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Proceedings of the Ninth Muskeg Research Conference
Mechanics is one of about thirty special committees. which assist the National Research Council in its work. Formed in 1945 to deal with an urgent wartime problem involving soil and snow, the Committee is now performing its intended task of co-ordinating Canadian research studies concerned with the physical and mechanical properties of the terrain of the Dominion. It does this through subcommittees on Snow and Ice, Soil Mechanics, Muskeg and Permafrost. The Committee consists of about 'twenty -five Canadians appointed as individuals and not as representatives, each for a 3-year te r m . Inquiries will be we.lc orn e d and should be addressed to: The Secretary, Associate Committee on 'Snow and Snow Mechanic s , c/o Division of Building Research, National Research Council, Ottawa, Ontario.
This publication is one of a series being produced by the As sociate Conunittee on Soil and Snow Mechanics of the National Research Council. It may therefore be reproduced, without amend-ment, provided that the Division is told in advance and that full and due acknowledgment of this publication is always made. No abridgment of this report may be published without the written authority of the Secretary of the ACSSM. Extracts may be published for purposes of
ASSOCIATE COMMITTEE ON SOIL AND SNOW MECHANICS
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
NINTH MUSKEG RESEARCH CONFERENCE
21 AND 22 MAY 1963
Prepared by
1.
C. MacFarlane and MissJ.
ButlerTECHNICAL MEMORANDUM NO. 81
OTTAWA
APRIL 1964
FOREWORD
This is a record of the Ninth Muskeg Research Conference, which was held in the Applied Sciences Building of Laval University,
Quebec City, on 21 and 22 May 1963. The Conference was sponsored by the Associate Conunittee on Soil and Snow Mechanics of the National Research Council. A list of those in attendance is included in Appendix
"A"
of these proceedings.Topics considered include: construction of primary and secondary roads over organic terrain, landform as it affects the develop-ment of organic terrain, field and laboratory consolidation testing of
peat, hydrological investigations of organic soil, and engineering problems in the exploitation of or ganic terrain for forestry and for agriculture. In addition, several research reports were presented which covered a wide range of fundamental considerations from a mechanical analysis of peat for engineering purposes to the understanding of peat organization on the basis of cuticular studies. Four technical s e s sion s were held in all,
during which a total of 19 papers and reports were presented. Mr. G. Tessier was Chairman throughout.
-TABLE OF CONTENTS Tuesday, 21 May 1963 Mardi, 21 Mai 1963 Introductory Remarks . Session I Page (v)
1. 1 Or ganic Terrain as it Affects the Development of National
Objectives - N. W. Radforth, McMaster University... . . 1 1. 2 Northern Landform as it Affects Potential Development in
Organic Terrain - T. A. Harwood, Defence Research Board
and N. W. Radforth, McMaster University. . . 7 I.3 Prerequisites for Design of Engineering Works on Organic
Terrain - A Symposium - N. D. Lea, Consulting Engineer, C. O. Brawner, B. C. Department of Highways, N. W. Radfo r th , McMaster University, and 1. C. MacFarlane, National Research Council. . . 20 Session II
II. 1 Construction de Routes sur Tourbieres Dans la Province de Quebec - P. -A. Brochu, Quebec Highways Department,
and J. -J. Pari, University of Sherbrooke . . . • . 74 II. 2 Construction Aspects of a Service Road Built on Corduroy
Over Muskeg - C. T. Enright, Hydro-Electric Power
Commission of Ontario. . . 109 II. 3 A Comparison of Field and Laboratory Consolidation
Measure-ments in Peat - J.1. Adams, Hydro-Electric Power
Commission of Ontario .
II.4 Sawdust as Embankment Fill on Peat Bogs - K. Flaate and
II. 5 Consolidation and Flow Characteristics of Peat - N. E. Wilson,
McMaster University. . . 150
II.6 A Progress Report on a Mechanical Analysis of Organic
Material - J. A. Pihlainen, Consulting Engineer. . . • 161 II. 7 An Examination of Some Index Test Procedures for Peat - A
Progress Report - I. C. MacFarlane arid C. M. Allen, National
Research Council. . . 171
Session III
Research Reports from McMaster University (edited by N. W. Radforth).
III. 1 An Understanding of Peat Organization on the Basis of Cuticular
Studie s - J. M. Stewart . . . • . • . . . • . . . • . . . . 184 III. 2 Some Observations on the Permeability Properties of Peat
-R. H o f s t e t t e r . . . 195
III. 3 Measurement of Peat Characteristics A Critique
-K. Ashdown and J. Radforth . . . 204 III. 4 The Analogue Concept in the Assessment of Organic Terrain
-G. T h a l e r . . . 210
III. 5 The Significance of Surface Sampling for Peat Analysis
-Miss L. Suguitan , .. . .. . .. . . 215
III. 6 Airphoto Interpretation Applied to a Study of Tree Growth
on Bogs - N. W. Radforth and Miss L. Usik ... .. .. . .•. . . 216
Session IV
IV. I Progress Report on Hydrologic Investion of Organic Soil
-R. W. Irwin, Ontario Agricultural College. . . • . 226
IV.2 Problems Associated with Forest Operations on Organic
Page IV. 3 Engineering Problems in the Exploitation of Or ganic Terrain
for Agricultural Reclamation - H. D. Ayers, Ontario
Agricultural College. . . 244 Concluding Remarks
Appendix
"A"
-
List of People Attending the Ninth MuskegResearch Conference, Quebec City .
*
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
Dr. N. W. Radforth introduced Dr. Paul-Henri Roy, Vice-Dean of the Faculty of Sciences of Laval University, who extended a cordial welcome on behalf of the Univer sity to delegates to the Conference. He expressed pleasure that the Associate Committee on Soil and Snow
Mechanics had decided to hold a Muskeg Conference at Laval and hoped that it would be held there again in the near future.
Dr. Radforth expressed the regrets of Dr. R. F. Legget, Chairman of the As sociate Committee on Soil and Snow Mechanic s , that he could not be present at the Conference. He then referred to an earlier Muskeg Conference (the Second Annual Conference, 1956) which had been held at Laval University, and compared the state of knowledge concerning muskeg existing at that time with the state of knowledge at the present time.
*
-MOTS d'INTRODUCTION (par Dr. N. W. Radforth)
Voici la seconde conference sur l e Muskeg ayant lieu dans la ville de Quebec et void la seconde fois que nou s reconnaissons L'nrnabiHte des auto r i te s de ｬＧｕｮｩｶ･ｲｳｩｴｾ Laval qui nous a permis de nous r euni r
a
cette urri.v e r site ,Notre p r ernie r e reunion etadt la p r errri e r e d'une se-rie de reunions. II serait instructif de comparer les comptes-rendus de cette reunion avec Ie programme de la p r e s e nte reunion. Je suis sar que les dele'gues seraient impres siorm e s par les pr ogr
e
s en profondeur et enEitendue
a
l'aide desquels nous pouvons maintenant traiter de la question du Muskeg. Au moment de la p r erni e r e reunion, beaucoup d'entre nousｾｴ｡ｩ･ｮｴ timides et pleins d' apprehension en es sayant de traiter nos p r obldme s , Nous savons maintenant pourquoi ces pr obl ern e s ont ete' si complexes.
Nous e s p e r on s que la confiance que nous pouvons 6voquer maintenant donnera des r e s ul tats dans les prochaines anne e s , allant aussi loin dans leurs applications que les p r erni e r e s recherches Le faisaient
"
esperer.
Nous nous en remettons maintenant au Pre'sident, dont nous reconnaissons avec gratitude les splendides efforts en notre Iav eu r , Nous prions les ､ｾｬ･ｧｵ･Ｇｳ de bien vouloir, au cours de nos delibe'rations, lui adresser leurs questions.
-N. W. Radforth
Introduction
Il est maintenant de noto riet e nati ona l e que le Muskeg est un facteur de la plus grande importance dans la limitation du
dev e lopperne nt scientifique et technique dans le nord. D'un autre cote, les recherches de ces d e r nie r-e s anne'e s ont rn o nt re"que lion peut faire face au prob l ern e.
Notre ｰｲ･ｭｩｾｲ･Ｌ et notre principale l e c on , est que le deve loppement doit e'tre p re'ced e d June intensive int e r pzetation a e'rie nne , dont nous connais sons maintenant le mecanisme.
Cette interpretation, un aspect du lever topographique, devrait etre fait en relation avec un groupe d'objectifs nationaux
int e r e s sant le nord.
Nous devons faire tout ce que nous pouvons pour encourager la formulation de ces objectifs, rn ern e s'it faut faire un appel special par l'intermediaire de notre gouvernement pour nommer un c ornit e propre
a
ce travail.L'un des r e su ltat s de l'etude de la composition geologique et biologique du Muskeg a ete l'etablissement d'une theorie exploitable,
a
savoir que le Muskeg est la forme du terrain sous- jacent et lesca r act e r e s g enetique s dans les formations g eo logfque s ont des rapports r e c ip r oq ue s sur une base naturelle.
*
-Intr oduc tion
For at least 10 years it has been known that organic terrain is a critical element which interferes with development in the
north. The Muskeg Subcommittee of the As sociate Committee on Soil
and Snow Mechanics has been particularly active in promoting the development of research and the focusing of attention to this matter.
It is now entering into its tenth year of activity and it was thought that it would be instructive to know the out c orn e of concern for the problem of muskeg at this particular time.
National Development and Research
There have been several conferences over the last ten years dealing with the question of what can be done about the physical and economic exploitation of the northland. Also, as everyone is aware, there has been much political interest in the same question. Finally, it may be said that Industry has taken a fair share of responsibility directly or indirectly in doing something about this prob lem.
Whatever the source of interest or treatment, it has usually arisen that a recommendation for more research is regarded as basic to any kind of deve lopment in the north. In this connection, the focus has usually been on permafrost, organic terrain, and search for resources. It is fair to say that the first and the last of these have received considerable emphasis.
Perhaps the reason that organic terrain has received somewhat less emphasis than permafrost in reports of public affairs and in national attention is because of the emphasis on the Arctic and the rather less concern for the sub-Arctic and the northern fringes of the western provinces. With respect to permafrost and organic terrain, which have certain inter-relationships, the fruits of research or. perma-frost have been that construction of foundations for buildings, runways
or roads, for example, pose no major problem. In other words, design
in connection with this aspect of engineering is concerned with refinement, not basic formulation. Engineers are fully aware of problems associated with insulation and conductivity where permafrost poses a special environ-ment. Therefore it is now pos sible to build with respect to the low
temperature factor with co:niidence and improved economy. The situation is somewhat different with respect to organic terrain possibly because of the lack of emphasis on the importance of the sub-Arctic. Also, muskeg is not a simple enviromnental constituent. It is now known to be a very complex one indeed and salvation lies only in the reasonable hope that the conditions it portrays are predictable and analyzable on an ordered basis.
A survey of research results indicates that a classifi-cation system is available which has been put into use in applied work
as well as in academic investigation. This classification system has many parts all of which are interrelated. For this reason perhaps its greatest use is that it has supplied a language of understanding for those who must do something about the organic terrain problem in
connection with the deve lopment of northern terrain. There is evidence that the common language is not under stood by all, but there is also evidence that more and rn or e are able to use it and that engineering implementation has been achieved thro u gh its application.
The idea that organic terrain can be understood through the principles of aerial interpretation has been conveyed and utilized. This is fortunate because Canada is so large and the impli-cations of deve lopm e nt so diversified and with widespread geographical inference.
A basic qualitative understanding of the structure of peat, one of the materials in muskeg, has been achieved through the application of the principles involved in the classification system.
A special study of peat structure combined with analyses of living cover, the other component of muskeg, has led to the special study of terradynamics. As a result of this, trafficability and mobility problems are better understood. Although much is still to be learned about access, investigations to date have led to mechanical improvements in vehicles and to an understanding of the economy of travel over muskeg where no roads exist.
When the Muskeg Conference was last convened in
Quebec City (1956), virtually nothing was known about drainage of muskeg. Special drainage techniques are now being prescribed with respect to structural difference in peat and characteristics of organic terrain.
This has facilitated a better approach to reclamation and to the building of highways. All this has facilitated a kind of confidence among the engineers in the construction of highways, a situation which did not exist less than ten years ago.
The research on organic terrain has corne to a point where an investigation can now be made into the uses to which both the
On the side of Industry, research on organic terrain has laid a foundation for new approaches in rn in e r a l exploration, forestry practice, agricultural rrnp r ov ern ent and now the m anuf'actu r e of commodities.
The Dhection of Research for the Future
The observations in the last paragraph will lead to development only with the encouragement of research refinements. For instance, an understanding of the structure of peat will never be adequate until structure is expres sed in terms that are quantitative or at least a quasi-quantitative. In this connection, it is necessary to be able to give adequate accounts of density differentials in peat and of water relations in the same material in all its variations.
There are still many problems to be solved in the soil mechanics of peat. This is partly because of the biological intricacies which have moulded the patterns on which peat is built. On the other hand, physical and mechanical interpretations of peat must also be derived in relation to appropriate instrumentation, but the instruments to accurately measure physical and mechanical properties in peat are yet to be designed and built.
While the classification system is helpful as far as it goes, more work has to be done by way of integrating it to various aspects of engineering purpose and economic requirement. Classifi-cation systems are bound to arise that are associated with ad hoc implication. For instance, how does one adapt the system
to
the exploitation of peat structure for agricultural needs? This is where the system needs embe llishment or extension in order that other systems for specified need can be developed as appropriate outgrowths. The idea of elaboration must also be extended in order that the biological patterns exemplified in the classification system can be referred to in relation to the production of commodities.Finally, organic terrain and its components must
receive further study in r e lat.iou to the need for improvement of vehicles for off-road activity for both long distance transport and local operations of various kinds. The latest encouragement on the side of long-distance transport is the advent of the Hovercraft which, with its latest improve-ments, has feasibility for over-muskeg travel in the northwest provided appropriate routing is supplied to the navigator.
Northern Exploitation Now
According to the analysis in the foregoing, there should be nothing to prevent the intensifying of the invasion into the north for any national purpose. While the physical barriers are not completely broken down, it is now possible to deal with them. Waiting for markets to improve - and this has been suggested as one reason why there is little deveIoprnent in the north - wi l l result in a long wait. Even if the market should become favourable, the products or com.modities are not at hand. It can not be claimed that there is a lack of money because there is plenty of evidence to show that money can be found wherever there is buried treasure to be sought. The nickel development at Moak Lake is one example of this.
Steps to Deve lopment
It may be a shock to some people to realize that Canada is one of the biggest underdeveloped countries in the world even though she supplies funds for the development of other undeveloped countries. Despite the fact that the Canadian standard of living is high and that she is numbered amongst the most influential of nations, it is most regrettable that so little is known about the nature of the terrain.
There is now no excuse for not knowing. It is now possible to effectively launch the biggest photo interpretation scheme ever conducted in the world. Indeed, it wi l l be necessary to do this if there is to be an adequate know ledge of the north in re lation to the question of what is going to be done with it. This, then, is an immediate objective and fortunately there is a national airphoto library which can be used effectively in order to begin this task.
Beyond this, there are no national objectives relative to the question of exploitation of the north, to the author's knowledge. There is nothing which gives guidance, nothing to which economic
directives can be attacked or on wni ch predictions for economic purposes can be made. The engineering ability and the financial means are
available to begin a system of roads or off-road communication lines, but there is no plan on which this system might be IrnpLerne nt e d, The author is personally fearful lest we fa l l into a trap of developing isolated localized schemes of road-building and exploitation. If this is done,
that our forefathers had when they built the railways.
History has shown that there are two major elements which have been basically responsible for Canadian integration beyond what springs from national wilL One is a legal element - the British North America Act - the second is the Railways. There are signs that even these old stalwarts are degenerating in their effectiveness. There is reason to be proud of the commercial airways but in the
last analysis it is overland communication that establishes communities and that serves as the lifeline for engineering development.
Some would say, "If we build roads to the north or establish lines of communication, which we can do cheaply, what is there to build them to?". Nobody asked this when the famous trans-continental railways were built. There was a kind of national motivation and objective which dictated that they should be built, and when they were development could be expected. We have enjoyed eating this pudding, but there is now nothing left to eat. The question arises, how are objectives developed? In the first place, it should not be construed that the author or anyone has condemned the Government for this. Somebody might ask the Government to organize a national bicultural committee to bring in recommendations that will c.onvey the new objectives pertinent to exploitation of the north. The delegates to this Conference could do just that.
-1. 2 NORTHERN LANDFORM AS IT AFFECTS POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ORGANIC TERRAIN
T. A. Harwood and N. W. Radforth
Abstract
An examination of the Radforth muskeg map indicates a V-shaped belt of high incidence of muskeg extending from the
Alaskan- Canadian b o r d e r to Labrador-Newfoundland. Types and preponderance of muskeg within this be It change dramatically from west to east. The airform patterns also express change. This paper discusses the geological, climatological, biotic and other factors which contribute to the similarities and dissimilarities in airform pattern in the three main regions: western Canada, mid-Canada, and eastern Canada. It is suggested that differences in airform pattern invo lve a distributional phenomena of and within given air fo r rn patterns. Where change occurs, there seems to be change in the underlying
lithology and thus in the physiography and probably in the soil characteristics.
*
-Introduction
The key to this paper is of course the "Muskeg
Map of Canada" or to use the more exact title "Areas of Organic Terrain (Muskeg) in which Engineering Problems Occur"
*
and the Geological Map of Canada (1"=1020 miles) Map No. 1045A*:If one looks at the first map, one can see a "V"-shaped be It in dark and a somewhat lighter green which extends from the Canadian-Alaskan border into Labrador and Newfoundland. It will be noted that as one comes eastward along this belt the types and
preponderance of types of muskeg change quite dramaticaLLy. For
example, in the middle Mackenzie Val l ey near Hay River, the muskeg is basically (and in order of importance) EI-EH-FI-BEH, whereas in
*
Issued by Defence Research Board, Ottawa, 1961.**Issued by Geological Survey, Department of Mines & Technical Surveys, Ottawa, 1961.
northwestern Ontario it is BHE-AHE-AEH, in the James Bay area it is EI-FI-BEI-AEI, while far to the east in Labrador and Newfoundland it is EI-EFI-HE.
These progressive changes as one goes eastward rnu st of course be reflected in the airform patterns as seen from the aerial photographs (30,000 it). In fact as will be explained later -they are reflected both in the sequence of the patterns and in the relative proportion of the components of the patterns one to the other in simi lar areas (geologically and lithologically) and in certain dissimilar areas. These changes must have some re lationship to the physical factors which control the basis of muskeg formation. For this reason, this part of the paper briefly examines the differences which grossly occur in the various areas.
For convenience of discussion, and not through any p:...econceived notion, areas, west to east, can be divided into geological provinces. It must also be assumed that, despite glaciation, these lithological provinces are related, to some extent, to the overlying soils, and that to a great extent the deve lopment of the landform or physiography must also be related to both the structure and lithology of the rocks, the soils, and the past c lirnat e ,
In the far west Yukon, in the mountain areas, the rocks are all undifferentiated palaeozoics, fairly strongly folded and
largely unglaciated, while extending westward from the mountains to the "glint", at the edge of precambrian and sediments, one finds
generally flat lying Devonian rocks with two inliers of cretaceous rocks. One of these extends down the Mackenzie Valley from Fort Norman towards Arctic Red River, the other occupies an area to the southwest of Great Bear Lake. It would be expected that the lithological assembly of these three groups would be somewhat different and, as a result, (and this is a generalization) that there would be a different development of s oi l s ,
To the east of the Mackenzie Valley and extending as far as the Hudson Railway the "muskeg belt" which is being considered is underlain by precambrian rocks, but in and south of Lake Athabasca and around Dubawnt Lake, some proterozoic In l.ie r s are to be found.
The soils on the precambrian may be assumed to be generally acid although this is not necessarily true in all areas, white
the landform will be a function of the extremely complex fold systems and fault systems very much modified by glacial scour. As a result here one finds the rock-bowl terrain type which of course means that one finds very numerous pockets of "confined" muskeg. The exception of course is in the p r ot e r oz oi c s which are often made up of sandy
(quartzitic) components and very large sand plains can occur, as for example south of Lake Athabaska. The strong lineations in the proterozoic s and the good soil drainage inhibits muskeg to a great extent. Hence the airform pattern is somewhat different from the s u r r ouridi ng precambrian areas.
Further east in Northern Manitoba and Northern Ontario the belt runs back into the pa.la e o z oi c s e dirn e nt s along the Hudson Bay coast. This is often called the Hudson Bay Lowland and extends from Cape Churchill to the Harricanaw River in the James Bay Lowland. These sediments in contrast to those of the Yukon are all flat lying, with thick overlying soils with very poor drainage. The river drainage patterns are generally dendritic while interconnecting drainage channe Is between the river basins are almost non- existent. Throughout the area for the m o st part the banks of the river s are natural levees which further impedes local drainage to the rivers. The muskeg here is extremely wide sp r e ad and in a single areal extent is probably the largest in the world.
Precambrian rocks with some small inLiers of
proterozoic underlie the peninsula of Quebec. One can therefore expect to find similar patterns of muskeg here as in the Western precambrian.
In Newfoundland, however, the situation is much more complicated. The region is a mixture of strongly folded palaeozoics with some upper proterozoics in the southwest corner. In fact, the whole sequence from the top of the proterozoic to the carboniferous is exposed in one place or another. The most that can be said of Newfoundland is that owing to the strong deveLopment of the folding in one direction ｾｨ･ｲ･ is a regional distribution along the Lineations of muskeg types and airform patterns. The other point worth mentioning is that in NewfoundLand there is little underlying mineral soils and, in many places, presumably due to climate, the muskeg can be seen invading areas of bare rock. This is not commonLy seen elsewhere in Canada.
One must now make a short review of climatic factors. If one follows the belt across Canada from West to East, one crosses some very sharp climatic zones. In the Yukon and down to the Huds on Bay coast, the climate - or really the mean annual temperature - is cold, but generally speaking the short summers are hot. This low annual temperature is evidenced by the fact that the area is entire ly underlain by permafrost. Precipitation is sparse. In fact, in the Lake Athabasca area, the precipitation is so low it may be said to be a desert climate although, of cour se, the evapotranspiration rate is also low. This continental climate extends to the western shore of Hudson Bay, but with quite an increase of cloudiness in the near coastal areas of the Hudson Bay Lowlands.
In the Moosonee area and we II into the peninsula of Quebec, the climate can be considered to be maritime from June until
late December-January, at which times it goes over to a continental climate as a result of James Bay and Hudson .Bay freezing over. However, the climate during the growing season is, to all intents and purposes, maritime and this surely must cause some differentiation
between types of muskeg in the western precambrian (around Yellowknife for example) and Ungava Peninsula due to changes in the biosis.
As one goes further eastward into Labrador and Newfoundland, the climate becomes increasingly maritime both in summer and winter. It must, however, be noted that most of the area is free of permafrost but, due to the proximity of the Labrador current, the summer temperatures are never very high, with the result that at the microclimate level a low absolute humidity prevails which probably makes the annual evapotranspiration rate very simi Ia r to that of the far West.
In this respect, it has been observed that the lichens in the muskeg only appear north of the permafrost line except in
Newfoundland and Labrador. There appears here to be some peculiar
relationship between the occurrence of lichens and the rates of evapotranspiration in various areas; this needs to be explored.
The questions which now arise, and to which some tentative answers are given in the section of the paper to follow,
are:-(1) Is the ai rform pattern influenced mainly by the subsurface features such as types of mineral soils and the landform?
(2) Is the biotic factor, which taken together is a combination of climate, evapotranspiration and botanical assemblages, responsible for the airform patterns?
(3) Is it a combination of both (1) and (2)1
It must be realized that the answers which are given are very tentative and will, in the years to c orn e , require some careful thought and investigation.
The above is a very brief account of the mineral terrain and climatic features for that belt of Canada in which critical
problems concerning the muskeg factor occur. The potential development
of this area of Canada is limited by the predominance of organic terrain in many of its segments. Accessibility to this area is virtually negligible and before a c c e s s can be achieved intensive but inexpensive survey must be undertaken. The primary objective in such surveys would be to
ascertain what kind of or ga ni c terrain predominates in different areas in order that the engineering implications can be assessed.
It is known (2) that major landforms, drainage factors, etc., are influential in controlling engineering development in regions
of muskeg. Therefore, there would be an advantage if, through interpreting the organic terrain by high altitude photography, analysis could also be made of the underlying mineral terrain landforms. Exploration of this possibility requires that the terrain should originally be classified according to organic terrain airform patterns applying for 30,000 ft. (scale: 1 mile=: 1 inch) photography.
This is, of course, a very large task because it means that stereo pairs must be examined for the total area (the "V"_ shaped muskeg belt) if results are to be expected. On the other hand. this is no deterrent to evaluation for mm ediat e requirements because, in the last 15 years, interpretive work has been completed for several significant areas within the major one (see muskeg map of Canada).
On this basis, the authors would like to proceed with an. account of the results.
Analysis by Airform Pattern as in Various Regions
The reader will recall that all muskeg can be classified at the 30,000 ft. altitude under the designations "dermatoid", "stipploid", "terrazzoid", "marbloid". and "reticuloid". These airform patterns have been described and their application discussed elsewhere in the
literature (1). The arrangement and frequency of the patterns is now discussed.
Western Canada:
The western tip of the wing previous ly described commences with the Alaskan border, traver sing the Yukon Territory and swinging eastward to the eastern limits of Great Slave Lake to about longitude 1120W near Fort Smith on the northern Alberta border.
The largest portion of the area under consideration is undivided palaeozoic and the order of predominance for the airform patterns
is:-(1) stipploid, (2) dermatoid, (3) m a r b loi d , (4) reticuloid, (5) terrazzoid
in the general geological provinces previous ly mentioned.
A traverse further to the east away from this area of undifferentiated palaeozoics then goes through the Devonian of the Mackenzie Valley. Ai r Io r m predominance for this section may seem to be superficially similar to that for the terrain already encountered, but there is one s i gnif'i c ant difference, in that stipploid and dermatoid have interchanged as to importance. The airform pattern now seen
and again in order of importance
is:-(1) dermatoid, (2) stipploid, (3) marbloid, (4) reticuloid, (5) terrazzoid
For the area of cretaceous rocks, there is no change in pattern order, but it should be noted that the proportion of dermatoid
appears to increase at the expense of the other airform patterns.
In the Ordovician immediately to the west of Yellowknife, the order and general proportions of airform patterns are the same
as for the Devonian except for an inconclusive estimate that the proportion of terrazzoid has now increased.
Further to the East is Precambrian Shield. Here the analysis becomes somewhat more complicated since as one proceeds easterly there is increasing predominance of confined as against
unconfined muskeg. The order of predominance of airform patterns
on the basis of a not too comprehensive estimate is as
follows:-(1) dermatoid (2) marbloid (3) terrazzoid (4) reticuloid (5) stipploid
Mid-Canada
Proceeding eastward from longitude 1120W, one
encounters large inliers of sedimentary proterozoic rocks. The switch from the metamorphic and igneous to these indurated main! y quartzitic and strongly lineated sedimentary rocks seems to be accompanied by a change in order of predominance and proportion of airform pattern. The patterns now
are:-(1) dermatoid (2) terrazzoid (3) reticuloid (4) marbloid (5) stipploid
The first two named in this list are approximately equal in proportion and high in frequency as compared with the others. While stipploid is virtually negligible, marbloid and reticuloid are about equal.
Swinging southward towards the apex of the belt there are some interesting comparisons to be made along the axis of the railroad between The Pas and Fort Churchill. The listing of air form patterns where the railway crosses the Silurian near The Pas has a sequence similar to the Silurian in the Mackenzie Basin but it seems that dermatoid and stipploid however have increased in frequency and terrazzoid is virtually negligible.
near The Pas in the Ordovician, there is agreement with the listing of airform patterns for the Ordovician northwest of Ye llowknife. The frequency of stipploid, however, is higher. In the stretch of precambrian country northeast of Gillam, confined muskeg is prevalent and is
characterized by a pattern listing similar to that east of Great Slave Lake but probably due to its most southerly position the areal extent of the muskeg is greater and the proportion of stipploid is higher. The frequency of rn a r b l oi d is also higher but for the terrazzoid pattern it is less.
In the Ordovician east of the Shield country and proceeding towards Chu r c hi l l , the listing of airform patterns has the same characteristics as that for the Ordovician just east of The Pas (see above). The difference in the two areas of Ordovician in terms of muskeg is that in the Hudson Bay location the total amount of muskeg is greater than it is for the more westerly zone.
The Silurian bordering on ｉｾｵ､ｳｯｮ Bay has an airform pattern characteristic of more westerly areas of Silurian in which The Pas is located. In the Hudson Bay coast area, however, the muskeg is
virtually all continuous and with the same distribution of rough patterns with an increase in the proportion and total amounts of marbloid and a decrease in the dermatoid.
Moving further east, some attention should also be given to another railway axis between Moosonee and Cochrane. This line runs through the Devonian of Northern Ontario. Here the arrange-ment of patterns is similar to that for the western Devonian but the proportions of each air fo r m pattern is different. The extent to which these differences arise is difficult to convey in qualitative terms. Primarily there seems to be more stipploid in the James Bay area and generally a greater total coverage of muskeg than the western Devonian. Moving south of Coral Rapids confined muskeg sharply increases with the appearance of Precambrian country and there is a return to the sequence of airform pattern predominantly characteristic of the Precambrian areas to the west of the Hudson Bay Railway.
However, stipploid is much more prominent at the expense of marbloid.
Eastern Canada
the proportions of confined to unconfined muskeg change depends upon the distribution patterns that occur in this sub-mountainous
country. Where high hills and precipitous slopes abound, the frequency of confined muskeg is very high. Present examination suggests that if a single list of airform patterns is to be representative for this area, it should be that similar to the regions south of Coral Rapids (on the precambrian) in Ontario. The proportion of stipploid lessens, however, as one proceeds northward towards Ungava Bay and the Atlantic and the amount of dermatoid b e c orn e s increasingly greater at the expense of stipploid.
In the Maritimes, though not in the be It under
discussion, the situation is very complicated. Where in New Brunswick undifferentiated palaeozoic occurs, the sequency of predominance in airform pattern is apparently different from that representative for the undifferentiated palaeozoic in the west of Canada. But if allowances were made for the fact that in New Brunswick confined muskeg occurs more frequently in the glaciated pa la eoz oi c s than it does for the west where they are unglaciated, it cou ld be agreed that there is considerable analogy between the two areas. At the moment, there is no evidence to justify a change in the sequency of Listing as shown for the western Canada example which
was:-(1) stipploid, (2) dermatoid, (3) marbloid (4) reticuloid, (5) terrazzoid
although marbloid in the Maritime is at its lowest limit within its position in the list. StippLoid, however, has increased considerably
and terrazzoid is non-existent except at the tops of peaks in sub-mountainous areas.
The perma-carboniferous complex of Nova Scotia is characterized by the following sequence of air form patterns:
(1) stipploid, (2) dermatoid, (3) reticuloid, (4) rna r b l oid , (5) terrazzoid.
It should be noted that stipploid and dermatoid together characterize most of the muskeg for this area and that rn a r b Ioid is virtually absent and terrazzoid is also negligibly represented.
At the present stage in our investigation Newfoundland has proven even more difficult an area to consider in relation to
geological background and physiography. The following appears at the moment to be the airform
pattern:-(1) dermatoid, (2) stipploid, (3) reticuloid, (4) rrra r b l oid , (5) terrazzoid.
The emphasis is of course on unconfined muskeg in the valleys and the proportions of dermatoid and reticuloid are high within the positions shown.
Discussions of Terrain Interrelationships
The question now arises as to what a comparative study of airform pattern sequences will afford with respect to possible interre lationships between or ganic and mineral terrain.
It is known that once muskeg is established, its
development is basically a function of the biotic factor. That is to say, structure, and its appearance are functions of control supplied by the plants that ultimate ly go into the constitution of the peat. This is why given airform patterns may be similar wherever they occur despite the morphological differences that may occur in the rn i n e r a l terrain beneath the organic material. The biotic factor also accounts for the homogeneity of pattern expres sed in dermatoid. Finally, the biotic
factors maintain the kinds of heterogeneity expressed in airform patterns.
The biotic factor, however, does not explain why there should be change from one airform pattern to another over a given area of mineral terrain as seen in the organic cover nor does it explain or account for the nature and distribution of the elements of heterogeneity within given airform patterns. Finally, though it may explain the
simi-larity existing among airform patterns and sequences, it does not explain all the other diverging dissimilarities.
Interest will no doubt turn towards an examination of the water, ice, and organic factors which can influence
micro-topographic development within the organic terrain and which sometimes contributes to an appreciation of difference in airform pattern. Though these factors contribute to intensity of development of visually
differ-entiated features in air form patterns, they are secondary to the biotic factor in importance. Analysis has shown that their subsidiary influence can be accounted for wHhout modifying the reasoning or theory behind the reasons for the developrnent of airform patterns.
SrrniIa r cone lu sions have been drawn with respect to the effect of the mineral factor as a contributor to the development of organic terrain structure and appearance, Thus, it is known that stipploid favours a coarse aggregate for its rnin e r a l base, whereas dermatoid favours a fine aggregate (silt or clay). This observation has to be qualified depending upon the degree of influence of errvi r crr-mental factors in terms of partial values. For instance, if water becomes excessive, as it does in the establishment of a beaverdam, stipp l o id will eventually change to dermatoid.
All other environmental factors are exemplified in the establishment of the biological relationships already referred to collectively as the "biotic effect".
What then causes the differences to which the authors have a lreacly alluded? Examination of these difference s show s that
they are not involved with e stabIi s hrn e nt of new kinds of airform patterns other than those developed through the biological implications. Instead, they involve a distributional phenomena of and within given a i r for rn patterns. In this respect, where change occurs, there seems to be a change in the underlying lithology and thus in physiography and probably in the soil characteristics.
It is fe lt that it ha s been demonstrated here that dissimilarity does exist in the airfo r rn sequence depending upon the genesis of the rocks which contribute to the mineral sublayer of the organic terrain. Such differences can only be appreciated by an e xarnination of the geological features and organic terrain airform patterns by a c orn pa r ativ e study of air photographs. Where a certain airform pattern predominates, it is clear that single or multiple geological and physiographical features are also related. In some instances, the degree of difference as exemplified by airform pattern sequence between one geological province and another may not be great. In these cases, some statistical analysis may have to be done before the apparent differentials can be regarded as va lid.
More exacting differences can be appreciated on the basis of comparisons involving landform (physiography) which in itself is often an expression of lithology and structure.
Thus, dendritic pattern tends to signify predominance
of marbloid. Where the tributaries become sparse in this geomorphological pattern, a dermatoid condition ensues and prevails so long as the ground between the drainage channels remains flat. On the other hand, stipploid favours slopes and areas where drainage is relatively good but at the
same time diffuse as one might find in low uplands. These character-istics are frequent despite the fact that the biotic effect is also associated with the differentials as, for example, one finds with the low incidence of stipploid as one proceeds towards the tree-line.
Reticuloid is accompanied by muskeg development in valley lands or in gently undulating country such as is afforded by either drumlin and features or gentle Precambrian slopes but this airform pattern does not necessarily always conform to this relationship with the landform. For instance, it occurs in Newfoundland within the
boundaries of the overall cover of the or ganic mantle following mechanical breakdown (see above) in a Widespread dermatoid and sometimes the
m a r b loi d condition. This feature is sometimes found on a local basis in Newfoundland, the Quebec peninsula.
Terrazzoid belongs to young muskeg. The islands
which always appear light in the darker background of the air photographs show that this feature of the airform pattern (the islands) are on raised localized features of the underlying terrain.
At this stage in the investigation, distributional
aspects characterizing heterogeneity and line of demarcation between airform patterns can be spoken of only generally. Beachlines and
eskers often afford significant separation but the more subtle differences in basic landform are sometimes features of secondary erosion which occurred before the muskeg was initiated. This process can be readily appreciated. For example, one can see in the far North the landforms
left by the retreating ice cap while erosion and muskeg formation is at the same time being integrated into quite a different surface from the originaL The hypothesis therefore that airform pattern in muskeg has some relationship to landform distribution (physiographical lithology) can now be accepted theory on which elaboration can be expected with further study.
Application
Turning now to the question of development in the North, from an engineering and scientific point of view it is not sufficient to be aware of the problemo that muskeg, permafrost and landform entail; surveys and airphoto interpretation must take into account the features hidden beneath the muskeg as exemplified by frequency of airform occurrence and the order of heterogeneity within airform pattern.
Finally, it is rather exciting to contemplate that examination of muskeg might be used sometime in the future to
locate significant difference in rock and soil types, supplying reference in some cases to geological age of the underlying rocks.
*
-REFERENCES
1. Radforth, N. W. Muskeg Access with Special Reference to
Problems of the Petroleum Industry. Canadian Mining and
Metallurgical Bulletin, LIX:531: 271-277, 1956.
2. Organic Terrain and Geomorphology.
1. 3 PREREQUISITES FOR DESIGN OF ENGINEERING WORKS ON ORGANIC TERRAIN - A SYMPOSIUM
N. D. Lea, C. O. Brawner, N. W. Radforth and 1. C. MacFarlane
Abstract
This Symposium. is an attempt to provide a basic design approach for engineering works on organic terrain, based primarily on experience with road construction in British Columbia.
The responsibility of the soil engineer and the relationship of engineering to other disciplines when dealing with muskeg are outlined. A glossary of terms is presented as a basis for a common vocabulary for engineers involved with organic terrain problems. It is suggested that three steps should be followed in design: data collection, analysis, and evaluation. Air and ground survey of the terrain and measurement of physical
properties of the material are discussed. The two principal considerations requiring analysis in most engineering designs in peat are settlement
and stability and these factors are discussed in some detail. An evaluation of the economics of design, with particular reference to highways, is presented. Factor s involved in evaluating construction
methods are reviewed. Some of the problems which are encountered
in construction in organic terrain are pointed out and methods of controlling these problems are discussed.
*
-1. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM - -1. C. MacFarlane
It has been pointed out previous ly that approximately one-half million square miles of Canada consist of "organic terrain"
*
or "muskeg" (13). This terrain creates a serious limitation to land use, for it is not readily conducive to agricultural or to forestry
exploitation and presents a particularly serious obstacle in the exploration for, and the development of, mineral resources. In this type of terrain, normal communications practically break down and consequently engineer-ing works are sometimes enormous ly difficult and expensive.
*References from the various contributions to this Symposium will be grouped together at the end
Due to the peculiar and complex nature of muskeg, with its apparent lack of organization, the solution to many of the problems presented by its existence must necessarily be sought by a multiple disciplinary effort of scientists and engineers. Thus, we have the fundamental work of the palaeobotanist, the agricultural soil scientist. the soil physicist, the soil chemist, etc., being adapted and put to practical use by the civil, a.gricu ltu r al, forestry, and mechanical engineer. thereby fulfilling the traditional role of the engineer which is to apply, for the benefit of man, the research results coming from the various scientific disciplines.
A. Responsibility of the Engineer
Within the above context, the soil engineer has a peculiar and particular place in the design of engineering works on organic terrain.
Soil engineering may be said to be the overall appli-cation of the fundamentals of soil mechanics and of empirical methods to the solution of actual engineering problems. The soil engineer has a background and training in civi l engineering, geology, pedology, soil physics and chemistry, experience in construction methods, and a knowledge of costs. He is concerned with the way the natural soil behaves when it serves as a foundation or as an integral part of a
structure. His task is to define the physical and mechanical prcperties of soils, and the means of evaluating them, through soil surveys, soil testing and the interpretation of the results. The soil engineer's responsi-bilities include the investigation of the stability of the soil under proposed or existing loads, consideration of settlements and groundwater move-ments, analysis of lateral pressures, and so on.
In a development programme in organic terrain
-whether for fores try, agriculture, construction of roads or other structures, off-roa"d access, etc. - any engineering project requires both quantitative and qualitative analyses, as for mineral soil terrain. In dealing with muskeg, however, it is not always possible to make a precise quantitative analysis and an estimate must necessarily be made of the probable
degree of accuracy that can be achieved. Qualitative analyses are important, therefore, and are based on a knowledge of, and experience with, the terrain and the material.
With the overlapping of several scientific and
engineering disciplines, however, one of the difficulties which arises is the question of definitions and terminology. In the fie ld of muskeg research and development, certain concepts and definitions have been established but which need to be re-emphasized from time to time. This subject is discussed by Dr. N. W. Radforth in his contribution to this Symposium.
B. Types of Engineering Works on Organic Terrain
The engineering problems which are presented by organic terrain arise both from the characteristics of the terrain (such as microtopography. vegetative cover, high ｾ｡ｴ･ｲ table, depth of the deposit, low bearing capacity of the surface mat, et c , ] and of the
material (such as the low shearing resistance, the extreme ly compressible nature of peat, high water content, etc.). Some of the types of engineering works on organic terrain where these problems require a solution
are:-(1) Access: Roads
Perhaps the most universal organic terrain design problem is road construction, whether it be for low cost tote roads,
secondary roads, or high standard primary roads. Common to all
are the questions of route selection, embankment stability considerations, settlement characteristics of the peat, and associated problems. For such construction problems in organic terrain, there are basically three approaches to the
solution:-(i) Avoid the organic terrain entirely;
(ii) Remove the organic material and replace with inorganic;
(iii) Design for and utilize the organic terrain and materiaL.
In the construction of primary roads, frequently it is difficult to avoid organic terrain. It is often considered to be unwise to utilize it as subgrade and consequently the peat is excavated and replaced by a more stable material, usually at considerable expense. In British Columbia, however, a technique for util izing the muskeg
in road construction has been developed which has established principles that can be - and are being - used elsewhere. This technique will be outlined briefly in a following contribution to this Symposium.
Engineering works allied to road construction, in that the s arn e general problems obtain and the construction approach is similar, are railway and airfield construction on organic terrain, dykes, and erribankrn e nt s in general.
(2) Access: Off-Road Vehicles
This may not properly be called an "engineering work" in the sense of other projects listed here,
｢ｌｾｴ
it is worthy of mention due to its relative importance. For pre liminary surveys for oil, as well as for other natural resource exploration in organic terrain, economics usually dictate the use of off-road vehicles rather than the use of access roads for conventional wheeled vehicles. The design of specialized muskeg vehicles is a highly complicated task and involves a knowledge of the trafficability features of the terrain, with all thatimplies, as well as of the desired mobility characteristics of the proposed vehicle and the nature of the use to which it will be put. Utilization of off-road vehicles involves careful route selection, based on a thorough assessment of the terrain and of the vehicle.
(3) Drainage
Construction of canals and ditches for lowering the water table or simply for conveying water is a problem of primary
importance in the reclamation of organic terrain for forestry, agricultural or industrial purposes, or in road, railway and airfield construction.
It also enters into development of water supply or sewage disposal systems for towns adjacent to, or situated on, organic terrain. Route location is involved, . as is the question of cut- s lope stability for various peat types, and ditch spacing. The latter is dependent on both the micro-topography and rn a c r ot opo g r a.phy of the terrain as well as on permeability characteristics of the material. Successful design requires some
knowledge of these factors.
(4) Above-ground Structures
etc. , in or on or ganic terrain while not as common as some of the above-mentioned works, involves many of the problems common to road or other embankment construction and the approach to the solution to these problems is similar.
In designing for engineering works on organic terrain, , three basic steps are followed: data collection, analysis, and evaluation.
Each of these steps will be described by other contributors to the
Symposium, with particular reference to design of highways over muskeg, as an example of the approach which might be followed in other engineering works.
II. DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY - N. W. Radforth
It is certainly not a new idea that engineers in
anticipating development must first give attention to the enviromnent in which engineering works will be placed. Thus, just as operational needs and functions are taken care of when a structure is finally devised and put into use, so it obtains that controlling factors within the environ-ment wil l have been fully anticipated if success is to follow. It is for this r e a s on that the question arose over a decade ago: what is muskeg? It is also for this reason that some intensive research has been done in answering this question. It is now well known and appreciated by everyone that muskeg is a complex entity. By labelling it as complex, this does not necessarily mean that it is difficult or not conducive to analytical
treatment. It is wished to convey that because of high orders of variability, it is like mineral terrain constituted of different sets of properties
depending upon genetic, physical, rn e c hani ca l , biological and c herni ca l properties. To some extent, this complexity is reduced owing to the fact that properties can all be related to b i o lo gi c a l phenomena. On the
other hand, biological pb enorn ena are characterized by their own orders of c ornpl exi.ty and therefore the biological inference does not in the last analysis infer s irnp l.ic ity .
When referring to rn u s k e g , it appears desirable to use definitions which are as exact as verbal description will allow and that these definitions will be the basis of the language with which one can c ornrnuni cat e with reference to mu sk e g matters.
A language is useless without a vocabulary and
therefore a vocabulary is provided herewith as a glossary which forms the Appendix to this paper. The glossary contains, for instance, the definition of muskeg which was given before the Engineering Institute of Canada for the first time in 1952 in Vancouver (9). In consulting the glossary, one will notice that organic terrain, which when qua l.if'i ed means muskeg, is really a condition and not a material. It is a condition which implies ｰｨｹｳｩｯｧｲ｡ｰｨｩｾ｡ｬ ､ｩｦｦ･ｾ･ｮ｣･ and change in constitution of the physical entities of which it is composed. It will be noticed also that one of these entities is peat which is also defined in the glossary. Whether a road is constructed on organic terrain or on peat will depend upon the context in which the engineer wishes to make reference. Terrain implies landscape and it would not be wrong to state that a road is built over a specified kind of landscape. Such observations would have to be drawn in preliminary survey for road location. On the other hand, if certain properties of the proposed road have to relate to features of design, it may be convenient an d proper to refer, not to organic terrain, but to material in th e foundation, which in this case would be the c orn.po ne nt s of organic terrain, namely, the living cover (and all this means with
reference to that constituent) and peat (or better still, kind of peat).
Though this kind of ana lysis is not new to the engineer as he works out his basis of reference even to the point of quantification where such is essential, there is a feature of the glossary which suggests a modern if not new approach to the application of survey for establishing engineering works in organic terrain. The reader will note, for instance, that the glossary anticipates application of airphoto interpretation. There is the assumption, therefore, that for the job of building roads and other engineering works the very latest procedures and aids wil l be used to effect location, design and ｣ｯｮｳｴｲｵ｣ｴｾｯｮＮ The principle that this shall be achieved by first resorting to air photographs is perhaps the best example of modern approach. Details in connection with it are available in detail in the literature (10, 11, 12) and briefly outlined in Part III. A of this Syrn po ai-urn .
APPENDIX
DICTIONARY OF TERMS FOR ORGANIC TERRAIN INTERPRETATION
(Note: Numbers in parentheses are those of the references given on the list at the end of this glossary).
a - Symbol for a micro-topographic feature - see 'hummock' (1)
A - Coverage class. Woody, 15 ft. or over, tree form. (1)
Aerial Interpretation
Air Form Pattern
Amorphous-granular
Apiculoid
- The evaluation of terrain character, by direct observation from the air or by examination of aerial photographs. (indirect). (4. 6, 7)
An arrangement of shapes, apparent at a particular altitude, which is characteristic for significant terrain entities and their spatial relationship and thus useful in the application of Aerial Interpretation. (4, 6, 7)
A descriptive term applied to one of the primary macroscopic elements of peat which is granular in nature but to which no particular shape can be ascribed ( 5)
A descriptive term designating a 5000 ft. Air Form Pattern characterized by a "fine-textured expanse", bearing minute projections. (7)
b - Symbol for a micro-topographic feature - see 'mound'. (1)
IBeaver meadowI
Bog
Boulder, exposed
Boulder, hidden
A term commonly used rather loosely to d e s c r i b e an area of high water content, with vegetal coverage in which Class F is prominent and surrounded by organic terrain showing a marked difference in
coverage or by mineral terrain. The
hydrological conditions mayor may not be owing to the presence of a beaver dam.
An area of confined or ganic terrain, the limits of which are imposed by the physio-graphy of the Io ca l mineral terrain.
Differentiated from "muskeg" mainly in terms of area but often because variations in coverage, peat structure and topography occur more frequently than in extensive areas of organic terrain.
A micro-topographic feature (symbol g) of organic terrain in which a detached rock mass of 10 inches diameter or more Lies exposed to view or partially embedded in organic materiaL (1, 12)
A micro-topographic feature (symbol h) similar to above but hidden f'r om view beneath organic materiaL (1, 12)
c - Symbol for a micro-topographic feature - see 'ridge'. (1)
C - Coverage class. Non-woody, 2 to 5 ft., tall, grass-Like. (1)
Category, cover Also referred to as a Cover formuLa.
A combination of two or three Class Letters arranged in descending order of prominence of Coverage classes as esti-mated by an observer at ground Level.
(Cl.a s s e s with an apparent representation of Less than 25% are excluded from a category or formuLa).
Category. peat CLassification. cover Closed pond Coarse-fibrous Cover formula Cumuloid
A descriptive term. one of -a series of sixteen. applied to combinations of primary elements of peat structure. See Amorphous- granular. fine-fibrous and coarse-fibrous. (5)
A subdivision of vegetal coverage based upon difference in properties such as woodiness v , non-woodines s , stature. texture (where required), and growth habit. (1)
A pond fi lled with or gani c debris. often with living c ov e r a ge , (1)
A descriptive term applied to one of the primary macroscopic elements of peat which may be woody or non-woody and has a diameter greater than 1 rnrn,
( 5)
See Category. Cover.
A descriptive term applied to a 5000 ft. Air Form Pattern characterized as a
'coarse textured expanse with lobed or finger-like "is lands" prominent',
components shaped like cumu lus clouds. (7)
d - Symbol for a topographic feature - see 'rock gravel plain'. (1)
D - Coverage Class. Woody, 2 to 5 ft., tall shrub or very dwarfed tree. (1)
Dermatoid A descriptive term applied to a 30,000
ft. Air Form Pattern characterized as •chiefly featureless and pLane: a simple covering lacking ornamentation (skin-like in the fundamental and
e - Symbol for a microtopographic feature - see' gravel bar'. (1)
E - Coverage class. Woody, 0 to 2 ft., low shrub. (1)
Enclosure, rock
Extensive peat plateau
A microtopographical feature (Symbol f), grouped boulders overgrown with organic deposit. (1)
Also even peat plateau. A topographical feature (Symbol i) 'usually extensive and involving sudden elevation'. (1)
f - Symbol for a microtopographic feature - see 'rock enclosure'. (1)
F - Coverage Class. Non-woody, 0 to 2 ft. , mats, clumps or patches, sometimes touching. (1)
Family Cover
Fine fibrous
Formula, Cover
Free polygon
A grouping of Cover Categories in which the initial letter of each category is identical, i. e. AH AEH AEI AFI. (11)
A descriptive term applied to one of the primary macroscopic elements of peat which may be woody or non-woody and has a diameter less than 1 rnrn , (5)
See Cover Category.
A topographic feature (symbol 0) having many sides and forming a rimmed
depression. (1)
g - Symbol for a micro-topographic feature - See 'exposed boulder'. (1)
G - Coverage class. Non-woody, 0 to 2 ft., growth habit - singly or loose. (1)
Gravel bar
Gravel plain, rock
A topographic feature (symbol e) exempli-fied by eskers and oLd beaches. (1)
A topographic feature (symbol d) 'extensive exposed areas' of rock and gravel. (1)
Growth habit A contributory distinguishing property of vegetal coverage used in conjunction with stature and woodiness v . non-woodiness to determine cover class. A description of plant form and arrange-ment. (1)
h - Symbol for a topographic feature - See hidden boulder. (1)
H - Coverage class. Non-woody, 0 to 4 in., leathery to crisp. (1)
Hummock A microtopographical feature (symbol a)
includes Tussock or Nigger-head, has
tufted top, usually vertical sides, occurring in patches, several to numerous. (1)
i-Symbol for topographic feature - see peat plateau. (1)
I - Coverage class. Non-woody, 0 to 4 in. soft or velvety texture, growth habit often continuous mats, sometimes in hummocks. (1)
Intrusoid
Irregular peat plateau
A descriptive term applied to a 5000 ft. Air Form Pattern characterized as a coarse textured expanse caused by frequent interruptions of unrelated,
widely separated mostly angular "islands"; interrupted. (7)
A topographical feature (symbol j) 'often wooded, localized and much "contorted". (1)
j - Symbol for a topographical feature - see irregular peat plateau. (1)
Joined polygon A topographical feature (symbol p) with
many sides 'formed by a system of banked clefts in the organic deposit'. (1)
K - Symbol for a topographic feature - see Closed pond. (1)
Lake margin, pond or, (abrupt)
Lake mar gin, pond or, (s loped)
A microtopographical feature
(symbol m) - the bank or margin having a characteristic vertica 1 face. (1)
- A topographical feature (symbol n) -the bank or mar gin sloping. (1)
m - Symbol for a topographic feature - see pond or Lake margin (abrupt). (1)
Marbloid
Marsh
Mound
Muskeg
A descriptive term applied to a 30,000 ft. Air Form Pattern showing 'a polished marble effect'. (6a)
Low lying tract of land usually covered with gras s or sedge-like plants, matter and a high water table, growing directly on mineral terrain.
A microtopographical feature (symbol b) with a 'rounded top, often elliptic or crescent shaped in plane view'. (1)
'has become the term designating or ganic terrain, the physical condition of which is governed by the structure of peat it
contains, and its related mineral sub-layer, considered in relation to topographic
features and the surface vegetation with which the peat co-exists'. (1) (See Organic Terrain)
n - Symbol for a topographic feature - see Pond or Lake margin (sloped). (1)
Nigger-head See Hummock. (l)
o - Symbol for a topographic fea tu r e
i-
see Free polygon. (l)Open pond A topographic feature (symbol 1) in which
Organic Terrain A tract of country COmprISIng a surficial layer of living vetetation and a sub-layer of peat (see) or fossilized plant detritus, of any depth, existing in association with various hydrological conditions and
underlying mineral formations.
p - Symbol for a topographic feature - see Joined polygon. (1)
Peat
Peat plateau, even (or extensive)
Peat plateau, irregular
Planoid Polygoid Polygon, free Polygon, joined Pond, open Pond, closed
Pond or Lake mar gin (abrupt)
Pond or Lake mar gin (s loped)
A component of organic terrain consisting of more or les s fragmented remains
of vegetable matter sequentially deposited and fossilized.
See Extensive peat plateau.
See Irregular peat plateau.
A descriptive term applied to a 5000 ft. Air Form Pattern characterized by 'an expanse lacking textural features, plane'. (7 )
A descriptive term applied to a 5000 ft. Air Form Pattern characterized by a
'coarse textured expanse cut by interest-ing lines; bearinterest-ing polygons'. (7)
See Free polygon.
- See Joined poLygon.
- See Open pond.
- See Closed pond.
See Lake, pond or, margin (abrupt).
Reticuloid
Ridge
Rock gravel plain
Spruce - bog Stipploid String-bog Swamp Terrain, Organi.c Terrazoid Type, Peat Vermiculoid, Primary
A descriptive term applied to a 30,000 ft. Air Form Pattern
characterized by a Inetwork effect'.
( 6a)
A topographic feature (symbol c)
'simi lar to Mound, but extended, often irregular, and numerous; vegetation often c oa r ser on one side. (1)
See Grave1plain, rock.
A term in common use loosely applied to confined areas of organic terrain where coniferous trees, (often not spruce) are a prominent feature of the vegetal coverage.
A descriptive term applied to a 30,000 ft. Air Form Pattern. 'The stipploid condition seems to be constructed of closely applied dots. ' (6a)
See Vermiculoid III.
Similar to Mar sh but usually with higher water table and interruptions in the vegetal mat.
See Organic Terrain.
A descriptive term applied to a 30,000 ft. Air Form Pattern that "shows a
'patchwork' quality". (6a)
- See Peat Category.
A descriptive term applied to a 5000 ft. Air Form Pattern characterized as Istriated, mostly coarse textured
expanse; featured markings tortuous '.
Subdivided in three Secondary Configurations. (7 )
Vermiculoid I
Vermiculoid II
Vermiculoid III
A s above but' striations webbed into a close net and usually joined'.
As above but' striations in close as sociation, often foreshortened and rarely completely joined.' (7)
As above but 'striations webbed into an
open net, usually joined and very tortuous'. (7)
*
-REFERENCES
1. Suggested Classification of Muskeg for the Engineer. Eng. Jour. Vol. 35, No. 11, 1952.
2. The Use of Plant Material in the Recognition of Northern Organic Terrain Characteristics. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Series III, 47, Sec. V: 53-71,1953.
3. Paleobotanical Method in the Prediction of Sub-Surface Summer Ice Conditions in Northern Organic Terrain. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Series III, 58, Sec. V, 1954.
4. Organic Terrain Organization from the Air (Altitudes less than 1,000 ft.). Defence Research Board, DR No. 95, 1955.
5. Range of Structural Variation in Organic Terrain. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Series III, 49, Sec. V, 1955.
6. The Application of Aerial Survey over Or ganic Terrain. Roads and Engineering Construction Magazine, Vol. 94, No.8, 1956.
6a. Muskeg Access, with Special Reference to Problems of the Petroleum Industry. The Canadian Mining and Metallur gical Bulletin, Vol. 49, No. 531, 1956.
