLVSRQLEOHV /HVGRQQpHVG¶LPDJHULHRUELWDOHXWLOLVpHV /HVLPDJHV&OHPHQWLQH /HVLPDJHV/52& /HVGRQQpHVDOWLPpWULTXHV/2/$. . . 3.3 Traitement et utilisation des données par Système d’information Géographique (SIG) 'RQQpHV/52&EUXWHV )RUPDWGHVGRQQpHV 6\VWqPHGHFRRUGRQQpHVGHVGRQQpHV/52& 3UpWUDLWHPHQWGHVLPDJHV/52&:$& *pRUpIpUHQFHPHQWGHVGRQQpHV/52& 0LVHHQ°XYUHG¶XQ6\VWqPHG¶,QIRUPDWLRQ*pRJUDSKLTXH /HVGRQQpHVLQVpUpHVHWOHXUSURMHFWLRQ &KRL[GHVSURMHFWLRQVGHWUDYDLO 3.4 Analyse de la distribution de taille des cratères &DUWRJUDSKLHGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFWV 0HVXUHVGHGHQVLWpVGHFUDWqUHVPXOWLpFKHOOH /¶DLUHGHVVXUIDFHVFRQVLGpUpHV 5HSUpVHQWDWLRQJUDSKLTXHGHVFRPSWDJHV 3.5 Détermination des âges des surfaces observées /HVkJHVDEVROXV &DOFXOGHVSHQWHVGHVGLVWULEXWLRQV 3.6 Limites des analyses des distributions de taille des cratères d’impact et des déterminations des âges +pWpURJpQpLWpVGHVGHQVLWpVGHFUDWqUHVPHVXUpHV /DFUDWpULVDWLRQVHFRQGDLUH /HUHVXUIDoDJHGHVIRQGVGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFW 3.7 Conclusion Références . . . . . . . . . IV. Les cratères rayés lunaires 4.1 Introduction. . 4.2 Ages des cratères rayés lunaires %DVHGHGRQQpHVGHVFUDWqUHVUD\pVOXQDLUHV 'DWDWLRQGHVFUDWqUHVUD\pVOXQDLUHV . . . . .
(14) 7$%/('(60$7,(5(6. . . . . 4.3 Enregistrement du flux d’impact sur le dernier milliard d’années 3pULRGHGXIOX[G¶LPSDFWHQUHJLVWUpHSDUOHVFUDWqUHV UD\pVOXQDLUHV 6pOHFWLRQWHPSRUHOOHGHVFUDWqUHVUD\pVOXQDLUHV /¶HQUHJLVWUHPHQWGHVFUDWqUHVUD\pVDXFRXUVGXGHUQLHU PLOOLDUGG¶DQQpHV 0RGqOHG¶kJHDYHFXQIOX[G¶LPSDFWGpFURLVVDQW $JHGHVFUDWqUHVUD\pVDYHFOHQRXYHDXPRGqOHG¶kJH 'LVFXVVLRQ . . 4.4 Conclusion. . Références. . . /HFUDWqUH0DQGHO¶VKWDP) /HFUDWqUH*LRUGDQR%UXQR /HFUDWqUH7\FKR /HFUDWqUH%XUJ /HVkJHVGHVFUDWqUHVUD\pV 5HODWLRQDYHFODUpIOHFWDQFHGHVUDLV". . . . . V. Implications pour la datation de surfaces lunaires avec des cratères de moins de 1 km de diamètre 5.1 Introduction. . 5.2 Détermination de la distribution de taille des cratères dont le diamètre est inférieur à 100 m. ,QWURGXFWLRQ 0pWKRGRORJLH 5pVXOWDWV 'LVFXVVLRQ 5.3 Test de la chronologie lunaire pour les densités de cratères de petits diamètres. ,QWURGXFWLRQ 'DWDVHWDQGPHWKRG 7\FKR &RSHUQLFXV $XWRO\FXV &RPSDULVRQZLWKWKH1HXNXPPRGHODJH 8QFHUWDLQWLHVDERXWWKH$SROORDJHV . . . . . .
(15) 7$%/('(60$7,(5(6 5.4 Conclusion. . Références. . Conclusion Générale. . Annexe A : Base de données des cratères rayés lunaires dont le diamètre est supérieur à 15 km.. . Annexes B : Ages des cratères rayés lunaires dont le diamètre est supérieur à 15 km.. . Annexe C : Distributions de taille des cratères sur les cratères rayés étudiés. Les distributions sont présentées dans un diagramme d’Hartmann. L’ordonnée du diagramme correspond aux densités de cratères mesurées et l’abscisse du diagramme correspond aux classes de diamètres mesurées.. . Annexe D : Cratères rayés sélectionnés pour l’étude de la maturation des rais. Annexe E :Exemple de label fournit avec les images LRO sur le PDS de l’instrument Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera.. . Annexe F : Rapport du projet écrit lors de l’école d’été proposée par l’International Space University : Space Study Program 2011. Cooperation of Humans and Robots for Mars. . . . .
(16) . .
(17) ,1752'8&7,21 . Introduction /DFRQWUDLQWHGHO¶pYROXWLRQGXIOX[G¶LPSDFWDXFRXUVGXWHPSVHVWXQVXMHWFRPSOH[H DERUGpSDUGLYHUVGRPDLQHVVFLHQWLILTXHVWHOVTXHODSODQpWRORJLHRXO¶DVWURSK\VLTXH /¶HQMHX GHO¶HVWLPDWLRQGXIOX[G¶LPSDFWGDQVOHV\VWqPHVRODLUHLQWHUQHHVWWUqVLPSRUWDQW (QHIIHW SOXV XQH VXUIDFH HVW H[SRVpH DX IOX[ G¶LPSDFW PpWpRULWLTXH HW SOXV OH QRPEUH GH FUDWqUHV IRUPpV VXU FHWWH VXUIDFH DXJPHQWH 8QH ERQQH FRQQDLVVDQFH GX IOX[ G¶LPSDFW SHUPHWWUDLW GRQF DX WUDYHUV GX WDX[ GH FUDWpULVDWLRQ GHV VXUIDFHV SODQpWDLUHV GH GpYHORSSHU XQ RXWLO GH GDWDWLRQSUpFLVGHFHVVXUIDFHV /H IOX[ G¶LPSDFW REVHUYp DXMRXUG¶KXL HVW LQIpULHXU j FHOXL TXH OH V\VWqPH VRODLUH LQWHUQH D FRQQX SDU OH SDVVp &HWWH HVWLPDWLRQ SHXW rWUH IDLWH JUkFH DX[ VXFFqV GHV PLVVLRQV OXQDLUHV$SROORHW/XQD/HVUHWRXUVG¶pFKDQWLOORQVHIIHFWXpVORUVGHFHVPLVVLRQVRQWSHUPLV G¶pWDEOLUXQOLHQHQWUHO¶kJHUDGLRPpWULTXHDEVROXGHVpFKDQWLOORQVHWOHVGHQVLWpVGHFUDWqUHV PHVXUpHV VXU OHV WHUUDLQV G¶R VRQW LVVXV FHV pFKDQWLOORQV /H IOX[ G¶LPSDFW GpGXLW GH FHWWH UHODWLRQPRQWUHTXHFHOXLFLDGpFUWH[SRQHQWLHOOHPHQWGHj*DSXLVV¶HVWVWDELOLVpSRXU GHYHQLUFRQVWDQWMXVTX¶jQRVMRXUV 1HXNXPHWDO
(18)
(19) /DGpFURLVVDQFHH[SRQHQWLHOOHGX IOX[G¶LPSDFWDXGpEXWGHO¶KLVWRLUHGXV\VWqPHVRODLUHLQWHUQHDXUDLWpWpG¶XQIDFWHXUSDU UDSSRUW DX IOX[ G¶LPSDFW DFWXHO &HWWH HVWLPDWLRQ UHVWH GpEDWWXH SRXU OD SpULRGH GH *D j DXMRXUG¶KXL &HWWH HVWLPDWLRQ GX IOX[ G¶LPSDFW j SDUWLU GHV pFKDQWLOORQV OXQDLUHV HVW SDUIRLV WUqV SHX FRQWUDLQWH HW GH QRPEUHX[ GpEDWV H[LVWHQW QRWDPPHQW VXU O¶H[LVWHQFH G¶XQ SLF GH ERPEDUGHPHQWWDUGLIDXWRXUGH *DRXHQFRUHVXUODSRVVLELOLWpRXQRQG¶XQIOX[FRQVWDQW VXUOHVGHUQLHUVPLOOLDUGVG¶DQQpHV 1RXVSURSRVRQVGDQVFHWWHWKqVHG¶pWXGLHUOHIOX[G¶LPSDFWGXV\VWqPH7HUUH/XQHDX FRXUVGHVGHUQLHUVPLOOLDUGVG¶DQQpHVjSDUWLUGHVRQHQUHJLVWUHPHQWjODVXUIDFHGHOD/XQH HWG¶HVWLPHUOHVFRQVpTXHQFHVGHFHIOX[VXUOHVPRGqOHVGHGDWDWLRQVSDUPHVXUHVGHGHQVLWpV GH FUDWqUHV XWLOLVpV DXMRXUG¶KXL $LQVL QRXV WUDLWRQV OHV SUREOpPDWLTXHV VXLYDQWHV /H IOX[ G¶LPSDFWDWLOpWpFRQVWDQWSHQGDQWOHVGHUQLHUV*D"4XHOHVWOHU{OHGHODG\QDPLTXHGH OD FHLQWXUH G¶DVWpURwGHV YLVjYLV GH FH IOX[ G¶LPSDFW" 4XHOOH HVW OD ILDELOLWp GHV PRGqOHV G¶kJHV XWLOLVpV SRXU OHV VXUIDFHV SODQpWDLUHV UpFHQWHV" 3RXU UpSRQGUH j FHV TXHVWLRQV QRXV pWXGLHURQVGRQFOHVVXUIDFHVOXQDLUHVOHVSOXVUpFHPPHQWIRUPpHV OHVFUDWqUHVUD\pV /HFKDSLWUHHVWXQpWDWGHQRVFRQQDLVVDQFHVGHODSK\VLTXHHWGHODPRUSKRORJLHGHV FUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFW /HFKDSLWUH SUpVHQWHODPpWKRGHGHGDWDWLRQ SDUPHVXUHV GHGHQVLWpV GH FUDWqUHV HW VHV LQFHUWLWXGHV DLQVL TX¶XQH V\QWKqVH GH FH TXH QRXV FRQQDLVVRQV GX IOX[ G¶LPSDFW GDQV OH V\VWqPH VRODLUH LQWHUQH j SDUWLU GHV PRGpOLVDWLRQV GHV GRQQpHV JpRFKLPLTXHV RX GH O¶HQUHJLVWUHPHQWJpRORJLTXH /H FKDSLWUH WUDLWH GHV GRQQpHV TXH QRXV DYRQV XWLOLVpHV HW GH OD PpWKRGRORJLH TXH QRXVDYRQVVXLYLH /HVGDWDWLRQVGHVFUDWqUHVUD\pVOXQDLUHVHWOHXUIUpTXHQFHGHIRUPDWLRQVRQWH[SRVpHV GDQVOHFKDSLWUH .
(20) ,1752'8&7,21 . 1RWUH pWXGH GHV FUDWqUHV UD\pV OXQDLUHV QRXV pFODLUH DXVVL VXU OD GLVWULEXWLRQ HQ WDLOOH GHV FUDWqUHV GH PRLQV GH P GH GLDPqWUH VXU OD /XQH MXVTXHOj QRQ REVHUYpH HW QRXV SHUPHWDXVVLGHWHVWHUOHPRGqOHG¶kJHGH1HXNXPHWDO
(21) SRXUODFUDWpULVDWLRQLQIpULHXUH DXNLORPqWUH&HVUpVXOWDWVVRQWSUpVHQWpVGDQVOHFKDSLWUH /¶HQVHPEOHGHFHWUDYDLOSHUPHWXQHGLVFXVVLRQVXUOHVYDULDWLRQVGXIOX[G¶LPSDFWGX GHUQLHU PLOOLDUG G¶DQQpHV GDQV OH V\VWqPH VRODLUH LQWHUQH HW OD ILDELOLWp GH OD PpWKRGH GH GDWDWLRQSDUPHVXUHGHGHQVLWpVGHFUDWqUHVGHVVXUIDFHVSODQpWDLUHVUpFHQWHV. .
(22) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . Chapitre 1 : Les cratères d’impact 1.1 Origine et morphologie des cratères d’impact /DFDYLWpGXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFW /DFRXYHUWXUHG¶pMHFWD /HVUDLVGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFW . . . . . . 1.2 Processus de formation des cratères d’impact &RQWDFWHWFRPSUHVVLRQORUVGHO¶LPSDFW ([FDYDWLRQGXPDWpULHOGHODFLEOH )DFWHXUVFRQWU{ODQWOHVGLPHQVLRQVILQDOHVGXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFW /¶DQJOHG¶LPSDFW ,QIOXHQFHGHODFRPSRVLWLRQGHODFLEOH 0RGLILFDWLRQGXFUDWqUH . . 1.3 Dégradation des cratères d’impact /HERPEDUGHPHQWPpWpRULWLTXH /¶DFWLYLWpVLVPLTXH /HFRPEOHPHQWSDUpSDQFKHPHQWVYROFDQLTXHV /¶pURVLRQIOXYLDWLOH /¶pURVLRQpROLHQQH . . . . 1.4 Utilisation des cratères d’impact en planétologie. . Références. . .
(23) . .
(24) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 1.1 Origine et morphologie des cratères d’impact /HVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFWVRQWGHVILJXUHVJpRORJLTXHVFRPPXQHVjWRXVOHVFRUSVVROLGHV GXV\VWqPHVRODLUH&HVIRUPDWLRQVUpVXOWHQWG¶XQHFROOLVLRQjJUDQGHYLWHVVHHQWUHGHX[FRUSV GH WDLOOH WUqV GLIIpUHQWH SURGXLVDQW XQH GpSUHVVLRQ TXDVLFLUFXODLUHHQWRXUpH SDU OH PDWpULHO H[FDYpTXLIRUPHODFRXYHUWXUHG¶pMHFWD 0HORVK
(25)
(26) )LJXUH
(27) /DFDYLWpGXFUDWqUHHVW GpOLPLWpH SDU OHV PXUV TXL PDUTXHQW j OHXU VRPPHW OD ERUGXUH GX FUDWqUH /H VRO GH FHWWH FDYLWp HVW FRPSRVp GH URFKHV HW GH YHUUHV ,O HVW pJDOHPHQW FRPEOp SDU OHV EUqFKHV IRUPpHV ORUVGHO¶LPSDFW$XWRXUGHODGpSUHVVLRQGXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFWODFRXYHUWXUHG¶pMHFWDV¶pWHQG VXUXQHVXUIDFHGpSHQGDQWGXGLDPqWUHGHODFDYLWp(QILQGDQVOHFDVGHVFUDWqUHVUpFHPPHQW PLVHQSODFHGHVOLQpDWLRQVUDGLDOHVGHPDWLqUHpMHFWpHVRQWREVHUYDEOHVVXUSOXVLHXUVUD\RQV GHFUDWqUHVjSDUWLUGXSRLQWG¶LPSDFW&HVRQWOHVUDLVGXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFW 3OXVLHXUVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFWVRQWDFFHVVLEOHVVXU7HUUHPDLVODSOXSDUWG¶HQWUHHX[VRQW GpJUDGpVSDUOHVSURFHVVXVG¶pURVLRQ'¶DXWUHVFRUSVSODQpWDLUHVFRPPHOD/XQHSDUH[HPSOH RQWFRQVHUYpFHVVWUXFWXUHV . . )LJXUH &UDWqUHG LPSDFWOXQDLUHLPDJH/52&0 5 6( .
(28) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 /DFDYLWpGXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFW /DPRUSKRORJLHHWOHGLDPqWUHGHODFDYLWpGXFUDWqUHGpSHQGHQWEHDXFRXSGHO¶pQHUJLH GpJDJpH ORUV GX SURFHVVXV G¶LPSDFW /HV YDULDWLRQV G¶pFKHOOHV HQWUH OHV GLIIpUHQWV FUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW SHUPHWWHQW GH OHV FODVVHU HQ TXDWUH FDWpJRULHV OHV PLFURFUDWqUHV OHV FUDWqUHV VLPSOHVOHVFUDWqUHVFRPSOH[HVHWOHVEDVVLQVG¶LPSDFW 0HORVK
(29)
(30) )LJXUH
(31) . . . )LJXUH /HVW\SHVGHFUDWqUHV$ 0LFURFUDWqUHLPDJHPRGLILpHGH+|U]HW DO
(32) % 0HWHRUFUDWHUFUDWqUHVLPSOHWHUUHVWUH & &RSHUQLFXVFUDWqUH FRPSOH[HOXQDLUH ' 0DUH2ULHQWDOHEDVVLQG¶LPSDFWOXQDLUH. /HVPLFURFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFWRQWSULQFLSDOHPHQWpWppWXGLpVSDU +|U]HWDO
(33)
(34) HW SOXVUpFHPPHQWSDU3UDVDGHWDO HW
(35) /HXUVFDUDFWpULVWLTXHVIXUHQWPLVHVHQ DYDQWSRXUODSUHPLqUHIRLVJUkFHDX[UHWRXUVG¶pFKDQWLOORQVGHVPLVVLRQVOXQDLUHV$SROOR HW $SROOR SDU VWpUpRPLFURVFRSLH &HV VWUXFWXUHV RQW XQ GLDPqWUH FRXYHUWXUH G¶HMHFWD H[FOXH
(36) YDULDQW GH P j SOXVLHXUV PLOOLPqWUHV HW VRQW LVVXHV G¶LPSDFWV GH SRXVVLqUHV .
(37) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 FRVPLTXHVVXUODFLEOHDYHFGHVYLWHVVHVVXSpULHXUHVjNPVHF/HIRQGGHODFDYLWpGHFHV FUDWqUHVHVWFRQVWLWXpG¶XQFUHX[HQWRXUpG¶XQHDXUpROH )LJXUH
(38) /DWRWDOLWpGHO¶LQWpULHXU GH OD FDYLWp HVW FRPSRVpH GH YHUUH FULVWDOOLVp ORUV GH O¶LPSDFW /HV PLFURFUDWqUHV VRQW OH IDFWHXUPDMHXUGHVSURFHVVXVG¶pURVLRQGDQVOHV\VWqPHVRODLUHLQWHUQHjODVXUIDFHGHVFRUSV SODQpWDLUHVGpSRXUYXVG¶DWPRVSKqUH . . . )LJXUH &RXSHVFKpPDWLTXHJpQpUDOHG XQPLFURFUDWqUHG LPSDFW +|U]HW DO
(39)
(40) . /HVFUDWqUHVVLPSOHVVRQWOHVSOXVIUpTXHQWVjODVXUIDFHGHVFRUSVVROLGHVGXV\VWqPH VRODLUH /HXU IRUPH JpQpUDOH HVW FRPSDUDEOH j XQ ERO DYHF XQ SURILO SVHXGRSDUDEROLTXH )LJXUH
(41) ,O HVW UDUH G¶REVHUYHU XQ IRQG SODW DX FHQWUH GH FH W\SH GH FUDWqUH /HV URFKHV FRQVWLWXDQWOHIRQGGHODFDYLWpVRQWHQPDMRULWpGHVEUqFKHVG¶LPSDFWHWGHVURFKHVHWRXGX YHUUH G¶LPSDFW 6RXV OD FDYLWp OD URFKH HQFDLVVDQWH HVW IUDJPHQWpH /D WDLOOH GH FHV FUDWqUHV YDULH GH TXHOTXHV FHQWLPqWUHV j SOXVLHXUV NLORPqWUHV GH GLDPqWUH /H UDSSRUW HQWUH OD SURIRQGHXU HW OHGLDPqWUHGHVFUDWqUHVVLPSOHVHVW G¶HQYLURQ 0HORVK HW ,YDQRY
(42)
(43) /HVFUDWqUHVVLPSOHVRQWSXrWUHpWXGLpVQRWDPPHQWVXU7HUUHDYHFO¶H[HPSOHGH0HWHRUFUDWHU ORFDOLVpHQ$UL]RQDDX[(WDWV8QLV )LJXUH%
(44) . .
(45) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . . )LJXUH &RXSHWUDQVYHUVDOHJpQpUDOHG XQFUDWqUHVLPSOH PRGLILpjSDUWLUGH7XUWOHHWDO
(46)
(47) /HVFUDWqUHVFRPSOH[HVVRQWGHVVWUXFWXUHVGRQWOHFHQWUHGHODFDYLWpHVWRFFXSpSDUXQ SLF FHQWUDO )LJXUH
(48) DXWRXU GXTXHO VH PHW HQ SODFH GDQV FHUWDLQV FDV XQH XQLWp URFKHXVH FLUFXODLUH 0HORVK
(49)
(50) &HSLFFHQWUDOVHIRUPHORUVGHO¶LPSDFWHWHVWFRQVWLWXpGHURFKHV SURYHQDQWGHIRUPDWLRQVJpRORJLTXHVVLWXpHVVRXVODFDYLWpGXFUDWqUHFRPSOH[H&HVURFKHV VRQW UHPRQWpHV HW PLVHV j O¶DIIOHXUHPHQW SHQGDQW OH SURFHVVXV GH IRUPDWLRQ &HOD LPSOLTXH GRQFTXHOHSLFFHQWUDO Q¶DSDVIRUFpPHQWODFRPSRVLWLRQGHODURFKHHQFDLVVDQWHGHVXUIDFH FRPPHF¶HVWOHFDVVXU0DUVRFHOXLFLSHXWPHWWUHjO¶DIIOHXUHPHQWGHVURFKHVGHODFURWH SURIRQGH LH4XDQWLQHWDO
(51)
(52) /HVURFKHV GXSLFFHQWUDOVRQWpJDOHPHQWGpIRUPpHVHW FKRTXpHV 7XUWOH HW DO
(53) 0HORVK
(54)
(55) /H IRQG GHV FUDWqUHV FRPSOH[HV HVW SODW FRPSDUpDX[FUDWqUHVVLPSOHV&HIRQGSODWHVWFRPSRVpGHURFKHVUHFULVWDOOLVpHVHWGHEUqFKHV G¶LPSDFW /HV PXUV GX FUDWqUH FRPSOH[H VRQW SOXV DEUXSWV TXH FHX[ GX FUDWqUH VLPSOH HQWUDvQDQW DLQVL OD IRUPDWLRQ GH JOLVVHPHQWV GH WHUUDLQV SURYHQDQW GHV ERUGXUHV &HV PXUV V¶RUJDQLVHQW GDQV FHUWDLQV FDV HQ WHUUDVVHV /HV FUDWqUHV FRPSOH[HV RQW XQ GLDPqWUH GH SOXVLHXUV NLORPqWUHV YRLUH GL]DLQHV GH NLORPqWUHV /H GLDPqWUH GH WUDQVLWLRQ HQWUH OD PRUSKRORJLH GX FUDWqUH VLPSOH HW OD PRUSKRORJLH GX FUDWqUH FRPSOH[H GpSHQG GH OD SODQqWH pWXGLpH )LJXUH
(56) . .
(57) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7. )LJXUH 'LDPqWUHVGHVFUDWqUHVjODWUDQVLWLRQFUDWqUHVLPSOH±FUDWqUHFRPSOH[HVXUOD /XQH/D7HUUH0DUVHW0HUFXUHHQIRQFWLRQGHODJUDYLWp 3LNH
(58)
(59) . )LJXUH &RXSHWUDQVYHUVDOHJpQpUDOHG XQFUDWqUHFRPSOH[H PRGLILpjSDUWLUGH7XUWOHHW DO
(60)
(61) . .
(62) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 /DGHUQLqUHFODVVHGHFUDWqUHGDQVODVpTXHQFHGHPRUSKRORJLHHWGHWDLOOHGHVFUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW HVW OHEDVVLQG¶LPSDFW /HXUGLDPqWUHSHXW GDQV FHUWDLQV FDVDWWHLQGUHOHPLOOLHUGH NLORPqWUHV /¶LQWpULHXU GH FHV IRUPDWLRQV PHW HQ pYLGHQFH GHV DQQHDX[ TXL VRQW GHV UHOLHIV FLUFXODLUHV SUpVHQWV GDQV OD FDYLWp GX EDVVLQ G¶LPSDFW 8Q H[HPSOH GH EDVVLQ G¶LPSDFW WUqV pWXGLp HVW OH EDVVLQ OXQDLUH 2ULHQWDOH )LJXUH
(63) 4XDWUH DQQHDX[ ELHQ GLVWLQFWV VRQW j O¶DIIOHXUHPHQWGDQVFHEDVVLQG¶LPSDFW/¶DQQHDX&RUGLOOHUDGRQWOHGLDPqWUHHVWGH NP HVWOHSOXVH[WHUQH/HVDXWUHVDQQHDX[VLWXpVSOXVDXFHQWUHGXEDVVLQVRQWOHVDQQHDX[5RRN H[WHUQH5RRNLQWHUQHHWO¶DQQHDXFHQWUDOGRQWOHVGLDPqWUHVVRQWUHVSHFWLYHPHQWGHNP NP HW NP /¶DQQHDX LQWHUQH FHQWUDO GpOLPLWH OH EDVVLQ LQWHUQH GX EDVVLQ G¶LPSDFW 2ULHQWDOH )LJXUH
(64) /HVROGXEDVVLQLQWHUQHHVWFRPSRVpGHEDVDOWH HWGHYHUUHG¶LPSDFW PpODQJpjGHVGpEULVGHURFKHV 0HORVK
(65)
(66) 'DQV FHUWDLQV FDV XQ SLF FHQWUDO SHXW VXEVLVWHU ORUV GH OD IRUPDWLRQ GHV EDVVLQV G¶LPSDFWPDLVJpQpUDOHPHQWODPLVHHQSODFHGHVDQQHDX[V¶DFFRPSDJQHG¶XQHIIRQGUHPHQW GXSLFFHQWUDO . )LJXUH &RXSHWUDQVYHUVDOHGXEDVVLQOXQDLUH2ULHQWDOH +HDGHWDO
(67)
(68) . . . .
(69) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . . )LJXUH $ ,PDJH&OpPHQWLQHGXEDVVLQ2ULHQWDOH % 6FKpPDLOOXVWUDQWOHVDQQHDX[GX EDVVLQ2ULHQWDOH +HDGHWDO
(70)
(71) . . /DFRXYHUWXUHG¶pMHFWD. /RUV GH OD IRUPDWLRQ G¶XQ FUDWqUH G¶LPSDFW XQH TXDQWLWp LPSRUWDQWH GH PDWLqUH SURYHQDQWGHODFLEOHHVWGpSODFpHHW pMHFWpH &HWWHPDWLqUHVHGpSRVHDXWRXUGHODFDYLWpGX FUDWqUHHWIRUPHODFRXYHUWXUHG¶pMHFWD3OXVODWDLOOHGXFUDWqUHHVWJUDQGHHWSOXVODTXDQWLWpGH PDWLqUHH[FDYpHHVWLPSRUWDQWH/HVFDUDFWpULVWLTXHVGHFHWWHFRXYHUWXUHVRQWGRQFGLUHFWHPHQW OLpHVDXGLDPqWUHGXFUDWqUH/DFRPSRVLWLRQGHODFLEOHMRXHDXVVLXQU{OHLPSRUWDQWGDQVOD QDWXUHGHODFRXYHUWXUHG¶pMHFWD /H IDFLqV GHV pMHFWDV GHV FUDWqUHV GH PRLQV GH NP )LJXUH
(72) HVW HVVHQWLHOOHPHQW FRPSRVp GH EORFV LVVXV GH OD URFKH LPSDFWpH /HV EORFV V¶RUJDQLVHQW SDUIRLV HQ VWUXFWXUHV FRQFHQWULTXHVHWIRUPHQWGHVVWUXFWXUHVEDUNKDQRwGHV/HVUHOLHIVIRUPpVSDUFHVpMHFWDVVRQW SRVLWLIVODVXUIDFHSUpLPSDFWQ¶pWDQWSDVRXWUqVSHXDIIHFWpHSDUOHVGpEULVH[FDYpV 0HORVK
(73)
(74) . .
(75) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . . )LJXUH &RXYHUWXUHG HMHFWDUDGLDOHPHQWUDLQXUpHLPDJH/52&0 5 6( /RUVTXH OH GLDPqWUH GX FUDWqUH HVW FRPSULV HQWUH HW NP HQYLURQ OH UD\RQ GH OD FRXYHUWXUH G¶pMHFWD HVW SOXV JUDQG TXH OH UD\RQ GX FUDWqUH 5
(76) HW DWWHLQW MXVTX¶j 5 /HV URFKHV GH FHWWH FRXFKH G¶pMHFWD VHUDLHQW HQ SDUWLH FRQVWLWXpHV GH EUqFKHV G¶LPSDFW HW V¶DFFXPXOHQWSRXUIRUPHUGHVVWUXFWXUHVEDUNKDQRwGHV )LJXUH
(77) ,OHVWpJDOHPHQWSRVVLEOH G¶REVHUYHU XQ WUHVVDJH GH OD FRXYHUWXUH G¶pMHFWD j GHV GLVWDQFHV VXSpULHXUHV j 5 /D FRXYHUWXUHGHYLHQWDORUVGLVFRQWLQXH )LJXUH
(78) . .
(79) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . )LJXUH 6WUXFWXUHFRQFHQWULTXHGHW\SHEDUNKDQHGDQVGHVpMHFWDVOXQDLUHVLPDJH/52& 0 5&1 (/DIOqFKHPRQWUHOHVHQVG¶pFRXOHPHQWGHVpMHFWDV SURYHQDQWGXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFW /HV FUDWqUHV GRQW OH GLDPqWUH HVW GH j NP SRVVqGHQW XQH FRXYHUWXUH G¶pMHFWD SOXVERVVHOpHPDUTXpHSDUGHVFUrWHVGHVVLOORQVHWGHVWUXFWXUHVEDUNKDQRwGHV/¶pWHQGXHGH ODFRXFKHHVWGHj5/DFRXYHUWXUHHVWFRPSRVpHGHEUqFKHVG¶LPSDFWGHEORFVGHWDLOOH SOXULPpWULTXH )LJXUH $
(80) HW GH URFKHV IRQGXHV )LJXUH %
(81) $ GHV GLVWDQFHV VXSpULHXUHVj5GHODERUGXUHGXFUDWqUHOHVpMHFWDVVRQWGLVFRQWLQXVHWODURFKHVXUODTXHOOH LOVVHPHWWHQWHQSODFHHVWLPSDFWpHSDUOHVEORFVpMHFWpVTXLIRUPHQWGHVHVVDLPVGHFUDWqUHV VHFRQGDLUHV )LJXUH
(82) /HV FUDWqUHV VHFRQGDLUHV V¶REVHUYHQW MXVTX¶j XQH GLVWDQFH GH 5 0F*HWFKLQHWDO
(83)
(84) . . )LJXUH $ %ORFVSOXULPpWULTXHV1( % 5RFKHVIRQGXHVUHFULVWDOOLVpHV 1(,PDJH/52&0 5&/HVIOqFKHVGRQQHQWOHVHQVG¶pFRXOHPHQW GHVpMHFWDVSURYHQDQWGXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFWOXQDLUH . .
(85) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . )LJXUH $PDVGHFUDWqUHVVHFRQGDLUHVVLWXpjNPGXFUDWqUHOXQDLUH7\FKR6 2,PDJH/52&0/DIOqFKHGRQQHOHVHQVG¶pFRXOHPHQWGHVpMHFWDV SURYHQDQWGXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFW /HV EDVVLQV G¶LPSDFW RQW GHV FRXYHUWXUHV G¶pMHFWD UHFRXSpHV SDU GHV VWUXFWXUHV G¶H[WHQVLRQV WHFWRQLTXHV UDGLDOHV /HXU ODUJHXU YDULH GH SOXVLHXUV GL]DLQHV GH NLORPqWUHV FRPPH F¶HVW OH FDV DXWRXU GX EDVVLQ ,PEULXP )LJXUH
(86) j GHV OLQpDWLRQV GH O¶RUGUH GX PqWUH'HVJURXSHPHQWVGHFUDWqUHVVHFRQGDLUHVVRQWYLVLEOHVVXUO¶HQVHPEOHGHODFRXYHUWXUH G¶pMHFWD TXL SHXW V¶pWHQGUH DXGHOj GH IRLV OH UD\RQ GX EDVVLQ G¶LPSDFW GHSXLV OD ERUGXUH 0F*HWFKLQHWDO
(87)
(88) 'DQVOHV]RQHVVLWXpHVjPRLQVG¶XQHIRLVOHGLDPqWUHOHVGpS{WV IRUPHQW GHV UHOLHIV UDGLDX[ HW GHV UpVHDX[ GH IUDFWXUHV VRQW DOpDWRLUHPHQW UpSDUWLV VXU OHV pMHFWDV 'DQVODSDUWLHGLVWDOHGHVpMHFWDVFHTXLFRUUHVSRQGjXQHGLVWDQFHGHSOXVGH5GHV GpEULVVRQWUpSDUWLVGHIDoRQUDGLDOHDXWRXUGHO¶LPSDFWVDQVWRXWHIRLVUHFRXYULUO¶HQVHPEOHGH ODVXUIDFH/HXUGLVWULEXWLRQGpSHQGIRUWHPHQWGXJUDGLHQWWRSRJUDSKLHGXVROVXUOHTXHOLOVVH GpSRVHQW IRUPDQW SDU H[HPSOH GHV GXQHV GH GpFpOpUDWLRQ ORUVTX¶LOV V¶DFFXPXOHQW FRQWUH XQ UHOLHISRVLWLIVHWURXYDQWVXUOHXUWUDMHFWRLUH . .
(89) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . . )LJXUH 9DOOHV$OSLVIDLOOHQRUPDOHGRQWODODUJHXUDWWHLQWNPDXWRXUGXEDVVLQ G¶LPSDFW,PEULXP 1 (/DIOqFKHGRQQHOHVHQVGHO¶pFRXOHPHQW $ODVXUIDFHGH0DUVHWGXVDWHOOLWH-RYLHQ(XURSHGHVW\SHVG¶pMHFWDVQRQREVHUYpVVXU OD /XQH RQW SX rWUH pWXGLp YLD O¶LPDJHULH VDWHOOLWH ,O V¶DJLW GHV pMHFWDV IOXLGLVpV RX OREpV )LJXUH
(90) GRQWO¶pWHQGXHHVWSOXVLPSRUWDQWHFRPSDUpVDX[pMHFWDVYLVLEOHVVXUOD/XQHRX VXU0HUFXUH/HXUPRUSKRORJLHHQSpWDOHV¶RUJDQLVHGDQVFHUWDLQVFDVHQSOXVLHXUVFRXFKHVHW VH WHUPLQH HQ UHPSDUWV DEUXSWHV &DUU HW DO
(91)
(92) &HV pMHFWDV VH GpYHORSSHUDLHQW VXU GHV VXUIDFHV SDUWLHOOHPHQW FRPSRVpHV G¶HDX RX GH JODFH FRPPH F¶HVW SUREDEOHPHQW OH FDV VXU 0DUV 0DQJROGHWDO
(93)
(94) /¶RUJDQLVDWLRQGHVpMHFWDVIOXLGLVpVV¶REVHUYHDXVVLVXU7HUUHDX QLYHDXGXFUDWqUH5LHVHQ$OOHPDJQH )LJXUH
(95) . .
(96) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . )LJXUH /HFUDWqUH7RRWLQJVXU0DUVSUpVHQWHGHVpMHFWDVOREpVPXOWLFRXFKHVDYHFGHV UHPSDUWVjO H[WUpPLWpGHVDFRXYHUWXUHG pMHFWD1( &UpGLW 1$6$
(97) . )LJXUH &RPSRVLWLRQGHVpMHFWDVGXFUDWqUH5LHV $OOHPDJQH
(98) /DFRXYHUWXUHG pMHFWDPHW jO DIIOHXUHPHQWGHVEUqFKHVG LPSDFWHWGHVVXpYLWHV jSDUWLUGH6WXUPHWDO
(99)
(100) .
(101) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 /HVUDLVGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFW 'HV VWUXFWXUHV UDGLDOHV j O¶LPSDFW VSHFWUDOHPHQW GLVWLQFWHV VRQW REVHUYDEOHV DXGHOj GHODFRXYHUWXUHG¶pMHFWD&HVRQWOHVUDLVGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFW )LJXUH
(102) . )LJXUH 6\VWqPHGHUDLVGXFUDWqUHOXQDLUH*LRUGDQR%UXQR 1( /HV UDLV GHV FUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW VRQW GHV ILJXUHV DYHF XQ IRUW DOEpGR VXU OD /XQH HW VH GpYHORSSHQW GH IDoRQ UDGLDOH DX FUDWqUH 0HORVK
(103)
(104) /¶DOEpGR GH FHV UDLV VHPEOH GpSHQGUHGHODFRPSRVLWLRQGHODVXUIDFHLPSDFWpH *ULHUHWDO
(105)
(106) 6XUOD/XQHOHVUDLV SUpVHQWVVXUOHVPHUVOXQDLUHVUpIOpFKLVVHQWPRLQVODOXPLqUHTXHOHVUDLVGHVKDXWVSODWHDX[ /HVUDLVVRQWYLVLEOHVVXUOHVGLIIpUHQWVFRUSVVROLGHVGXV\VWqPHVRODLUH,OVFRUUHVSRQGUDLHQWj ODVLJQDWXUHVSHFWUDOHGHVFKDLQHVGHFUDWqUHVVHFRQGDLUHVGLVWDX[ 0F(ZHQHWDO
(107)
(108) /HV UDLV GHV FUDWqUHV OXQDLUHV V¶REVHUYHQW GDQV OH YLVLEOH 6XU 0DUV LOV RQW pWp UpYpOpV YLD O¶LPDJHULHLQIUDURXJH 7+(0,6QLJKWWLPHLQIUDUHGLPDJHV
(109) ,OV¶DJLWGHUDLVUpIOpFKLVVDQWSHX ODOXPLqUHGDQVOHGRPDLQHVSHFWUDOGHO¶LQIUDURXJH/HVFUDWqUHVUD\pVPDUWLHQVQHV¶REVHUYHQW TXHGDQVOHV]RQHVSRXVVLpUHXVHVPDUWLHQQHVHWVRQWLQWHUSUpWpVFRPPHODVLJQDWXUHVSHFWUDOH GH OD SRXVVLqUH VRXOHYpH SDU OD FUDWpULVDWLRQ VHFRQGDLUH SDU 7RUQDEHQH HW DO
(110) HW +DUWPDQQHWDO
(111) /HVUDLVGHVFUDWqUHVUD\pVRQWXQHGXUpHGHGpWHFWLRQOLPLWpHTXLGpSHQGEHDXFRXSGH OD FRPSRVLWLRQ GH OD VXUIDFH LPSDFWpH HW SHXWrWUH GH OD WDLOOH GX FUDWqUH IRUPp /HV UDLV GH SHWLWVFUDWqUHVGHYHQDQWSOXVUDSLGHPHQWGLIILFLOHVjGLVFHUQHUTXHOHVUDLVGHVJUDQGVFUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW /HV IDFWHXUV DJLVVDQW VXU O¶HIIDFHPHQW GHV UDLV GHV FUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW VHUDLHQW O¶H[SRVLWLRQ DX YHQW VRODLUH /HV FUDWqUHV UD\pV VHUDLHQW GRQF OHV SOXV UpFHQWV G¶XQH VXUIDFH .
(112) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 SODQpWDLUHSRXUDYRLUFRQVHUYpOHXUUDLV6XUOD/XQHOHVUDLVGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFWQHVHUDLHQW SOXVFRQVHUYpVDXGHOjG¶XQPLOOLDUGG¶DQQpHV *ULHUHWDO
(113)
(114) 1.2 Processus de formation des cratères d’impact $SUqVDYRLUGpFULWODPRUSKRORJLHJpQpUDOHGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFWLOHVWQpFHVVDLUHGH FRPSUHQGUHFRPPHQWFHX[FLVHIRUPHQW'HSXLVO¶LQLWLDWLRQGHODIRUPDWLRQGXFUDWqUHjVRQ pWDWILQDOQRXVSRXYRQVGpFULUHWURLVJUDQGHVpWDSHVGDQVOHSURFHVVXVGHPLVHHQSODFH,O\D WRXWG¶DERUGODSKDVHGHFRQWDFWHWFRPSUHVVLRQ3XLVODSKDVHG¶H[FDYDWLRQGXUDQWODTXHOOHOH PDWpULHOFRQWHQXGDQVODIXWXUHFDYLWpGXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFWHVWpMHFWp(WILQDOHPHQWODSKDVHGH PRGLILFDWLRQROHFUDWqUHSDVVHGHVRQpWDWWUDQVLWRLUHjVRQpWDWILQDO&HVpWDSHVVHVXFFqGHQW WUqVUDSLGHPHQW &RQWDFWHWFRPSUHVVLRQORUVGHO¶LPSDFW /DSUHPLqUHSKDVHGHODIRUPDWLRQGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFWHVWODSKDVHGHFRQWDFWHWGH FRPSUHVVLRQ &¶HVW OD SKDVH DX FRXUV GH ODTXHOOH O¶LPSDFWHXU RX OH SURMHFWLOH SHUFXWH OD VXUIDFHSODQpWDLUH&HWWHpWDSHHVWWUqVEUqYHHWQHGXUHTXHOHWHPSVQpFHVVDLUHjO¶LPSDFWHXU SRXU WUDYHUVHU OD FLEOH G¶XQH GLVWDQFH pTXLYDOHQWH j VRQ GLDPqWUH QRWp / /D GXUpH GH FHWWH SKDVHIJFFSHXWGRQFrWUHFDOFXOpHDLQVL
(115) IJFF /YL DYHFYLODYLWHVVHGXSURMHFWLOHORUVGHO¶LPSDFW 0HORVK
(116)
(117) 'DQVOHFDVG¶XQLPSDFWREOLTXHODYDULDEOHșGpILQLVVDQWO¶DQJOHHQWUHODVXUIDFHSODQpWDLUHHW ODWDLOOHGXSURMHFWLOHVRQWSULVHQFRPSWHSRXUFDOFXOHUODGXUpHGHFHWWHSKDVH
(118) IJFF / YL VLQș
(119) /H FRQWDFW HQWUH OH SURMHFWLOH HW OD VXUIDFH SODQpWDLUH JpQqUH GHV RQGHV GH FKRF j O¶LQWHUIDFH HQWUH OHV GHX[ REMHWV &HV RQGHV GH FKRFV VH SURSDJHQW GDQV OH SURMHFWLOH PDLV pJDOHPHQW GDQVODFLEOH )LJXUH$
(120) /HSURMHFWLOHHVW FRPSUHVVpHW UDOHQWL WDQGLV TXHOH PDWpULHOGHODFLEOHHVWPLVHQPRXYHPHQWYHUVOHEDVHWYHUVO¶H[WpULHXUGHOD]RQHGHFRQWDFW WRXWHQpWDQWFRPSUHVVp/HGpSODFHPHQWGHODPDWLqUHGDQVOHVGHX[REMHWVVHIDLWjODPrPH YLWHVVHDXQLYHDXGXSRLQWGHFRQWDFW /HSURMHFWLOHHVWHQWLqUHPHQWWUDYHUVpSDUO¶RQGHGHFKRFHWFHOOHFLDWWHLQWO¶DUULqUHOD VXUIDFHOLEUHGHO¶LPSDFWHXU )LJXUH%
(121) WDQGLV TXHVDWHPSpUDWXUHDXJPHQWHIRUWHPHQW GXHjO¶pQHUJLHDSSRUWpHSDUO¶LPSDFW/DSUHVVLRQHVWUHOkFKpHjODVXUIDFHOLEUHGXSURMHFWLOH HW FHOOHFL VH GpWHQG YHUV OH KDXW &HOD HQWUDvQH OD IRUPDWLRQ HQ VHQV LQYHUVH G¶XQH RQGH GH UDUpIDFWLRQ TXL VH GpYHORSSH HQ GLUHFWLRQ GH O¶LQWHUIDFH HQWUH O¶LPSDFWHXU HW OD FLEOH )LJXUH &
(122) /HSURMHFWLOHHVWDORUVGpFRPSUHVVpGHIDoRQTXDVLDGLDEDWLTXHFHTXLOXLSHUPHWGH .
(123) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 SDVVHUjO¶pWDWOLTXLGHHWSDUIRLVPrPHjO¶pWDWJD]HX[IRUPDQWXQSDQDFKHTXLHVWH[SXOVpGH OD]RQHG¶LPSDFW&HSDQDFKHVH FRQGHQVHHQ JRXWWHOHWWHVTXL UHWRPEHQWDXWRXUGHODFDYLWp IRUPpH )LJXUH(
(124) -RKQVRQHW0HORVK
(125)
(126) /H PRPHQW R O¶RQGH GH UDUpIDFWLRQ DWWHLQW O¶LQWHUIDFH HQWUH O¶LPSDFWHXU HW OD FLEOH PDUTXHODILQGHODSKDVHGHFRQWDFWHWGHFRPSUHVVLRQ /HVRQGHVGHFKRFVHSURSDJHQWpJDOHPHQWGDQVODVXUIDFHSODQpWDLUHLPSDFWpHjSDUWLU GXSRLQWGHFRQWDFW/HIURQWG¶RQGHSURJUHVVHVRXVXQHIRUPHKpPLVSKpULTXHVXLYLSDUO¶RQGH GHUDUpIDFWLRQSURYHQDQWGXSURMHFWLOH )LJXUH'
(127) /HVRQGHVGHFKRFVHGpSODFHQWjGHV YLWHVVHVYDULDQWHQWUHNPVHWNPVSRXUOHVURFKHVOHVSOXVGHQVHV &ROOLQVHWDO
(128)
(129) $X IXU HW j PHVXUH TXH OHV RQGHV GH FKRF VH SURSDJHQW HOOHV V¶DWWpQXHQW /¶RQGH GH UDUpIDFWLRQ SHUPHW GH IRQGUH HW GH YDSRULVHU XQH SDUWLH GH OD FLEOH GDQV OD ]RQH R OD FRPSUHVVLRQDpWpODSOXVIRUWH /DSKDVHGHFRQWDFWHWFRPSUHVVLRQPHWGRQFHQDYDQWXQSURFHVVXVWKHUPRG\QDPLTXH GpEXWDQW SDU XQH DXJPHQWDWLRQ VRXGDLQH GH SUHVVLRQ /HV HVWLPDWLRQV GRQQpHV ORUV GH OD VLPXODWLRQ GH &ROOLQV HW DO
(130) )LJXUH
(131) VRQW XQH KDXVVH GH O¶RUGUH GH TXHOTXHV FHQWDLQHVGHJLJDSDVFDOV&HVYDULDWLRQVGHFRQGLWLRQVVRQWVXIILVDQWHVSRXUEULVHUOHVOLDLVRQV DWRPLTXHVHWXQUpDUUDQJHPHQWFKLPLTXHHWPLQpUDORJLTXHHVWGRQFSRVVLEOH'HVURFKHVWHOOHV TXH OHV WHNWLWHV RX HQFRUH OHV VKDWWHU F{QHV VRQW DORUV IRUPpHV /HV WHNWLWHV VRQW GHV YHUUHV VLOLFHX[IRUPpVjKDXWHSUHVVLRQDORUVTXHOHVVKDWWHUF{QHVVRQWOHVIRUPHVFDUDFWpULVWLTXHVGH IUDFWXUHVGHODURFKHGDQVOHVVWUXFWXUHVG¶LPSDFW %DUDWRX[HW0HORVK
(132)
(133) . .
(134) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . )LJXUH 0RGpOLVDWLRQGHODSUHPLqUHSKDVHGHIRUPDWLRQG XQFUDWqUHG LPSDFWFRQWDFW HWFRPSUHVVLRQ 0RGLILpHGH&ROOLQVHWDO
(135)
(136) 6LPXODWLRQUpDOLVpHSRXUXQSURMHFWLOHGHNPGHGLDPqWUHFRPSRVpGHGXQLWHLPSDFWDQWXQH FLEOHJUDQLWLTXHjXQHYLWHVVHGHNPVSHQGDQWVHFRQGH $
(137) /¶LPSDFWHXUHQWUHHQFRQWDFW DYHFODFLEOHGpYHORSSDQWXQHUpJLRQGHKDXWHSUHVVLRQjO¶LQWHUIDFHHQWUHOHVGHX[REMHWV %
(138) /¶RQGHGHFKRFWUDYHUVHO¶LQWpJUDOLWpGXSURMHFWLOH &
(139) /¶RQGHFKRFHVWUpIOpFKLHjO¶DUULqUH GHO¶LPSDFWHXUVRXVODIRUPHG¶XQHRQGHGHUDUpIDFWLRQ '
(140) /¶RQGHGHFKRFVHSURSDJHGDQV OHPDWpULHOGHODFLEOHVXLYLHGHO¶RQGHGHUDUpIDFWLRQ (
(141) /DSOXPHFRPPHQFHjV¶pWHQGUHHW ODSKDVHG¶H[FDYDWLRQFRPPHQFH ([FDYDWLRQGXPDWpULHOGHODFLEOH /DGHX[LqPHSKDVHGHIRUPDWLRQGHVFUDWqUHVDXFRXUVGHO¶LPSDFWHVWO¶H[FDYDWLRQ$X FRXUVGHO¶H[FDYDWLRQXQHSDUWLHGXPDWpULHOHVWpMHFWpHGHOD]RQHDIIHFWpHSDUO¶LPSDFWHWOHV .
(142) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 pMHFWDVVHPHWWHQWHQSODFHDXWRXUGHODFDYLWpGXFUDWqUH&HGpSODFHPHQWGHPDWLqUHHQWUDvQH O¶DJUDQGLVVHPHQWGHODFDYLWpTXHO¶RQDSSHOOHFUDWqUHWUDQVLWRLUH /¶RQGHGHFKRFKpPLVSKpULTXHVHSURSDJHDQWGDQVODFLEOHHVWDWWpQXpHHQV¶pORLJQDQW GXSRLQWG¶LPSDFW&HWWHRQGHVHWUDQVIRUPHHQRQGHSODVWLTXHHWILQDOHPHQWHQRQGHpODVWLTXH /¶RQGH GH UDUpIDFWLRQ FUppH VXU OD SDUWLH OLEUH GH O¶LPSDFWHXU DWWHLQW O¶LQWHUIDFH HQWUH OH SURMHFWLOH HW OD FLEOH /D FRPELQDLVRQ GHV RQGHV GH FKRFV HW GH UDUpIDFWLRQ j FHW HQGURLW HQJHQGUHXQIOX[GHPDWLqUHTXLHVWpMHFWpGHODVXUIDFHLPSDFWpH/DFDYLWpFUppHSDUFHIOX[ GH PDWLqUH IRUPH OD FDYLWp WUDQVLWRLUH GX FUDWqUH G¶LPSDFW 'HQFH
(143) *ULHYH HW &LQWDOD
(144) 0HORVK
(145)
(146) /DFDYLWpWUDQVLWRLUHHVWODFDYLWpPD[LPDOHGXFUDWqUHDYDQWTX¶LOQH VRLWHQVXLWHHQSDUWLHFRPEOpSDUOHVEUqFKHVTXHOHVFUrWHVGXFUDWqUHQHUHWRPEHQWVXUHOOHV PrPHVHWTXHOHIRQGGHODFDYLWpVXELVVHXQUHERQGpODVWLTXH'DQVOD]RQHODSOXVSURFKHGH O¶LPSDFW O¶RQGH GH UDUpIDFWLRQ SHUPHW SDU GpFRPSUHVVLRQ DGLDEDWLTXH OD IRQWH HW SDUIRLV OD VXEOLPDWLRQG¶XQHSDUWLHGHODURFKHHQFDLVVDQWH )LJXUH
(147) 0HORVN
(148) 2VLQVNLHWDO
(149)
(150) /HWHPSVFDUDFWpULVWLTXH 7G
(151) GHIRUPDWLRQGHODFDYLWpWUDQVLWRLUHVHFDOFXOHDLQVL 7Ga +DWJ
(152)
(153) DYHF +DW OD SURIRQGHXU PD[LPDOH GH OD FDYLWp HW J O¶DFFpOpUDWLRQ JUDYLWDWLRQQHOOH GX FRUSV LPSDFWp /D WUDMHFWRLUH GX PDWpULHO PLV HQ PRXYHPHQW ORUV GH O¶LPSDFW GpSHQG GH VD SRVLWLRQ GDQV ODFDYLWpWUDQVLWRLUH&HWWHFDYLWpHVW GLYLVpHHQGHX[]RQHV OD]RQHH[FDYpHHW OD]RQH GpSODFpH )LJXUH
(154) /HPDWpULHOSURYHQDQWGHOD]RQHH[FDYpHHVWSURMHWpKRUVGXFUDWqUHHW IRUPHOHGpS{WG¶pMHFWDV/HPDWpULHOLVVXGHOD]RQHGpSODFpHHVWFRPSUHVVpYHUVOHEDVSDUOHV RQGHVGHFKRFVFHTXLIRUPHODEDVHGHODFDYLWpHQH[SDQVLRQFHTXLDFFURvWHQFRUHOHYROXPH GHODFDYLWpWUDQVLWRLUH 6W|IIOHUHWDO
(155) *ULHYHHWDO
(156)
(157) . )LJXUH 5HSUpVHQWDWLRQVFKpPDWLTXHGXGpSODFHPHQWGXPDWpULHOGHODFLEOHORUVGH O LPSDFW2VLQVNLHWDO
(158) . . .
(159) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 /H PDWpULHO pMHFWp VH GpSRVH DXWRXU GH OD FDYLWp WUDQVLWRLUH HW IRUPH OD FRXYHUWXUH G¶pMHFWD&HSURFHVVXVVHIDLWSDUVpGLPHQWDWLRQEDOLVWLTXH 2EHUEHFN
(160)
(161) 'DQVOHPRGqOH GHVpGLPHQWDWLRQEDOLVWLTXHOHPDWpULHOLVVXGHODFDYLWpHVWpMHFWpHWVXLWXQHWUDMHFWRLUHTXDVL SDUDEROLTXH )LJXUH
(162) DYDQWGHUHWRPEHUjODVXUIDFHGXFRUSVLPSDFWp . . )LJXUH 0RGqOHGHGLVWULEXWLRQEDOLVWLTXHGHVpMHFWDV2EHUEHFN
(163) . 'DQVOHPRGqOHSURSRVpSDU2EHUEHFN
(164) OHPDWpULHO LVVXGXFHQWUHGHODFDYLWp HVW H[SXOVp DYHF GHV YLWHVVHV VXSpULHXUHV j FHOOHV GHV PDWpULDX[ SURYHQDQW GH OD SpULSKpULH /HVURFKHVLVVXHVGXFHQWUHGHODFDYLWpUHWRPEHQWGRQFSOXVORLQGHODERUGXUHGXFUDWqUHTXH OHVURFKHVpMHFWpHVGHSXLVODSpULSKpULHGHODFDYLWp&HWWHVpJUpJDWLRQVSDWLDOHHVWDFFHQWXpH SDU OD YDULDWLRQ GH O¶DQJOH G¶pMHFWLRQ GH OD PDWLqUH $QGHUVRQ HW DO
(165)
(166) /D WDLOOH GHV FODVWHVGHODFRXYHUWXUHG¶pMHFWDGLPLQXHGHODERUGXUHGXFUDWqUHYHUVO¶H[WUpPLWpGHVpMHFWDV )LJXUH HW
(167) /HVFODVWHVOHVSOXVODUJHVWRPEHQWHQSUHPLHUSURFKHGHODERUGXUHGX FUDWqUHDORUVTXHOHVFODVWHVOHVSOXVSHWLWVVHGpSRVHQWjXQHGLVWDQFHSOXVLPSRUWDQWH . .
(168) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . . )LJXUH 9DULDWLRQGHODWDLOOHGHVFODVWHVVXUODFRXYHUWXUHG pMHFWDHQIRQFWLRQGHOD GLVWDQFHDXFUDWqUH*LRUGDQR%UXQR,PDJH/52&0 5&$ 7DLOOHGHVEORFV SOXULGpFDPpWULTXHjNPGXFUDWqUH1 ( % 7DLOOHGHVEORFVPpWULTXHj NPGXFUDWqUH1 ( & 7DLOOHGHVEORFVLQIpULHXUHDXPqWUH1 ( . /HVURFKHVpMHFWpHVSHXYHQWSURGXLUHGHVLPSDFWVVHFRQGDLUHVORUVGHOHXUUHWRPEpHVXU ODFLEOHRXVXUOHVpMHFWDV&HVLPSDFWVVHFRQGDLUHVYRQWHX[DXVVLGpYHORSSHUGHVFRXYHUWXUHV G¶pMHFWDV )LJXUH
(169) /¶pWXGHGHODFRPSRVLWLRQ GHV FRXFKHVG¶pMHFWD GXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFW 5LHVORFDOLVpHQ$OOHPDJQHSDU+|UW]HWDO
(170) PRQWUHTXHODFRXYHUWXUHG¶pMHFWDGHFH FUDWqUHHVWFRPSRVpHjGHPDWpULHOLVVXGHO¶LPSDFWSULPDLUHHWj GHFUDWpULVDWLRQV VHFRQGDLUHV /HV pMHFWDV VHFRQGDLUHV DXUDLHQW XQ U{OH GpWHUPLQDQW GDQV OD FRPSRVLWLRQ GH OD FRXYHUWXUHG¶pMHFWDGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFW . )LJXUH &UDWqUHD\DQWpMHFWpGHODPDWLqUHVXUODFRXYHUWXUHG pMHFWDGXFUDWqUH *LRUGDQR%UXQRLPDJH/52&0 5&1( .
(171) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . . )DFWHXUVFRQWU{ODQWOHVGLPHQVLRQVILQDOHVGXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFW. . . /¶DQJOHG¶LPSDFW. /¶DQJOHG¶LPSDFWMRXHXQU{OHLPSRUWDQWSHQGDQWOHVSKDVHVGHFRQWDFWFRPSUHVVLRQHW G¶H[FDYDWLRQ /RUV GH OD SUHPLqUH SKDVH O¶pQHUJLH DSSRUWpH ORUV G¶XQ LPSDFW HVW PD[LPDOH ORUVTXH FHOXLFL VH SURGXLW DYHF XQ DQJOH GH /D WDLOOH G¶XQ FUDWqUH G¶LPSDFW SRXU XQ SURMHFWLOHGRQQpYDULHGRQFHQIRQFWLRQGHO¶DQJOHG¶LPSDFW3OXV O¶DQJOHG¶LPSDFW GLPLQXH SOXVOHGLDPqWUHGXFUDWqUHIRUPpHVWSHWLW&HSHQGDQWODJUDQGHPDMRULWpGHVSURMHFWLOHVDUULYH DYHFXQDQJOHREOLTXH/DSUREDELOLWpSRXUTX¶XQLPSDFWVHSURGXLVHDYHFXQDQJOHșGDQVXQH JDPPHGșjODVXUIDFHG¶XQFRUSVSODQpWDLUHHVW VLQș FRVș Gș SDUXQLWpG¶DLUH
(172) LQGpSHQGDPPHQW GH O¶DFFpOpUDWLRQ JUDYLWDWLRQQHOOH 3LHUD]]R HW 0HORVK F
(173)
(174) /D SUREDELOLWpHVWPD[LPDOHSRXUXQDQJOHG¶LPSDFWGHHWPLQLPDOHSRXUOHVDQJOHVGH RX GH /¶DQJOHG¶LPSDFWLQIOXHQFHpJDOHPHQWODIRUPHGXFUDWqUH8QLPSDFWj IRUPHXQ FUDWqUHFLUFXODLUH8QLPSDFWDYHFXQDQJOHSOXVUDVDQWFUpHXQHFDYLWpSOXVHOOLSWLTXH$WUqV IRUWHREOLTXLWpOHSURMHFWLOHSHXWpYHQWXHOOHPHQWIDLUHGHVUHERQGV /¶DQJOHG¶LPSDFWLQIOXHQFHpJDOHPHQWODPLVHHQSODFHGHODFRXYHUWXUHG¶pMHFWDORUV GH OD SKDVH G¶H[FDYDWLRQ *DXOW HW :HGHNLQG
(175) HW 3RHOFKDX HW .HQNPDQQ
(176) PRQWUHQW TXH OD IRUPH GH OD FRXYHUWXUH G¶pMHFWD YDULH HQ IRQFWLRQ GH O¶DQJOH G¶DUULYpH GH O¶LPSDFWHXU6LO¶LPSDFWVHIDLWDYHFXQDQJOHFRPSULVHQWUHHWODFRQFHQWUDWLRQGHOD FRXYHUWXUH G¶pMHFWD HVW PD[LPDOH GDQV OD GLUHFWLRQ GX SURMHFWLOH /RUVTXH FHW DQJOH HVW FRPSULV HQWUH HW OD FRXYHUWXUH G¶pMHFWDV Q¶HVW SDV FRQWLQXH PRQWUDQW XQH µ]RQH G¶RPEUH¶GXF{WpGHO¶DUULYpHGXSURMHFWLOH 'DQVOHVFDVRO¶DQJOHG¶LPSDFW HVW LQIpULHXUj XQHVHFRQGH]RQHG¶RPEUHDSSDUDvWHWODFRXYHUWXUHG¶pMHFWD PRQWUHXQHIRUPHHQDLOHV GHµSDSLOORQ¶ )LJXUH
(177) . .
(178) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . )LJXUH &UDWqUHHQSDSLOORQjODVXUIDFHGH0DUV1 2LPDJH&7;&H FUDWqUHPHWDXVVLHQpYLGHQFHGHVpMHFWDVPXOWLFRXFKHV/¶DQJOHG¶LPSDFWHVWHVWLPpjPRLQV GH &UpGLWV 1$6$-3/
(179) ,QIOXHQFHGHODFRPSRVLWLRQGHODFLEOH /DUpSRQVHSK\VLTXHGHODFLEOHVXLWHjO¶LPSDFWYDULHHQIRQFWLRQGHVDFRPSRVLWLRQ GH VD FRPSpWHQFH RX HQFRUH GH VD SRURVLWp HW LQIOXHQFH OHV GLPHQVLRQV ILQDOHV GX FUDWqUH G¶LPSDFW 9DQ GHU %RJHUW HW DO
(180) PRQWUHQW XQ FUDWqUH IRUPp VXU GHX[ XQLWpV JpRORJLTXHV DYHF GHV FRPSpWHQFHV WUqV GLIIpUHQWHV )LJXUH
(181) &H FUDWqUH V¶HVW IRUPp j OD OLPLWH GH XQLWpVJpRORJLTXHV/HFUDWqUHQ¶DSDVOHPrPHUD\RQGHSDUWHWG¶DXWUHGHODOLPLWH )LJXUH
(182) /¶LQIOXHQFHGHVSURSULpWpVGHODFLEOHVXUODWDLOOHGXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFWHVWGHPRLQVHQ PRLQV VRXWHQXH ORUVTXH OH GLDPqWUH GX FUDWqUH DXJPHQWH 3OXV O¶pQHUJLH DSSRUWpH ORUV GH O¶LPSDFW HVW LPSRUWDQWH PRLQV OD FRPSpWHQFH GX PDWpULHO LQIOXHQFH OD WDLOOH GH OD FDYLWp GX FUDWqUH IRUPp 3RXU XQ FUDWqUH GRQW OH GLDPqWUH HVW VXSpULHXU j P O¶LQIOXHQFH GHV SURSULpWpVGHODFLEOHGHYLHQWQpJOLJHDEOH $VKOH\HWDO
(183) 9DQGHU%RJHUWHWDO
(184)
(185) . .
(186) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . )LJXUH ,PSDFWGRQWOHUD\RQGLIIqUHHQIRQFWLRQGHODFLEOH G DSUqV9DQGHU%RJHUWHW DO
(187)
(188) /¶REVHUYDWLRQHVWjO¶LQWpULHXUG¶XQSOXVJUDQGFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFW/HUD\RQGX FUDWqUHHVWSOXVSHWLWGDQVOD]RQHIRQGXHTXHGDQVOD]RQHGHVEUqFKHVG¶LPSDFW/D]RQH IRQGXHHVWSOXVFRPSpWHQWHTXHFHOOHGHVEUqFKHVG¶LPSDFW,PDJH/52&0/ 1 ( /HV pMHFWDV DXVVL GLIIqUHQW HQ IRQFWLRQ GHV SURSULpWpV GH OD FLEOH 6XU 0DUV RX VXU OH VDWHOOLWH-RYLHQ(XURSHODSUpVHQFHG¶pMHFWDVIOXLGLVpVHVWH[SOLTXpHSDUODSUpVHQFHG¶HDXGDQV OHVRXVVRO )LJXUH
(189) %DUORZHWDO
(190) 6HQIWHW6WHZDUW
(191)
(192) /RUVGHODIRUPDWLRQ G¶XQ LPSDFW OD FRXFKH HQULFKLH HQ JODFH G¶HDX HQIRXLH VHUDLW DWWHLQWH HW FHOD H[SOLTXHUDLW OD PLVH HQ SODFH GH FHV pMHFWDV SDUWLFXOLHUV 3DU H[HPSOH OH W\SH G¶pMHFWD Q¶HVW SDV REVHUYp DXWRXUGHVLPSDFWVGRQWOHGLDPqWUHHVWLQIpULHXUjNPVXU0DUVOHXUSURIRQGHXUVHUDLWWURS IDLEOHSRXUDWWHLQGUHODFRXFKHGHJODFH %DUDWRX[HWDO
(193)
(194) &HW\SHG¶pMHFWDVQ¶HVWSDV REVHUYpjODVXUIDFHGHOD/XQHO¶HDXQHVHUDLWSDVSUpVHQWHHQVXEVXUIDFHVXUOD/XQH 0RGLILFDWLRQGXFUDWqUH /DSKDVHGHPRGLILFDWLRQHVWODWURLVLqPHHWGHUQLqUHpWDSHGHODIRUPDWLRQG¶XQFUDWqUH G¶LPSDFW&¶HVWO¶pWDSHDXFRXUVGHODTXHOOHOHFUDWqUHDFTXLHUWVRQpWDWILQDO&RPPHSRXUOD .
(195) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 WUDQVLWLRQHQWUHODSKDVHGHFRQWDFWHWFRPSUHVVLRQHWODSKDVHG¶H[FDYDWLRQODOLPLWHHQWUHOD SKDVHG¶H[FDYDWLRQHWODSKDVHGHPRGLILFDWLRQQ¶HVWSDVFODLUHPHQWGpWHUPLQpH 7XUWOHHWDO
(196)
(197) /DSKDVHGHPRGLILFDWLRQFRPPHQFHDXGpEXWGHO¶HIIRQGUHPHQWYHUWLFDOGHODFDYLWp WUDQVLWRLUH /D SKDVH GH PRGLILFDWLRQ HVW GRPLQpH SDU OD UpSRQVH G\QDPLTXH GH OD FLEOH j O¶H[FDYDWLRQ GH PDWLqUH GXH j O¶LPSDFW /D UpDFWLRQ G\QDPLTXH GH OD FLEOH D SRXU HIIHW GH UHIHUPHU OD FDYLWp WUDQVLWRLUH TXL V¶HIIRQGUH VXU HOOHPrPH &HWWH IRUFH HVW FRQIURQWpH j OD UpVLVWDQFHGXPDWpULDX/HW\SHGHFUDWqUHHWOHGLDPqWUHGHODFDYLWpILQDOHGpSHQGHQWGRQFGH O¶pTXLOLEUH HQWUH OD UpSRQVH G\QDPLTXH GH OD FLEOH HW OD UpVLVWDQFH GX PDWpULDX j O¶HIIRQGUHPHQW 0HORVK
(198) &ROOLQVHWDO
(199)
(200) 'DQVOH FDVROD UpSRQVHG\QDPLTXHGHODFLEOHQ¶HVW SDVDVVH]LPSRUWDQWHF¶HVWj GLUHVLODWDLOOHGHODFDYLWpWUDQVLWRLUHQ¶HVWSDVWUqVJUDQGHODUpVLVWDQFHGXPDWpULDXPDLQWLHQW ODIRUPHGHODFDYLWpWUDQVLWRLUH .HQNPDQQHWDO
(201)
(202) &¶HVWOHFDVGHVFUDWqUHVVLPSOHV /HVERUGXUHVGXFUDWqUHWUDQVLWRLUHUHWRPEHQWVXUHOOHPrPHHWOHVEUqFKHVG¶LPSDFWFRPEOHQW XQHSDUWLHGHODFDYLWp )LJXUH'
(203) /HFUDWqUHILQDOHVWGRQFSOXVODUJHHWPRLQVSURIRQG TXHOHFUDWqUHWUDQVLWRLUH )LJXUH(
(204) 'DQV OH FDV R OD WDLOOH GX FUDWqUH WUDQVLWRLUH GpSDVVH XQ FHUWDLQ VHXLO OD UpSRQVH G\QDPLTXHGHODFLEOHGHYLHQWDORUVSOXVLPSRUWDQWHTXHODUpVLVWDQFHGXPDWpULDX/HFUDWqUH WUDQVLWRLUHV¶HIIRQGUHHWODUpSRQVHG\QDPLTXHGHODVXUIDFHHVWPD[LPDOHDXSRLQWOHSOXVEDV GH OD FDYLWp .HQNPDQQ HW DO
(205)
(206) &HWWH IRUFH DJLVVDQW GX EDV YHUV OH KDXW XQ IOX[ GH PDWLqUHHVWREVHUYpDXFHQWUHGXFUDWqUHTXLIRUPHOHSLFFHQWUDO/HFUDWqUHIRUPpHVWDORUVXQ FUDWqUHFRPSOH[H/DIRUPDWLRQGXSLFFHQWUDO )LJXUH&
(207) FUpHXQGpILFLWGHPDWLqUHVRXV OHFUDWqUH(QVXLWHOHVSDURLVGXFUDWqUHVHWDVVHQWIRUPDQWOHVWHUUDVVHVGXFUDWqUHFRPSOH[H )LJXUH(
(208) . .
(209) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . )LJXUH 0RGqOHGHIRUPDWLRQGHVFUDWqUHVVLPSOHV jJDXFKH
(210) HWGHVFUDWqUHVFRPSOH[HV jGURLWH
(211) PRGLILpHGH&ROOLQVHWDO
(212) $ 3URSDJDWLRQGHO¶RQGHGHFKRFSHQGDQWOD SKDVHG¶H[FDYDWLRQ % /DFDYLWpVHGpYHORSSH & /HFUDWqUHWUDQVLWRLUHHVWIRUPpHWOD FDYLWpFRPPHQFHjVHUHIHUPHUKRUL]RQWDOHPHQWGDQVOHPRGqOHGHVFUDWqUHVFRPSOH[HV ' /HFUDWqUHWUDQVLWRLUHV¶HIIRQGUHHQWUDvQDQWXQPRXYHPHQWGHODPDWLqUHYHUVO¶LQWpULHXUGHOD FDYLWpHWXQWDVVHPHQWGHVPXUV'DQVOHFDVGXFUDWqUHFRPSOH[HOHIRQGGHODFDYLWp. .
(213) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 FRQWLQXHVDUHPRQWpHVRXVO¶HIIHWGHODUpSRQVHJUDYLWDWLRQQHOOHGHODFLEOH ( /HFUDWqUH DWWHLQWVRQpWDWILQDO /RUVTXHODFDYLWpWUDQVLWRLUHHVWWUqVODUJHOHSLFFHQWUDOVHGpYHORSSHWUqVYLWHHWDWWHLQW XQH DOWLWXGH WURS pOHYpH GpSDVVDQW VRQ SRLQW G¶pTXLOLEUH &H W\SH GH SLF FHQWUDO V¶HIIRQGUH DORUVVRXVVRQSURSUHSRLGV /H SURFHVVXV GH IRUPDWLRQ GHV FUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW VXU OHV FRUSV VROLGHV GX V\VWqPH VRODLUHVHGpYHORSSHGRQFHQWURLVSKDVHV$ODILQGHODGHUQLqUHpWDSHOHFUDWqUHDWWHLQWVRQ pWDW ILQDO &HW pWDW ILQDO HVW HQVXLWH PRGLILp DX FRXUV WHPSV SDU SOXVLHXUV SURFHVVXV TXL HQWUDvQHQWVRQpURVLRQSDUIRLVMXVTX¶jVRQHIIDFHPHQW 1.3 Dégradation des cratères d’impact /DWRSRJUDSKLHGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFWHVWSHUWXUEpHSDUFLQTSURFHVVXVSULQFLSDX[
(214) OH ERPEDUGHPHQW PpWpRULWLTXH
(215) O¶DFWLYLWp VLVPLTXH GpFOHQFKDQW GHV PRXYHPHQWV JUDYLWDLUHV GHV SDURLV GX FUDWqUH
(216) OH FRPEOHPHQW SDU pSDQFKHPHQWV YROFDQLTXHV
(217) OHV SURFHVVXVIOXYLDWLOHHW
(218) OHVSURFHVVXVpROLHQV /HERPEDUGHPHQWPpWpRULWLTXH /H ERPEDUGHPHQW PpWpRULWLTXH HVW XQ SURFHVVXV DIIHFWDQW OHV FUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW j SOXVLHXUV pFKHOOHV ,O VH WUDGXLW SDU O¶HIIDFHPHQW G¶XQ FUDWqUH ORUV GH OD IRUPDWLRQ G¶XQ QRXYHDXFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFWOHFRPEOHPHQWG¶XQ FUDWqUHSDUODPLVHHQSODFHGHVpMHFWDVG¶XQ FUDWqUHSOXVMHXQHRXHQFRUHSDUO¶pURVLRQGHODWRSRJUDSKLHGXFUDWqUHSDUPLFURLPSDFWV /¶HIIDFHPHQW G¶XQ FUDWqUH SDU OD IRUPDWLRQ G¶XQ QRXYHDX FUDWqUH G¶LPSDFW RX SDU OD PLVHHQSODFHGHVHVpMHFWDVVHQRPPHOHUHVXUIDoDJHG¶LPSDFW +DUWPDQQHW*DVNHOO
(219) +DUWPDQQHWDO
(220) +|U]HWDO
(221)
(222) /HUHVXUIDoDJHG¶LPSDFWVHSURGXLWSULQFLSDOHPHQW ORUVTXH OD VXUIDFH HVW VDWXUpH HQ FUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW /D VDWXUDWLRQ G¶XQH VXUIDFH SODQpWDLUH VLJQLILH TXH OD IRUPDWLRQ G¶XQ QRXYHDX FUDWqUH VH IDLW DX GpWULPHQW G¶XQ FUDWqUH SOXV DQFLHQ SDU PDQTXH GH VXUIDFH OLEUH GLVSRQLEOH /D IRUPDWLRQ GX QRXYHDX FUDWqUH HQWUDvQH DORUV O¶HIIDFHPHQW G¶XQ FUDWqUH SOXV DQFLHQ WDQGLV TXH OD PLVH HQ SODFH GH OD FRXYHUWXUH G¶pMHFWD FRPEOHOHVFUDWqUHVVLWXpVDXWRXUGHODQRXYHOOHFDYLWp /H ERPEDUGHPHQW PLFURPpWpRULWLTXH DIIHFWH pJDOHPHQW OHV FUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW SDU pURVLRQ/HVSURMHFWLOHVGHWDLOOHPLFURPpWULTXHFUpHQWGHVPLFURFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFWjODVXUIDFH GHVFRUSVSODQpWDLUHVGpSRXUYXVG¶DWPRVSKqUH &UHPRQHVHHWDO
(223) %RXOH\HWDO
(224) &LQWDOD
(225) 0RUJDQ HW DO
(226)
(227) /H VRO HVW DLQVL PRGLILp HW OHV FUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW VRQW DIIHFWpV SDU FH SURFHVVXV /HV SUHPLqUHV pWXGHV GHV HIIHWV OLpV DX ERPEDUGHPHQW PLFUR PpWpRULWLTXH FRQFHUQHQW OD SUpVHQFH GH VRGLXP GDQV O¶H[RVSKqUH OXQDLUH /RUV G¶LPSDFWV GH .
(228) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 PLFURSURMHFWLOHV GHV DWRPHV GH VRGLXP VRQW H[WUDLWV GX VRO OXQDLUH HW VRQW H[SXOVpV YHUV O¶H[RVSKqUH %HUH]KQR\
(229)
(230) /DTXDQWLWpGHPDWLqUHH[WUDLWHHVWLPpHHVWGHO¶RUGUHGH DWRPHVFPðV /H ERPEDUGHPHQW PLFURPpWpRULWLTXH HVW GRQF XQ SURFHVVXV G¶pURVLRQ DIIHFWDQWOHVROOXQDLUHHWDJLVVDQWVXUODWRSRJUDSKLHGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFW /¶DFWLYLWpVLVPLTXH /HVVpLVPHVVRQWXQSKpQRPqQHFRPPXQjWRXVOHVFRUSVVROLGHVGXV\VWqPHVRODLUH /D VRXUFH GHV RQGHV VLVPLTXHV FRPPXQH j WRXV OHV FRUSV VROLGHV HVW O¶LPSDFW HQWUH XQ SURMHFWLOH HW OD VXUIDFH SODQpWDLUH *XGNRYD HW DO
(231) 'XHQQHELHU HW 6XWWRQ
(232) 0F*DUUHWDO
(233)
(234) /HVVpLVPHVVRQWpJDOHPHQWHQJHQGUpVSDUODWHFWRQLTXHGHVSODTXHVRX HQFRUHODFRQWUDFWLRQWKHUPLTXHORUVGXUHIURLGLVVHPHQWG¶XQFRUSVSODQpWDLUH /D SURSDJDWLRQ GHV RQGHV VLVPLTXHV HQ VXUIDFH SHXW GpFOHQFKHU GHV PRXYHPHQWV JUDYLWDLUHV 'DQV OHV FUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFWV OHV JOLVVHPHQWV GH WHUUDLQ SURYLHQQHQW GHV SDURLV HW FRPEOHQWSDUWLHOOHPHQWODFDYLWpGXFUDWqUHHQWUDvQDQWO¶HIIDFHPHQWGHODPRUSKRORJLHDXFRXUV GXWHPSV 5LFKDUGVRQ
(235)
(236) /H PRGqOH GH GLVSHUVLRQ GHV RQGHV VLVPLTXHV GH 5LFKDUGVRQ HW DO
(237) HW 5LFKDUGVRQ
(238) PRQWUHTX¶XQHIIDFHPHQWGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFWVXUXQHVXUIDFHSODQpWDLUH GpSHQG GH OD JUDYLWp GX FRUSV SODQpWDLUH 3OXV OD JUDYLWp HVW IRUWH SOXV OHV PRXYHPHQWV JUDYLWDLUHVVRQWLPSRUWDQWV/DGXUpHGHYLHG¶XQFUDWqUHG¶LPSDFWG¶XQHWDLOOHGRQQpHGpSHQG GRQF SDUWLHOOHPHQW GH OD JUDYLWp GX FRUSV VXU OHTXHO LO VH IRUPH /H PRGqOH SURSRVp SDU 5LFKDUGVRQHWDO
(239) HVWLPHOHFRPEOHPHQWG¶XQFUDWqUHGRQWOHGLDPqWUHHVWGHNPHQ XQH SpULRGH GH 0D VXU XQ FRUSV FRPSDUDEOH j (URV GRQW OD JUDYLWp HVW GH PPVð )LJXUH
(240) HQXWLOLVDQWOHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFWFRPPHVHXOHVRXUFHVLVPLTXH . . )LJXUH 0RGqOHG HIIDFHPHQWGHVFUDWqUHVG LPSDFWSDUPRXYHPHQWVJUDYLWDLUHV&DV G XQFUDWqUHGHNPGHGLDPqWUHVXUXQFRUSVFRPSDUDEOHj(URV jSDUWLUGH 5LFKDUGVRQHWDO
(241)
(242) . .
(243) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . . . /HFRPEOHPHQWSDUpSDQFKHPHQWVYROFDQLTXHV. /HV FUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFWV SHXYHQW rWUH UHFRXYHUWV HWRX FRPEOpV SDU GHV pSDQFKHPHQWV YROFDQLTXHV VXLWH j OHXU IRUPDWLRQ /HV FUDWqUHV GRQW OH GLDPqWUH HW OD SURIRQGHXUVRQWIDLEOHVVRQWWRWDOHPHQWUHFRXYHUWVHWQHVRQWSOXVYLVLEOHVHQVXUIDFH*UkFHj O¶LPDJHULHRUELWDOHLOHVWSRVVLEOHG¶REVHUYHUGHVFUDWqUHVGDQVOHVTXHOVVHVRQWGpYHUVpHVGHV FRXOpHVGHODYHVVXFFHVVLYHV *UHHOH\HWDO
(244)
(245) /D VRXUFH GHV ODYHV SHXW rWUH VRLW j O¶LQWpULHXU GX FUDWqUH VRLW YHQLU G¶XQ SRLQW HQYLURQQDQW 'DQV OH SUHPLHU FDV OHV pFRXOHPHQWV GH ODYHV VH UpSDQGHQW MXVTX¶DX FUDWqUH G¶LPSDFW HW FRPEOHQW OD FDYLWp 'DQV OH VHFRQG FDV OD VRXUFH GX PDJPDWLVPH HVW VRXV OH FUDWqUHG¶LPSDFW /DILJXUHPRQWUHGHVUHPSOLVVDJHVYROFDQLTXHVVXU0DUVHWVXUOD/XQH/HFUDWqUH *XVHY VXU 0DUV )LJXUH $
(246) HW OH FUDWqUH OXQDLUH *ULPDOGL )LJXUH %
(247) PHWWHQW HQ pYLGHQFHGXYROFDQLVPHSRVWLPSDFW . . . )LJXUH $ &UDWqUH*XVHY 0DUV
(248) DXIRQGGXTXHOGHVFRXOpHVGHODYHVVRQWYLVLEOHV FDGUHVEFHWG
(249) % &UDWqUHOXQDLUH*ULPDOGLUHPSOLSDUWLHOOHPHQWSDUGHVODYHVEDVDOWLTXHV /HVIOqFKHVPRQWUHQWOHVIURQWVGHVFRXOpHVGHODYHV' DSUqV*UHHOH\HWDO
(250) /¶pURVLRQIOXYLDWLOH /¶pURVLRQ IOXYLDWLOH HVW REVHUYDEOH VXU OHV FRUSV GX V\VWqPH VRODLUH D\DQW XQH DWPRVSKqUH&UDGGRFNHWDO
(251) RQWpWXGLpOHVHIIHWVGHO¶pURVLRQIOXYLDWLOHVXUOHVFUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW PDUWLHQV /DSHUFRODWLRQ G¶HDXGDQV OH VRO HQWUDvQHGHV JOLVVHPHQWV GHWHUUDLQV DX QLYHDXGHVPXUVGHVFUDWqUHVFHTXLDSRXUFRQVpTXHQFHG¶pODUJLUODFDYLWpHWGHGLPLQXHUOD SHQWH HQWUH OHV ERUGXUHV HW OH FHQWUH GX FUDWqUH )LJXUH
(252) '¶DSUqV FHWWH pWXGH OD YLWHVVH G¶pURVLRQ GDQV OHV UpJLRQV PDUWLHQQHV GH 6LQXV 6DEDHXV HW 0DUJDULWLIHU 6LQXV VHUDLHQW GH j PPDQ /¶pURVLRQ IOXYLDWLOH DIIHFWH DXVVL OD PRUSKRORJLH GHV ERUGXUHV GX FUDWqUHTXLV¶DUURQGLVVHQWHWV¶DSODQLVVHQW .
(253) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . )LJXUH 0RGpOLVDWLRQGHVHIIHWVGHO pURVLRQIOXYLDWLOHVXUOHVFUDWqUHVG LPSDFWPRGLILpH G DSUqV&UDGGRFNHWDO
(254) /¶HIIDFHPHQWGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFWVRXVO¶DFWLRQGHO¶HDXVHIDLWSDUpURVLRQPDLVDXVVL SDU GpS{WV GH VpGLPHQWV /¶DFFXPXODWLRQ GH VpGLPHQWV GDQV OH FUDWqUH SHXW DERXWLU DX UHPSOLVVDJHFRPSOHWGHODFDYLWp/DYLWHVVHGHUHPSOLVVDJHGXFUDWqUHSHXWYDULHUDXFRXUVGX FRPEOHPHQWGXFUDWqUH(QHIIHWSOXVOHFUDWqUHHVWUHPSOLHWSOXVODVXUIDFHGXIRQGGXFUDWqUH DXJPHQWHFDUODODUJHXUHQWUHOHVPXUVDXJPHQWH$GpELWVpGLPHQWDLUHFRQVWDQWODYLWHVVHGX UHPSOLVVDJH GX FUDWqUH GLPLQXH GRQF DX FRXUV GH VRQ FRPEOHPHQW )RUVEHUJ7D\ORU HW DO
(255)
(256) 'H WHOV GpS{WV VRQW REVHUYDEOHV VXU GLIIpUHQWV FRUSV GX V\VWqPH VRODLUH FRPPH VXU 7HUUH GDQV 0HWHRU FUDWHU DX[ (WDWV8QLV .ULQJ
(257)
(258) )LJXUH
(259) SDU H[HPSOH RX VXU 0DUVGDQVOHFUDWqUH-H]HUR 6FKRQHWDO
(260)
(261) .
(262) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . . . )LJXUH &RXSHGH0HWHRUFUDWHU$UL]RQD(WDWV8QLVjSDUWLUGH.ULQJ
(263) /¶pURVLRQpROLHQQH /¶pURVLRQ pROLHQQH DOWqUH OD PRUSKRORJLH GHV FUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW GH OD FRXYHUWXUH G¶pMHFWD $UYLGVRQHWDO
(264)
(265) DX[IRUPDWLRQVVHVLWXDQWGDQVOHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFW.LWHHW DO
(266) SURSRVHQW SDU H[HPSOH TXH OH 0RQW 6KDUS ORFDOLVp DX FHQWUH GX FUDWqUH *DOH VXU 0DUV VHUDLW DIIHFWp SDU O¶pURVLRQ pROLHQQH '¶DSUqV OHV DXWHXUV OD YLWHVVH GHV YHQWV GDQV OHV FUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW HVW PD[LPDOH j SUR[LPLWp GHV SDURLV GHV FUDWqUHV FUpDQW XQ GLIIpUHQWLHO GH YLWHVVHG¶pURVLRQHQWUHOHERUGHWOHFHQWUHGXFUDWqUH&HSURFHVVXVH[SOLTXHUDLWODSUpVHQFHGX 0RQW6KDUSDXFHQWUHGXFUDWqUH*DOH +\QHNHWDO
(267)
(268) /HV GpS{WV VpGLPHQWDLUHV GDQV OD FDYLWp GHV FUDWqUHV G¶LPSDFW VRQW VRXYHQW G¶RULJLQH IOXYLDWLOH PDLV SHXYHQW DXVVL rWUH G¶RULJLQH pROLHQQH /HV JUDLQV GH VDEOH WUDQVSRUWpV SDU OH YHQW VH GpSRVHQW VXU OH IRQG GH OD FDYLWp GHV FUDWqUHV HW IRUPHQW GHV GXQHV )LJXUH
(269) 3OXVLHXUVH[HPSOHVGH FHW\SHGHVpGLPHQWDWLRQ VRQWUHFRQQDLVVDEOHVVXU 0DUV SDULPDJHULH VDWHOOLWH 3DXOW HW DO
(270) 7LUVK HW DO
(271) *DUGLQ HW DO
(272)
(273) &H SURFHVVXV GH FRPEOHPHQWPRGLILHODPRUSKRORJLHGHODFDYLWpGHVFUDWqUHVG¶LPSDFW . .
(274) &+$3,75( /(6&5$7(5(6'¶,03$&7 . . . )LJXUH &KDPSVGHGXQHVLVVXVGHODVpGLPHQWDWLRQpROLHQQHGDQVODFDYLWpGHFUDWqUHV PDUWLHQV$ &KDPSVGHGXQHVGHW\SHEDUNKDQHVGDQVOHFUDWqUH7\UUKHQD7HUUD % &KDPSVGHGXQHVFLUFXODLUHVGDQVOHFUDWqUH/LX+VLQ & &KDPSVGHGXQHGDQVOHFUDWqUH 3URFWRU ' &RXFKHGHVDEOHGDQVOHFUDWqUH2XGHPDQV $SDUWLUGH7LUVKHWDO
(275)
Documents relatifs
– En fonction de l’indication de la coloscopie et de l’importance de la mauvaise préparation?. examen
Cette plus ou moins-value provient du fait que que le prix de cession des créances peut s'avérer supérieur à leur valeur nette comptable dans la mesure où le marché les évalue
6- Même questions (4 et 5) si on se place au niveau du cratère 7- proposez au professeur une méthode pour mesurer l'angle des rayons solaires en un lieu donné sur la Lune à
L’énergie lumineuse captée par la chlorophylle permet la production de molécules organiques de type glucidique (amidon) à partir d'eau et du dioxyde carbone prélevés
Sous l'action des bactéries et de l'augmentation de la température, après plusieurs millions d'années, la matière organique se transforme en
Après des millions d'années les débris végétaux non décomposés vont se fossiliser et créer des combustibles pour obtenir de l'énergie utilisable ce qui va
Les énergies éoliennes et hydrauliques sont des énergies renouvelables car c'est l'énergie solaire vers qui les met
Eau :les quantités naturelles sont insuffisantes et inégalement réparties techniques d’irrigation (goutte à goutte et aspersion ). Sols cultivables : mêmes
