HAL Id: hal-00927768
https://hal.inria.fr/hal-00927768
Submitted on 14 Jan 2014
HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-entific research documents, whether they are pub-lished or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers.
L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.
Topology of planar singular curves resultant of two
trivariate polynomials
Judit Recknagel
To cite this version:
Judit Recknagel. Topology of planar singular curves resultant of two trivariate polynomials. Compu-tational Geometry [cs.CG]. 2013. �hal-00927768�
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡
♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s
❇❛❝❤❡❧♦r ❚❤❡s✐s ❢♦r ❛tt❛✐♥♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❝❛❞❡♠✐❝ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♦❢❇❛❝❤❡❧♦r ♦❢ ❙❝✐❡♥❝❡
♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜②❏✉❞✐t ❘❡❝❦♥❛❣❡❧
❆✉❣✉st ✷✼✱ ✷✵✶✸ ▼❛rt✐♥✲▲✉t❤❡r✲❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t② ■♥r✐❛ r❡s❡❛r❝❤ ❝❡♥tr❡ ❍❛❧❧❡✲❲✐tt❡♥❜❡r❣ ◆❛♥❝②✲●r❛♥❞ ❊st ❋❛❝✉❧t② ♦❢ ◆❛t✉r❛❧ ❙❝✐❡♥❝❡s ■■■ ❚❡❛♠ ❱❊●❆❙ ■♥st✐t✉t❡ ❢♦r ❈♦♠♣✉t❡r ❙❝✐❡♥❝❡ P❤❉ ▼❛r❝ P♦✉❣❡t ✭❙✉♣❡r✈✐s♦r✮ ❈♦♠♣✉t❡r ●r❛♣❤✐❝s P❤❉ ●✉✐❧❧❛✉♠❡ ▼♦r♦③ ✭❙✉♣❡r✈✐s♦r✮ ❉♦③✳ ❉r✳ P❡t❡r ❙❝❤❡♥③❡❧ ✭❙✉♣❡r✈✐s♦r✮❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✶
❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✶ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ ✷ ✷ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ t♦♦❧s t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ❜✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ s②st❡♠s ✺ ✷✳✶ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺ ✷✳✷ ❈❧❛ss✐❝❛❧ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽ ✷✳✸ ❚❡r♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❑r❛✇❝③②❦ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽ ✸ ❙✐♥❣✉❧❛r✐t✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ s✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥ts ✶✶ ✸✳✶ Pr♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst ✐♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ W ⊂ V ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷ ✸✳✷ Pr♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ V ⊂ W ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✹ ✹ ❑r❛✇❝③②❦ t❡r♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ❢♦r t❤❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❡❞ s②st❡♠ ✶✼ ✹✳✶ ❆❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❡t② V ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐t② ♦♥❡ ✐♥ hr, ∂xr, ∂yri ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽ ✹✳✷ ❆❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❡t② V ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐t② ♦♥❡ ✐♥ σ11, σ10 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✵ ✹✳✸ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐t② ♦♥❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❡s ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦ ❏❛❝♦❜✐❡♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✵ ✹✳✹ P♦st ♣r♦❝❡ss ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶ ✺ ❈♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✷✷ ✻ ❆♣♣❡♥❞✐①✿ ▼❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧s ✷✸ ✻✳✶ ❇❛s✐❝s ♦❢ ✐❞❡❛❧ t❤❡♦r② ❛♥❞ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✸ ✻✳✶✳✶ ■❞❡❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✸ ✻✳✶✳✷ ❆✣♥❡ ❱❛r✐❡t✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺ ✻✳✷ ❘❡s✉❧t❛♥ts ❛♥❞ ❙✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥ts ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✽ ✻✳✷✳✶ ❘❡s✉❧t❛♥t ❛♥❞ s✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥ts ♦❢ t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✾ ✻✳✷✳✷ ▼✉❧t✐♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ r❡s✉❧t❛♥ts ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✸ ✻✳✸ ❙♦♠❡ t♦♦❧s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ❧♦❝❛❧ r✐♥❣s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✹❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✷
✶ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥
❙❝✐❡♥t✐✜❝ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐s❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡s ❛♥❞ s✉r❢❛❝❡s ✐s ♥❡❡❞❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ ❣r❡❛t ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ✜❡❧❞s✱ ❧✐❦❡ ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t♦rs ♦r r♦❜♦t✐❝ ♠❡❝❤❛♥✐s♠s✳ ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠❛♥② ❛s♣❡❝ts ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦rr❡❝t ✈✐s✉❛❧✐s❛t✐♦♥✱ ✐t ♠❛② ❜❡ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡❝t ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝❛❧ ✭❛♥❣❧❡s ❛♥❞ ❧❡♥❣t❤s✮ ♦r t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡❝t t♦♣♦❧♦❣✐❝❛❧ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡✱ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❡①❛❝t ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t❡❞ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥ts ✇✐t❤ ✐ts s❡❧❢✲✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ✐s♦❧❛t❡❞ ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s s♠♦♦t❤✱ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts s❡✈❡r❛❧ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ t♦♦❧s t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❛❝❝✉r❛t❡❧② ✐ts t♦♣♦❧✲ ♦❣② ❛♥❞ ❣❡♦♠❡tr②✱ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❜② ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡✲✇✐s❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❣r❛♣❤✱ s❡❡ ❬▼❑❈✲✷✵✵✾❪✳ ❙✉❝❤ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ♠❡t❤♦❞s ❛r❡ q✉✐t❡ ❡✣❝✐❡♥t ❛♥❞ ✇♦r❦ ❧♦❝❛❧❧② ✇❡❧❧ ❜✉t ✐t ✐s ♥♦t ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡♠ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ❆ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✐s ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ tr❛❝❦✐♥❣ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ♦r s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♦❜✈✐♦✉s❧② ❢❛✐❧s ✐♥ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤✐s ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✐s ✉s❡❧❡ss t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❆♥ ♦♣t✐♦♥ ✐s t♦ ✉s❡ ❛♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝✲s②♠❜♦❧✐❝❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✱ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❜② ✉s✐♥❣ ●rö❜❡♥❡r ❜❛s❡s✱ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡①❛❝t t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ❙✉❝❤ ♠❡t❤♦❞s ✇♦r❦ ❣❧♦❜❛❧❧② ❜✉t ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❤✐❣❤ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①✐t② ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t t❤❛t t❤❡② ❛r❡ ✉♥❡✛❡❝t✐✈❡ ❢♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❝✉r✈❡s ✐♥ ♣r❛❝t✐❝❡✳ ❲❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡❝t t♦♣♦❧♦❣✐❝❛❧ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❡ ❝✉r✈❡s✱ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ t❤❡✐r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❖✉r ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s ❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❞ s②♠❜♦❧✐❝❛❧ ♠❡t❤♦❞s t♦ r❡❝♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❡✣❝✐❡♥❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rsts ♦♥❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦♥❡s✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r✐♥❣ t✇♦ ❤②♣❡rs✉r❢❛❝❡s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ③❡r♦ s❡t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s f ❛♥❞ g ✐♥ Q[x, y, z]✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ t❤❡ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ ♣r♦❥❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤②♣❡rs✉r❢❛❝❡s ✐♥t♦ (z = 0)✲♣❧❛♥❡✿ V(r) = projz=0(V(f )∩ V(g))✳ ❚❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts (X, Y ) ∈ R2 s✉❝❤ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛♥ Z ∈ R ✇✐t❤ f(X, Y, Z) = g(X, Y, Z) = 0✳ ❆♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇❛② t♦ r❡❣❛r❞ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s t♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r f ❛♥❞ g ❛s ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✐♥ z ✇✐t❤ t✇♦ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡s x ❛♥❞ y✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ③❡r♦ s❡t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r ✐s ❡①❛❝t❧② t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ s♣❡❝✐❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ (X, Y ) s✉❝❤ t❤❛t f(X, Y, z) = g(X, Y, z) = 0 ❤❛s ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ Z✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ ❝✉r✈❡ V(f) ∩ V(g) ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦❥❡❝t✐♦♥ r ♦❢ t❤✐s ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s f, g ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ z✳ ❋♦r ❛ s♠♦♦t❤ ♣❧❛♥❛r ❝✉r✈❡ r ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦ ❞✐✣❝✉❧t✐❡s ✐♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ✐ts t♦♣♦❧♦❣② s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ❛❞❛♣t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠s ✇❤✐❝❤ ❛❝❝♦♠♣❧✐s❤ t❤✐s✳ ❇✉t r ✐♥ ♦✉r s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ ♣r♦❥❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ s♣❛❝❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s ✉s✉❛❧❧② ♥♦t s♠♦♦t❤✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐st t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ③❡✲ r♦s Z1, Z2 ∈ R ❢♦r ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ (X, Y ) ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g✱ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ F (X, Y, Z1) = G(X, Y, Z1) =❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✸ F (X, Y, Z2) = G(X, Y, Z2) = 0 ✇❤✐❧❡ Z1 6= Z2✱ t❤❡♥ r(X, Y ) = 0 ❛♥❞ V(f) ∩ V(g) ❤❛s ❛t ❧❡❛st t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦✈❡r (X, Y )✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦❥❡❝t✐♦♥ ❝✉r✈❡ r ✐♥t❡rs❡❝ts ♥❡❝❡ss❛r✐❧② ✐♥ (X, Y ) ❛♥❞ ✐s t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡ ♥♦t s♠♦♦t❤✳ ❙✉❝❤ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥t (X, Y ) ✐s ♦♥❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❢♦r ❛ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥t ✭❛❧s♦ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✐t②✮ ♦❢ r✳ ❲❡ ✇♦r❦ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s ❜② ✜rst ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡✐r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥t s❡t✳ ❚❤❡ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♥♦♥✲s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡❛s✐❧② ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❜② tr❛❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠s✱ ❧✐❦❡ ♣❛t❤ tr❛❝❦✐♥❣✳ ❆❢t❡r✇❛r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ✐♥ ❛ ❜♦① ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ ❡①❛❝t❧② ♦♥❡ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚✇♦ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✐t② ❡♥❝❧♦s✐♥❣ ❜♦①❡s ✇✐t❤ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❧♦❝❛❧ t♦♣♦❧♦❣✐❡s ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜♦①❡s✱ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❜② ❡①tr❛❝t✲ ✐♥❣ ❛❧s♦ ❡①tr❡♠❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts t♦ ❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐s❤ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❧♦❝❛❧ t♦♣♦❧♦❣✐❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✐t✐❡s✳ ❚❤❡ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♥♦♥✲s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✐t② ❡♥❝❧♦s✐♥❣ ❜♦①❡s ❣✐✈❡ t♦❣❡t❤❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✐♠ ♦❢ t❤✐s ✇♦r❦ ✐s t♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥t s❡t V ♦❢ r ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ s❡t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ s②st❡♠ r(x, y) = 0, ∂xr(x, y) = 0, ∂yr(x, y) = 0 ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t✇♦ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡s✳ ❲❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ✉s❡ ❛ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✜① ♣♦✐♥t ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❜♦①❡s ✐♥ R2 ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ ❡①❛❝t❧② ♦♥❡ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠✿ ●✐✈❡♥ ❛ ❜♦① B ⊂ R2✱ ✇❡ s✉❜❞✐✈✐❞❡ t❤✐s ❜♦① r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧② ✐♥ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❜♦①❡s ✉♥t✐❧ ❛❧❧ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ❛r❡ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❞ ✐♥ ❞✐s❥♦✐♥t ❜♦①❡s✳ ❆ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❛❝❝❡♣t✐♥❣ ❛ ❜♦① ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ ❡①❛❝t❧② ♦♥❡ r❡❣✉❧❛r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ✐s t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ◆❡✇t♦♥✲❑r❛✇❝③②❦✲✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦♣❡r❛t♦r✳ ❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤✐s ♦♣❡r❛t♦r ❤❛♥❞❧❡s ✭✶✮ ♦♥❧② s②st❡♠s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛s ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡s ❛♥❞ ✭✷✮ ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡s ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ r❡❣✉❧❛r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✳ ❚♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❑r❛✇❝③②❦ ♦♣❡r❛t♦r t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥t s❡t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠ ♦✉r ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s②st❡♠ ✐♥t♦ ❛ s②st❡♠ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ③❡r♦ s❡t ✇❤✐❝❤ s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦♣❡r❛t♦r✳ ❚❤❡ ♥❡✇ s②st❡♠ ♠✉st ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ t✇♦ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t✇♦ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡s✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ r❡❣✉❧❛r✐t② ♦❢ ❛❧❧ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠✳
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✹ ❆ ✜rst tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s t♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ❜② t❛❦✐♥❣ ♦♥❧② t✇♦ ❛♠♦♥❣ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡✐r ③❡r♦ s❡t✱ ❜✉t t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ❢❛✐❧s ✐♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐t ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡s s♣✉r✐♦✉s s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✇❡ tr② ❛ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t♦ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ s②st❡♠ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ③❡r♦ s❡t ✈✐❛ s✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥t t❤❡♦r②✳ ■♥ t❤❡ ❧❛♥❣✉❛❣❡ ♦❢ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ❣❡♦♠❡tr②✱ V ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❛✣♥❡ ✈❛r✐❡t② t♦ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❣❡♥❡r❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s r, ∂xr, ∂yr ∈ Q[x, y]✳ ❲❡ ❛r❡ ❞♦♥❡ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✜♥❞ ❛ t✇♦ ♠❡♠❜❡r ❣❡♥❡r❛t✐♥❣ s❡t ♦❢ I✱ ❜✉t ✉♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤✐s ✐s ♥♦t ❡❛s②✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ♦♥❧② s✐♠♣❧❡ s❡❧❢✲✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♣r♦✈❡ ✐♥st❡❛❞ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛❧✐t② ♦❢ V ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ s❡t W ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ σ11(x, y) = 0, σ10(x, y) = 0, σ22(x, y)6= 0 ❝♦♥s✐st✐♥❣ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✳ ❚❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s σ11, σ10❛♥❞ σ22❛r❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst ❛♥❞ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ s✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g✳ ❚❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡①❛❝t❧② t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ r ❤❛✈✐♥❣ ♦♥❧② s✐♠♣❧❡ s❡❧❢✲✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ♦✈❡r✈✐❡✇ ♦❢ t❤✐s ✇♦r❦ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ■♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✱ ✇❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❝❧❛ss✐❝❛❧ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ t♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛ ❜✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❞✐s❝✉ss ✐ts t❡r♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✳ ❚❤❡ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ✉s❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ✇♦r❦ ❜❛s❡s ♦♥ ❑r❛✇❝③②❦✬s ❝r✐t❡r✐♦♥✳ ■♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✱ ✇❡ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✣♥❡ ✈❛r✐❡t② V ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ s❡t ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ s✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥ts✳ ❲❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥ ❛ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t✇♦ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡s ♦♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠✳ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹ ❛❞❞r❡ss❡s t❤❡ t❡r♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ ♦♥ ♦✉r s②st❡♠ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❡t② V ✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ♦✉r ✇♦r❦ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺✳ ■♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❡♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧s ❛♥❞ t♦♦❧s ✉s❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ❝❤❛♣t❡rs✳ ❲❡ r❡❝❛❧❧ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ♣r♦✈❡ ❛ ❣r❡❛t ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❛♥❞ ♣r♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✉s❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ✇♦r❦✳
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✺
✷ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ t♦♦❧s t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ❜✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ s②st❡♠s
■♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ f, g ∈ Q[x, y] ❛r❡ t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✇✐t❤ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts✳ ▲❡t F : R2 → R2 ❜❡ t❤❡ ♠❛♣♣✐♥❣ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♠❛♣s (x, y) t♦ (f(x, y), g(x, y))T ❛♥❞ ❧❡t J F ❞❡♥♦t❡s t❤❡ ❏❛❝♦❜✐❛♥ ♠❛tr✐① ♦❢ F ✳ ❲❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st❡❞ ✐♥ ❛❧❧ r❡❛❧ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ F (x, y) = 0✳ ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t♦ ✉s❡ ❛ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ✇❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❜♦① B =(x, y)∈ R2: B1 ≤ x ≤ B1, B2 ≤ y ≤ B2 ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❜② B1, B1 ,B2, B2 ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧② s✉❜❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❜♦①❡s Bj ✉♥t✐❧ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢♦r s✉r❡ t❤❛t ❡✈❡r② ❜♦① Bj ❡✐t❤❡r ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ❡①❛❝t❧② ♦♥❡ ♦r ♥♦ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ F (x, y) = 0✳ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❜♦① ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❝❤❡❝❦ ✐❢ ✇❡❛t❤❡r ✭✶✮ t❤❡ ❜♦① ❝❛♥✬t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦r ✭✷✮ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ✉♥✐q✉❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜♦①✳ ■❢ ♥❡✐t❤❡r t❤❡ ✜rst ♥♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❛♥s✇❡r❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜♦① ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ s✉❜❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ✐♥ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❜♦①❡s ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛s❦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥s✳ ■♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t✇♦ ❝r✐t❡r✐❛ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❛♥s✇❡r t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥s✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❣✐✈❡ ❛ s❤♦rt ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s s✐♥❝❡ ✇♦r❦✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ❜♦① ❡✈❛❧✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ s❡t ❡✈❛❧✉❛t✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s ♠✉❝❤ ♠♦r❡ ❡✣❝✐❡♥t✳ ❆❧s♦ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❝❧❛ss✐❝❛❧ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝r✐t❡r✐❛ ❛♥❞ ❛❢t❡r✇❛r❞s✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❞✐s❝✉ss t❤❡ t❡r♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ✐♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✳ ✷✳✶ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❲❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦rs ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ ❬▼❑❈✲✷✵✵✾❪ ♦r ❬◆✲✶✾✾✵❪✳ ❊❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ♦♣❡r❛✲ t✐♦♥s ❧✐❦❡ +, −, ·, / ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡❛s✐❧② r❡❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳ ▲❡t A = A, A ❛♥❞ B = B, B ❜❡ t✇♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✐♥ R✳ ▲❡t ◦ ❜❡ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✭◦ = +✮✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✭◦ = −✮✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ✭◦ = ·✮ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✭◦ = /✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s A ❛♥❞ B ❛s A◦ B = {x ◦ y : x ∈ A, y ∈ B} ❢♦r r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡ ◦✳ ❚❤❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ A ❛♥❞ B ✐s r❡str✐❝t❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ 0 6∈ B✳ ❇❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡s❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❡❛s✐❧② ♦❜t❛✐♥ ❡♥❞ ♣♦✐♥t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❋♦r ✐♥st❛♥❝❡✿ A + B =A + B , A + B✱❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✻ A− B =A− B , A − B ❛♥❞
A· B = [min S , max S] ✇❤❡r❡ S := {AB, AB, AB, AB}✳
◆♦✇ ❧❡t f : Rn → R ❜❡ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ U ⊂ Rn✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧❧② ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r f ❛s ❛ s❡t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ f(U) = {f(x) : x ∈ U}✳ ❆♥②❤♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ s❡t ♦❢ U ✐s ♠♦st❧② ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❛♥❞ ✐♥ ♦✉r s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥ ✉♥♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✳ ❚❤✉s ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ r❡❣❛r❞ f ❛s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ ♦♥❧② ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡t f(U)✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❡①t❡♥❞ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ n✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❝❛s❡✳ ❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳ ❆♥ n✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ♦r ❜♦① ✐s ❛♥ ♦r❞❡r❡❞ n✲t✉♣❧❡ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s (B1, . . . , Bn). ❲❡ ❞❡♥♦t❡ ❜♦①❡s ❜② ❝❛♣✐t❛❧ ❧❡tt❡rs B = (B1, . . . , Bn)❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s Bi :={xi ∈ R : Bi ≤ xi ≤ Bi} ❜② Bi = Bi, Bi ✳ ❲❡ ✇r✐t❡ p := (Xp1, . . . , Xpn) ∈ B = (B1, . . . , Bn) ✐❢ Xpi ∈ Bi ❢♦r ❛❧❧ i∈ [1, . . . , n]✳ ❚❤❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❜♦① ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❧② ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t✲✇✐s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦♣✲ ❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r diam(B) ♦❢ ❛ ❜♦① B ✐s t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s B1, . . . , Bn✳ ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♣♦✐♥t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡st✐♠❛t❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r ♦❢ ❜♦①❡s✳ ▲❡♠♠❛ ✸✳ ▲❡t A ❛♥❞ B ❜❡ ❜♦①❡s ✐♥ Rn✱ m ∈ N ❛♥❞ c ∈ R✳ ❚❤❡♥
✭✶✮ diam(A + B) ≤ diam(A) + diam(B) ✭✷✮ diam(c · B) = |c| · diam(B)
✭✸✮ diam(A · B) ≤ maxx∈B|x| · diam(A) + maxy∈A|y| · diam(B)
✭✹✮ diam(Bm)≤ m · diam(B) · (max
x∈B|x|)m−1
Pr♦♦❢✳ ✭✶✮ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ diam(I+J) = diam(I)+diam(J) ❢♦r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s I, J ⊂ R✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❜♦①❡s ✐s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t✲✇✐s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞✱ ✇❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥ diam(A+B) ≤ diam(A)+diam(B) ❢♦r ❜♦①❡s✳ ✭✷✮ ▲❡t B = (B1, . . . , Bn)✳ ❚❤❡♥
diam(c· B) = maxi∈{1,...,n}c· diam(Bi) =|c| · maxi∈{1,...,n}diam(Bi) =|c| · diam(B)✳
✭✸✮ ❯s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♣♦✐♥t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s I =I, I, J =J, J⊂ R✱ ✇❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥ I · J = [st, uv]✇❤❡r❡ s, u ❛r❡ s✉✐t❛❜❧❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ✐♥I, I ❛♥❞ t, v ❛r❡ s✉✐t❛❜❧❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ✐♥J, J ✳ ■❢ s = u ♦r t = v ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ diam(I · J) = |u| · |v − t|✱ r❡s♣✳ diam(I · J) = |t| · |u − s|✳ ■❢ s, t, u, v❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ st ≤ sv ≤ uv t❤✉s diam(I · J) = |s| · |v − t| + |v| · |u − s|✳ ❆❧t♦❣❡t❤❡r ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ diam(I · J) ≤ maxx∈J|x| · diam(I) + maxy∈I|y| · diam(J)✳ ❆♣♣❧②✐♥❣
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✼ ✭✹✮ ❋♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ ✭✸✮ ❜② ✐♥❞✉❝t✐♦♥✳ ◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜② ❜♦①❡s✳ ❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳ ▲❡t f : Rn → R ❜❡ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❞❡♥♦t❡ f t❤❡ ♠❛♣ ❢r♦♠ ❜♦①❡s ♦❢ Rn t♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ R ❜② r❡♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜② t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t f ✐s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ❜② ❜♦①❡s✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡s t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜② ❜♦①❡s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦♥❡ t❡❝❤♥✐q✉❡ t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ f ∈ R[x1, . . . , xn]❜② ❜♦①❡s ✐s t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ ♣❡r ♠♦♥♦♠✐❛❧✳ ❊①❛♠♣❧❡✳ ▲❡t f(x, y) = x2−y+xy ∈ R[x, y] ❛♥❞ ❧❡t B = ([1, 2], [1, 3]) ⊂ R2✳ ❚❤❡♥ min (x,y)∈Bf = 1 ❛♥❞ max(x,y)∈B = 7 t❤✉s f(B) ⊂ [1, 7]✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ f ♣❡r ♠♦♥♦♠✐❛❧✱ ✇❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥ x2(B) = [1, 4]✱ y(B) = [1, 3] ❛♥❞ xy(B) = [1, 6] t❤✉s f(B) = [−1, 9]✳ ❲❡ s❡❡ t❤❛t f(B) $ f(B)✳ ◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧❧② ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r g(x, y) = x2+ y(x− 1)✳ ▼❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✱ ❜✉t ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ g ❜② ❜♦①❡s✱ ✇❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥ (x − 1)(B) = [0, 1] t❤✉s (y(x − 1))(B) = [0, 3] ❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡ g(B) = [1, 7]✳ ■t t✉r♥s ♦✉t t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ♦❢ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t✐♥❣ ❜② ❜♦①❡s ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt② f(B) ⊂ f(B) ✐s ❛❧✇❛②s ✈❡r✐✜❡❞✳ ■♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❜♦① ❡✈❛❧✉❛t✐♦♥ ♣❡r ♠♦♥♦♠✐❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ diam(f(B)) ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r ♦❢ B✳ Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳ ▲❡t B ⊂ R2 ❛♥❞ f ∈ R[x, y]✳ ■❢ f ✐s t❤❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f ♣❡r ♠♦♥♦♠✐❛❧✱ t❤❡♥
diam(f(B))≤ d3|fmax|δ · diam(B)
✇❤❡r❡ d ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♦❢ f✱ fmax ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❛♥❞ δ :=
maxn1,max(x,y)∈Bk(x, y)k2d−1
o ✳ Pr♦♦❢✳ ▲❡t f(x, y) = Pi+j≤dfij · xiyj ❛♥❞ B = (B1, B2)✳ ❲❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ ♣❡r ♠♦♥♦♠✐❛❧ t❤✉s f (B) =Pi+j≤dfij · Bi1· B j 2 ❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡ ❜② ▲❡♠♠❛ ✸ diam(f(B))≤ X i+j≤d |fij| · diam(B1i· B j 2) ≤ X i+j≤d |fij| · max x∈B1|x| idiam(Bj 2) + maxy∈B 2|y| jdiam(Bi 1) ≤ X i+j≤d |fij| · j max x∈B1 |x|imax y∈B2
|y|j−1diam(B2) + i max y∈B2 |y|jmax x∈B1 |x|i−1diam(B1i) ≤ d max x∈B1|x| · diam(B 2) + max
y∈B2|y| · diam(B
1) · X i+j≤d |fij| max x∈B1|x| i−1max y∈B2|y| j−1 .
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✽ ❲❡ t❛❦❡ δ := maxn1,max(x,y)∈Bk(x, y)k2d−1o✳ ❚❤❡♥
diam(f(B))≤ d3· max i+j≤d|fij| · δ · diam(B) ✷✳✷ ❈❧❛ss✐❝❛❧ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ❲❡ r❡t✉r♥ t♦ ♦✉r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❛❧❧ r❡❛❧ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ♦❢ F (x, y) = 0✳ ❚❤❡ ✜rst ❝r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ✈❡r✐✜❡s t❤❡ ♥♦♥✲❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ③❡r♦s ♦❢ F ✐♥ ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜♦① B✳ ❈r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ✶✳ ▲❡t B ❜❡ ❛ ❜♦① ✐♥ R2✳ ■❢ f(B) 6∋ 0 ♦r g(B) 6∋ 0 t❤❡♥ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ F (x, y) = 0 ❤❛s ♥♦ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❇✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ F (B) ⊂ f(B) ⊂ f(B) ❛♥❞ F (B) ⊂ g(B) ⊂ g(B) ✐t ✐s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ✐s tr✉❡✳ ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ✐s ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ◆❡✇t♦♥✲❑r❛✇❝③②❦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦♣❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ ❡♥s✉r❡s t❤❡ ❡①✲ ✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ r❡❣✉❧❛r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ F (x, y) = 0✳ ❆ r❡❣✉❧❛r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ (X, Y ) ∈ R2 ✐s ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t det(JF(X, Y ))6= 0✳ ❈r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ✷✳ ❬▼❑❈✲✷✵✵✾✱ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ✽✳✷✱ ✽✳✸❪ ▲❡t B = (Bx, By)❜❡ ❛ ❜♦① ✐♥ R2✱ pc= (Xc, Yc)t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ B ❛♥❞ ∆B = (Bx− [Xc, Xc], By − [Yc, Yc])T t❤❡ ❜♦① B tr❛♥s❧❛t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✳ ▲❡t N ❜❡ t❤❡ ♠❛♣♣✐♥❣ N (x, y) = x y − JF−1(pc)· F (x, y) ❛♥❞ KF t❤❡ ❑r❛✇③❝②❦ ♦♣❡r❛t♦r ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜② KF(B) := N (pc) + JN(B)· ∆B. ■❢ KF(B)⊂ B t❤❡♥ F ❤❛s ❛ ✉♥✐q✉❡ r❡❣✉❧❛r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✐♥ B✳ ❚❤❡ ❑r❛✇❝③②❦ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✜rst ❛♣♣❡❛r❡❞ ✐♥ ❬❑✲✶✾✻✾✱ ❙❡❝t✐♦♥ ✽✳✷❪ ✐♥ ❛ ♠♦♥♦♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✈❡rs✐♦♥✳ ▼✉❧t✐♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ✐♥ ❬◆✲✶✾✾✵❪ ❛♥❞ ❬▼❑❈✲✷✵✵✾✱ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s ✽✳✷✱ ✽✳✸❪ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❡♥s✉r❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❑r❛✇❝③②❦ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ t♦ ❛ r❡❣✉❧❛r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✳ ◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ ❝❧❛ss✐❝❛❧ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ t♦ ✐s♦❧❛t❡ r❡❣✉❧❛r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ F (x, y) = 0 ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❝r✐t❡r✐❛✳ ✷✳✸ ❚❡r♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❑r❛✇❝③②❦ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ❋✐rst ✐t ✐s ♥♦t ❝❧❡❛r t❤❛t t❤✐s ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧✇❛②s t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡✳ ❚❤❡ ♥❡①t ♣r♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❜♦①❡s s♠❛❧❧ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ ❛ r❡❣✉❧❛r r♦♦t ♦❢ F ✱ t❤❡ ❑r❛✇❝③②❦ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ✐s ❛❧✇❛②s s❛t✐s✜❡❞✳ ❋♦r ❛ ❜♦① Bǫ ✇❡ ❞❡♥♦t❡ ❜② B2ǫ t❤❡ ❜♦① ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ❛s Bǫ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞♦✉❜❧❡ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r✳
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✾ ❆❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ✶ ❑r❛✇❝③②❦ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ t♦ ✐s♦❧❛t❡ r❡❣✉❧❛r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ■♥♣✉t✿ F = (f, g) ❛ ❜✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❧② r❡❣✉❧❛r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ❛ ❜♦① B0✳ KF ✐s t❤❡ ❑r❛✇❝③②❦ ♦♣❡r❛t♦r ❛ss♦❝✐❛t❡❞ t♦ F ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✐♥ ❈r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ✷✳ ❖✉t♣✉t✿ Lisolate ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ❜♦①❡s ✐s♦❧❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s L :={B0} r❡♣❡❛t B := L.pop ✐❢ 0 6∈ F (B) ✭❈r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ✶✮ t❤❡♥ ❉✐s❝❛r❞ B ❡❧s❡ ✐❢ KF(B)⊂ B ✭❈r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ✷✮ t❤❡♥ ■♥s❡rt B ✐♥ Lisolate ❡❧s❡ ❙✉❜❞✐✈✐❞❡ B ❛♥❞ ✐♥s❡rt ✐ts ❝❤✐❧❞r❡♥ ✐♥ L ❡♥❞ ✐❢ ❡♥❞ ✐❢ ✉♥t✐❧ L 6= ∅ r❡t✉r♥ Lisolate Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✻✳ ▲❡t (X, Y ) ❜❡ ❛ r❡❣✉❧❛r r♦♦t ♦❢ F ✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛♥ η > 0 s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ❜♦① Bǫ ♦❢ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r s♠❛❧❧❡r t❤❛♥ η ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ (X, Y )✱ t❤❡ ❜♦① B2ǫ s❛t✐s✜❡s✿ KF(B2ǫ)⊂ B2ǫ. Pr♦♦❢✳ (X, Y ) ✐s ❛ r❡❣✉❧❛r r♦♦t ♦❢ F ✱ t❤✉s F (X, Y ) = 0 ❛♥❞ JF(X, Y )✐s ✐♥✈❡rt✐❜❧❡✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts η > 0 ❛♥❞ M > 0 s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ✐♥ ❡✈❡r② ❜♦① Bη ♦❢ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r s♠❛❧❧❡r t❤❛♥ η ✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s (X, Y )t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ♦❢ JF ❛r❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② M✳ ▲❡t Bǫ1 ⊂ Bη ❜❡ ❛ ❜♦① ♦❢ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ ǫ1 ✇✐t❤ ❝❡♥t❡r ♣♦✐♥t pc1 ✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s (X, Y )✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r r❡♠❛✐♥❞❡r t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛t pc✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ N (X, Y ) = N (pc1) + JN(pc1)· ((X, Y ) − pc1) + O(ǫ 2 1) = N (pc1) + (1− JF(pc1) −1J F(pc1))· ((X, Y ) − pc1) + O(ǫ 2 1) = N (pc1) + O(ǫ 2 1). ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ N(X, Y ) = (X, Y )T − J−1 F (pc1)· F (X, Y ) = (X, Y ) T✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ξ1s✉❝❤ t❤❛t |N(pc)−(X, Y )T| < ξ1ǫ2❢♦r ❛❧❧ (X, Y ) ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ ❜♦①❡s Bǫ ⊂ Bη
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✶✵ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❲❡ r❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t B2ǫ ❞❡♥♦t❡s t❤❡ ❜♦① ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♣♦✐♥t ❛s Bǫ ❛♥❞ ❞♦✉❜❧❡ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r✳ ❇② Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✺ ❛♥❞ r❡t❛✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ξ2 ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐♥❣ ♦♥ deg(F )✱ Fmax ❛♥❞ δ(Bη s✉❝❤ t❤❛t diam(JN(B2ǫ)) < ξ2· diam(B2ǫ) = ξ2· 2ǫ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ ❜♦①❡s Bǫ⊂ Bη✳ ❇② t❛❦✐♥❣ δ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ❜♦① B0 ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ δ(Bη)✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡❣❛r❞ ξ2 ❛s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ pc ∈ Bǫ⊂ B2ǫ❛♥❞ JN(pc) = 0✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ 0 ∈ JN(B2ǫ)t❤✉s JN(B2ǫ)⊂ [−ξ2· 2ǫ , ξ2· 2ǫ]2✳ ❆s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ❞❡ ❑r❛✇❝③②❦✱ ✇❡ ❞❡♥♦t❡ ∆B2ǫ = [−2ǫ, 2ǫ]2 t❤❡ ❜♦① B2ǫ tr❛♥s❧❛t❡❞ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✳ ❚❤❡♥ JN(B2ǫ)· ∆B2ǫ ⊂ [−ξ2· 4ǫ2, ξ2· 4ǫ2]2✳ ❲❡ t❛❦❡ ξ := ξ1+ 4ξ2✳ ❚❤❡♥ N(pc)− (X, Y )T + JN(B2ǫ)· ∆B2ǫ ⊂ [−ξǫ2, ξǫ2]❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡ KF(B2ǫ) = N (pc) + JN(B2ǫ)· ∆B2ǫ⊂ (X, Y )T + [−ξǫ2, ξǫ2]2. ❋♦r ǫ < ξ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ (X, Y )T + [−ξǫ2, ξǫ2]2 ⊂ B 2ǫ✱ t❤✉s KF(B2ǫ)⊂ B2ǫ✳ ❉✉❡ t♦ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ ❛❧❧ r❡❣✉❧❛r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐s❥♦✐♥t ✐s♦❧❛t✐♥❣ ❜♦①❡s ❛s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s t❤❡② ❞♦♥✬t ❧✐❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥✐♥❣ ❜♦①❡s✳ ❋♦r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❛r② ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ♠♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠✱ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❜② ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ♦❢ s✉❜❞✐✈✐❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❜♦①❡s✳ ◆♦✇ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✜rst ❝r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ✐s ❛❧✇❛②s s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ❢♦r ❜♦①❡s s♠❛❧❧ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ ♥♦ r♦♦t ♦❢ F ✳ Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✼✳ ▲❡t B ⊂ R2 ❜❡ ❛ ❜♦① ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ ♥♦ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ F (x, y) = 0✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts s♦♠❡ η > 0 s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ❜♦① Bη ⊂ B ♦❢ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ η t❤❡ ✜rst ❝r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞✳ Pr♦♦❢✳ ▲❡t A := F (B) ❞❡♥♦t❡s t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♦❢ B ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❛ ❜♦① ✐♥ R2✳ ❚❤❡♥ A ⊂ R >0 ♦r A⊂ R<0 ❛♥❞ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ ζ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ A t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✳ ❇② ▲❡♠♠❛ ✸ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ diam(f(B)) ≤ ξdiam(B) ❢♦r ξ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐♥❣ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ F ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ❜♦① B0 ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦✲ r✐t❤♠✳ ❚❤✉s ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ξ ❛s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ◆♦✇ ❧❡t Bǫ ⊂ B ❜❡ ❜♦① ♦❢ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ ǫ✳ ❚❤❡♥ diam(f(B)) < ξǫ✳ ❲❡ s❡t η := ζξ✳ ❋♦r ❡✈❡r② ǫ < η ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ f(Bǫ) ⊂ A + [−ξǫ, ξǫ]2 ⊂ A + [−ζ, ζ]2 \ {0}✳ ❚❤✉s 0 6∈ f(Bǫ) ❛♥❞ ❤❡♥❝❡ t❤❡ ✜rst ❝r✐t❡r✐♦♥ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ ❜♦①❡s Bη ⊂ B ✇✐t❤ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ η✳ ●✐✈❡♥ ❛ ❜♦① B ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ ♦♥❧② r❡❣✉❧❛r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ♦❢ F (x, y) = 0✱ ❜② t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✻ ❛♥❞ ✼✱ t❤❡ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧✇❛②s t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❛♥❞ ❡♥❝❧♦s❡ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ r❡❣✉❧❛r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ♦❢ F (x, y) = 0 ✇✐t❤ ❞✐s❥♦✐♥t ✐s♦❧❛t✐♥❣ ❜♦①❡s✳
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✶✶
✸ ❙✐♥❣✉❧❛r✐t✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ s✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥ts
■♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s f, g ∈ Q[x, y][z] ❛s ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✐♥ z ✇✐t❤ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ✐♥ A := Q[x, y] ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳ ❲❡ ✇r✐t❡ d1 ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ d2❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡
♦❢ g ❜♦t❤ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ t♦ z ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ✇r✐t❡ fd1 r❡s♣✳ gd2 ❢♦r t❤❡✐r ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts✳
❲❡ s❡t r := Resz(f, g) t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ✇r✐t❡ Sresi ❢♦r Sresi(f, g) ❛♥❞ σij ❢♦r
σij(f, g) ✭s❡❡ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✻✳✷ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ❛♥❞ s✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥ts✮✳ ❚♦ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st❡❞ ✐♥ ✐ts s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥t s❡t ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② V :={(x, y) ∈ C2 : r(x, y) = 0, ∂xr(x, y) = 0, ∂yr(x, y) = 0} = V(r, ∂xr, ∂yr). ❙✐♥❝❡ t❤✐s s②st❡♠ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ♦♥❧② t✇♦ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡s ✐t ✐s ♥♦t ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ❝❤❛♣t❡r ❞✐r❡❝t❧② t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤✐s s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ s❡t✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✐♠ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r ✐s t♦ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠ ♦✉r s②st❡♠ ✐♥t♦ ❛ s②st❡♠ ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❡ ❧❡ss ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❛❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ s✉❜❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠✳ ❖✉r ❛✐♠ ✐s t♦ s❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛❧✐t② ♦❢ V ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t s❡t W :={(x, y) ∈ C2: σ11(x, y) = 0, σ10(x, y) = 0, σ22(x, y)6= 0} = V(σ11, σ10)− V(σ22) ✇❤✐❝❤ ❣✐✈❡s ❛ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✳ ❚❤✐s s②st❡♠ s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ✶ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥✳ ■❢ V ✈❡r✐✜❡s t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❜❛s✐❝ ♣r❡❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ V ❛♥❞ W ✿ ❈♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✳ ✭B✶✮ V(fd1, gd2) =∅✳ ✭B✷✮ σ22(x, y)6= 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ (x, y) ∈ V(r, ∂xr, ∂yr)✳ ✭B✸✮ V(f) ∩ V(g) ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ♦♥❧② r❡❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✽✳ ▲❡t f, g ∈ Q[x, y][z] ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✐♥ z ✇✐t❤ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ✐♥ A := Q[x, y]✳ ❲❡ ✇r✐t❡ d1 ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ d2 ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♦❢ g ❜♦t❤ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ t♦ z ❛♥❞ fd1 r❡s♣✳ gd2 ❢♦r t❤❡✐r
❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts✳ ▲❡t r := Resz(f, g) ❜❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❛♥❞ ❧❡t Sresi = Sresi(f, g)✱
σij = σij(f, g) ❜❡ t❤❡ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡ s✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥ts✳ ❚❤❡♥
✭✶✮ W ⊂ V ❛♥❞
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✶✷ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✭B✶✮ t♦ ✭B✸✮ ❤❛✈❡ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ r❡❛s♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ✜rst ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥✱ V(fd1, gd2) = ∅✱ ✐s t❤❡ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✹ ✇❤✐❝❤ s❛②s t❤❛t t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s f ❛♥❞ g ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❥❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ✈❛r✐❡t✐❡s✿ V(Resz(f, g)) = projz=0(V(f )∩ V(g)) = projz=0(V(f, g))✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❡①❛❝t❧② t❤❡ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ ♠❛❞❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❝❤❛♣t❡r ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s ✐♥ ❢❛❝t ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❤❛✈✐♥❣ ♥♦ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t② ✐♥ t❤❡ z✲❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥✱ σ22(X, Y ) 6= 0✱ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ (X, Y ) ∈ V(r) ✐♠♣❧✐❡s t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛t ♠♦st t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ V(f) ❛♥❞ V(g) ♦✈❡r ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t (X, Y ) ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r✳ ❚❤✐s ♣r♦♣❡rt② ✐s ❝❧❡❛r ❢♦r r❡❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r✱ ✭B✷✮ ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡s t❤✐s ♣r♦♣❡rt② ❛❧s♦ ❢♦r t❤❡ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ r✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✇❡ ♦♥❧② ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s ✇❤♦s❡ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥ts ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r✲ s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ ❛t ❧❡❛st t✇♦ ❝✉r✈❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ✭s✐♠♣❧❡ s❡❧❢✲✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥s✮✳ ❚❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥✱ V(f )∩ V(g)✱ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ♦♥❧② r❡❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♠♣❧✐❡s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❤❛s ❛ ✇❡❧❧✲❞❡✜♥❡❞ t❛♥❣❡♥t ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ ✐ts ♣♦✐♥ts (X, Y, Z) ∈ V(f) ∩ V(g)✳ ❲❡ ❞❡♥♦t❡ F (x, y, z) = (f(x, y, z), g(x, y, z))T✳ ❆ r❡❣✉❧❛r ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ V(f) ∩ V(g)✱ ♦r ✐♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s ❛ r❡❣✉❧❛r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ F (x, y, z) = 0✱ ✐s ❛ ♣♦✐♥t (X, Y, Z) ∈ V(f) ∩ V(g) s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ (2 × 2) ♠✐♥♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ❏❛❝♦❜✐❡♥ ♠❛tr✐① ♦❢ F ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ✈❛♥✐s❤ ♦♥ (X, Y, Z)✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♣♦✐♥t (X, Y, Z) ∈ V(f) ∩ V(g) t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t tf∩g ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s ✇❡❧❧✲❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❝r♦ss ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t ✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t t❤✐s t❤✐r❞ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦ ∇(f) ❛♥❞ ∇(g) ❛r❡ ♥♦t ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧✳ ◆♦✇ ✇❡ t✉r♥ t♦ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✽ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❞♦♥❡ ✐♥ t✇♦ st❡♣s✳ ✸✳✶ Pr♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst ✐♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ W ⊂ V ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛❧✕✈❛r✐❡t②✕❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡ ✭s❡❡ ❆♣♣❡♥❞✐①✱ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✽✮✳ ▲❡t I ❞❡♥♦t❡s t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛❧ hr, ∂xr, ∂yri ⊂ A✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ V = V(I)✳ ❉✉❡ t♦ Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✹✵ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❛♥ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡st ❛✣♥❡ ✈❛r✐❡t② ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ W ✿ ❧❡t J ❜❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛❧ hσ11, σ10i:hσ22i∞⊂ A t❤❡♥ V(J) = V(σ11, σ10)− V(σ22) = W⊃ W ❜② Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✹✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✐♠ ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ I ⊂ J✱ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣❡r m > 0 s✉❝❤ t❤❛t hr, ∂xr, ∂yri · hσ22im ⊂ hσ11, σ10i✳ ❆❞❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧❧② ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✇r✐t❡ hr, ∂xr, ∂yri · hσ22im ❛s hrσ22m, ∂xrσ22m, ∂yrσ22mi✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✐t r❡♠❛✐♥s t♦ s❤♦✇ t❤❡ ✐♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ {rσ22m, ∂xrσ22m, ∂yrσ22m} ⊂ hσ11, σ10i ❢♦r s♦♠❡ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r m✳ ❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♣r♦♣❡rt② ❝❛♥ ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ❛s ❛ ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r② ♦❢ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶ ✐♥ ❬❑✲✷✵✵✸❪ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s ❍❛❜✐❝❤t t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭s❡❡ ❬❍✲✶✾✹✽❪✮✳ ❲❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t t❤✐s t❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦♥❧② ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❝❛s❡ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ✇♦r❦ ✭♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♣❛rt ✭✐✐✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜② t❛❦✐♥❣ j = 0 ❛♥❞ i = 1✮✳ ▲❡♠♠❛ ✾✳ ❬❑✲✷✵✵✸✱ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶❪ ❲❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❛s ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡s ❛♥❞
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✶✸ ❧❡t A ❜❡ t❤❡ r✐♥❣ ❣❡♥❡r❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡s❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❢♦r f, g ∈ A[z] t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡s d1≥ d2 ❛♥❞ d1 ≥ 3 ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ σ222· r = Res(Sres2, Sres1). ❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✶✵✳ σ222· r ∈ hσ10, σ11i ✐❢ d1 ≥ d2 ❛♥❞ d1 ≥ 3✳ Pr♦♦❢✳ ❚❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ s✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥ts ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② Sres1 = σ11z + σ10 ❛♥❞ Sres2 = σ22z2+ σ21z + σ20✳ ❚❤✉s Res(Sres2, Sres1) = σ22 σ11 σ21 σ10 σ11 σ20 σ10 = σ102σ22+ σ112σ20− σ10σ11σ21∈ A ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ✐♥ hσ10, σ11iA✳ ❯s✐♥❣ t❤✐s ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r②✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s♦♠❡ m s✉❝❤ t❤❛t {∂xrσ22m, ∂yrσ22m} ⊂ hσ11, σ10i ▲❡♠♠❛ ✶✶✳ ■❢ d1 ≥ d2✱ d1 ≥ 3 t❤❡♥ σ223· ∂xr ❛♥❞ σ223· ∂yr ❛r❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts hσ10, σ11iA✳ Pr♦♦❢✳ ❲❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t ❢♦r σ223· ∂xr✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ♠❡♠❜❡rs❤✐♣ ❤♦❧❞s ❛♥❛❧♦❣♦✉s❧②✳ ❇② t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r②✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✇r✐t❡ σ222 · r ❛s ❛♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ✐♥ (hσ10, σ11iA)2✿ σ222· r = ασ102+ βσ10σ11+ γσ112 ✇✐t❤ α, β, γ ∈ A✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ∂x(σ223r) = ∂x((ασ102+ βσ10σ11+ γσ112)σ22) = ∂x(ασ102σ22) + ∂x(βσ10σ11σ22) + ∂x(γσ112σ22) = 2σ10∂xσ10ασ22+ σ102∂x(ασ22) +σ10∂xσ11ασ22+ σ11∂xσ10ασ22+ σ10σ11∂x(ασ22) +2σ11∂xσ11ασ22+ σ112∂x(ασ22) = σ10♦1+ σ11♦2+ σ10σ11♦3 ✇✐t❤ ♦1,♦2,♦3 ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ✐♥ A✳ ❖♥ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❤❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ∂x(σ223r) = 3σ222∂xσ22r + σ223∂xr = 3∂xσ22(ασ102+ βσ10σ11+ γσ112) + σ223∂xr ❜② ❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✶✵✳ ❚❤✉s σ223∂xr = σ10(♦1− 3ασ10∂xσ22) + σ11(♦2− 3γσ11∂xσ22) + σ10σ11(♦3− 3β∂xσ22) ✐s ❝♦♥t❛✐♥❡❞ ✐♥ hσ10, σ11iA✳
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✶✹ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ {rσ222, ∂xrσ223, ∂yrσ223} ⊂ hσ11, σ10i ❢♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡s d1 ≥ d2✱ d1 ≥ 3✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐♠♣❧✐❡s hr, ∂xr, ∂yri · hσ22i3 ⊂ hσ11, σ10i✳ ❋✐♥❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡s ❞♦♥✬t ❝♦♥str❛✐♥ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts✿ ❋♦r d1 < d2 t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❞✐✛❡rs ❛t ♠♦st ✐♥ s♦♠❡ ❢❛❝t♦r (−1) ❛♥❞ ❢♦r d1< 3 t❤❡ s❝❛❧❛r s✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥t σ22✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ③❡r♦ ❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s ❤♦❧❞✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ I ⊂ J ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐♠♣❧✐❡s W ⊂ W ⊂ V ✳ ✸✳✷ Pr♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ V ⊂ W ❲❡ r❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t ✇❡ r❡q✉✐r❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✭B✶✮ t♦ ✭B✸✮ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤✐s ✐♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✳ ▲❡t (X, Y ) ∈ V ✱ t❤✉s r(X, Y ) = ∂xr(X, Y ) = ∂yr(X, Y ) = 0✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ σ22(x, y)6= 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ (x, y) ∈ V ❜② ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✭B✷✮ ✐t r❡♠❛✐♥s t♦ s❤♦✇ σ11(X, Y ) = σ10(X, Y ) = 0✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r σ11(X, Y ) = 0 t❤❡ ❡q✉❛❧✐t② σ10(X, Y ) = 0✐s ❛♥ ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣❛♣ str✉❝t✉r❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✻✮✳ ▲❡♠♠❛ ✶✷✳ ❋♦r (X, Y ) ∈ A s✉❝❤ t❤❛t r(X, Y ) = σ11(X, Y ) = 0 ✐t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ✐♠♠❡❞✐❛t❡❧② t❤❛t σ10(X, Y ) = 0✳ Pr♦♦❢✳ ❲❡ ✜① (X, Y ) ∈ A s✉❝❤ t❤❛t r(X, Y ) = σ11(X, Y ) = 0 ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r f ❛♥❞ g ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ s✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥ts ✐♥ A[z]✳ ■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❣❛♣ str✉❝t✉r❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♠✐♥✐♠❛❧ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ s✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥t Sresm ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❤❛s t♦ ❜❡ r❡❣✉❧❛r ❛♥❞ s✉❜r❡s✉❧t❛♥ts ♦❢ s♠❛❧❧❡r
❞❡❣r❡❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧❧② ✈❛♥✐s❤✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ Sres0 = Res = 0 ❛♥❞ σ11= 0❛♥❞ t❤✉s deg Sres1 < 1✱ ✐t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s
m≥ 2✳ ❚❤✉s σ10= 0✳ ◆♦✇ ✇❡ ♣r♦✈❡ σ11(X, Y ) = 0 ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ V(f) ∩ V(g)✳ ❲❡ ❞❡♥♦t❡ ❜② ∇f, ∇g t❤❡ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t ♦❢ f r❡s♣✳ g ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❞❡♥♦t❡ tf∩g := ∇f × ∇g t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ V(f ) ∩ V(g) ✇❤✐❝❤ ❡①✐sts ❜② ❤②♣♦t❤❡s✐s ✭B✸✮✳ ❇② ❤②♣♦t❤❡s✐s ✭B✶✮✱ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ✭❛♥❞ ❜② ❤②♣♦t❤❡s❡s ✭B✷✮ ❛t ♠♦st t✇♦✮ Z ∈ C s✉❝❤ t❤❛t (X, Y, Z) ∈ V(f, g)✳ ❲❡ ❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐s❤ t✇♦ ❝❛s❡s✿ ✭✶✮ V(f) ∩ V(g) ❤❛s ❛ ♥♦♥ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ t❛♥❣❡♥t ✐♥ (X, Y, Z) ♦r ✭✷✮ tf∩g(X, Y, Z)✐s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✱ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ tf∩g(X, Y, Z)k(0, 0, 1)T✳ ❚♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❝❛s❡ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶ ♦❢ ❬❇▼✲✷✵✵✼❪✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❣✐✈❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉✲ ❧❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❛✣♥❡ ❝❛s❡ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ❛✉t❤♦r✬s ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ✇❛s ✐♥ ❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s ❝❛s❡✳ ▲❡♠♠❛ ✶✸✳ ❬❇▼✲✷✵✵✼✱ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶❪ ▲❡t f1 ❛♥❞ f2 ❜❡ t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡s d1✱ r❡s♣ d2 ✐♥ x ❛♥❞ z ✇✐t❤ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ✐♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ❞♦♠❛✐♥ A1✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥ A1[x]✿ ∂xResz(f1, f2) = (−1)d1+d2 ∂xf1 ∂zf1 ∂xf2 ∂zf2 σ11 mod hf1, f2i.
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✶✺ ❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✶✹✳ ▲❡t (X, Y ) ∈ V(r, ∂xr, ∂yr) ❛♥❞ Z ∈ C s✉❝❤ t❤❛t (X, Y, Z) ∈ V(f, g) ❛♥❞ tf∩g(X, Y, Z) ♥♦t ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✳ ❚❤❡♥ σ11(X, Y ) = 0✳ Pr♦♦❢✳ ❋♦r ❡✈❡r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h ✇❡ ✇r✐t❡ bh ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ h ❛t (X, Y, Z)✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ tf∩g(X, Y, Z) = d ∂yf d∂zg− d∂zf d∂yg d ∂zf d∂xg− d∂xf d∂zg d ∂xf d∂yg− d∂yf d∂xg ✐s ♥♦t ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✱ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst t✇♦ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥ts ✐s ♥♦t ③❡r♦✳ ❲✳❧✳♦✳❣✳ ❧❡t d∂yf d∂zg− d∂zf d∂yg6= 0✳ ❇② ▲❡♠♠❛ ✶✸ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ∂yr = (−1)d1+d2 ∂yf ∂zf ∂yg ∂zg σ11+ αf + βg ❢♦r s♦♠❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s α, β ∈ C[x][y]✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤✐s ♦♥ (X, Y, Z) ✇❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥ d ∂yr = (−1)d1+d2(d∂yf d∂zg− d∂zf d∂yg)· cσ11+α bbf + bβbg = (−1)d1+d2 (d∂yf d∂zg− d∂zf d∂yg)· cσ11 ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ③❡r♦ s✐♥❝❡ (X, Y, Z) ∈ V(r, ∂xr, ∂yr)✳ ❚❤✉s σ11(X, Y, Z) = 0✳ ❚❤✐s ♣r♦♦❢ ♦♥❧② ✇♦r❦s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♥♦♥ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ t❛♥❣❡♥t✳ ■❢ tf∩g ✐s ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ z✲❛①✐s✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧❡♠♠❛✳ Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✶✺✳ ❬❑✲✷✵✵✸✱ ▲❡♠♠❛ ✸✳✶❪ ▲❡t (X, Y ) ∈ C2 ❛♥❞ A = C[x, y]✳ ❋♦r h ∈ A[z]✱ ✇❡ ❞❡♥♦t❡ h∗ := h(X, Y,·)✳ ▲❡t ✭B✶✮ ❜❡ s❛t✐s✜❡❞✱ t❤✉s ✇✳❧✳♦✳❣✳ fd1∗ 6= 0 ❛♥❞ deg f∗ = deg f = d1✳
▲❡t t := deg g∗✳ ❚❤❡♥ (Sresi(f, g))∗ = fdd12∗−tSresi(f∗, g∗) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ i ≤ deg t✳
◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❞❞r❡ss ✉s t♦ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❝❛s❡✳ ▲❡♠♠❛ ✶✻✳ ▲❡t (X, Y, Z) ∈ V(f, g) s✉❝❤ t❤❛t (X, Y ) ∈ V(r, ∂xr, ∂yr) ❛♥❞ tf∩g ✐s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✳ ❚❤❡♥ σ11(f, g)(X, Y ) = 0✳ Pr♦♦❢✳ ❯s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✶✹✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ tf∩g(X, Y, Z) = d ∂yf d∂zg− d∂zf d∂yg d ∂zf d∂xg− d∂xf d∂zg d ∂xf d∂yg− d∂yf d∂xg = 0 = 0 6= 0 ❲❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t✇♦ ❝❛s❡s✿
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✶✻ ✭✶✮ ❖♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦t❤ d∂zf ❛♥❞ d∂zg✱ ✐s ♥♦t ③❡r♦✳ ▲❡t d∂zg6= 0✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② d∂zg ❛♥❞ ♦❜t❛✐♥ d∂yf = d ∂zf d∂yg d ∂zg ❛♥❞ d∂xf = d ∂zf d∂xg d ∂zg ✳ ❇✉t t❤❡♥ d∂xf d∂yg = d∂yf d∂xg ✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝ts t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✳ ✭✷✮ d∂zf = 0❛♥❞ d∂zg = 0✳ ▲❡t h = hdzd+· · · + h0 ❜❡ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐♥ C[x, y][z]✱ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ hi ∈ C[x, y] ❢♦r ❛❧❧ i ∈ {0, . . . , d}✳ ❲❡ ✇r✐t❡ h∗ ❢♦r h(X, Y, ·) ❛s ✐♥ Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✶✺ ❛♥❞ h′ ❢♦r ∂zh✳ ❚❤❡♥ (h′)∗ = (d· hdzd−1+· · · + h1)(X, Y,·) = d· hd(X, Y )· zd−1+· · · + h1(X, Y ) = (hd(X, Y )· zd+· · · + h1(X, Y )z + h0(X, Y ))′ = (h∗)′. ❙✐♥❝❡ (X, Y, Z) ∈ V(f, g, ∂zf, ∂zg)✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ Z ∈ V(f∗, g∗, (f′)∗, (g′)∗)✇❤✐❝❤ ✐♠♣❧✐❡s (z −Z) ❞✐✈✐❞❡s f∗✱ g∗✱ (f′)∗ = (f∗)′ ❛♥❞ (g′)∗= (g∗)′✳ ❲❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥ deg(gcd(f∗, g∗))≥ multZ(gcd(f∗, g∗))≥ 2 ❛♥❞ ❤❡♥❝❡ σ11(f∗, g∗) = 0 ❜② ❚❤❡♦✲ r❡♠ ✹✼✳ ❇② Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✶✺ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ σ11(f, g)(X, Y ) = ♦ · σ11(f∗, g∗) = 0 ❢♦r s♦♠❡ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦ ∈ C✳ ❚❤✉s σ11[f, g](X, Y ) = 0✳ ❇② ❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✶✹ ❛♥❞ ▲❡♠♠❛ ✶✻ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ σ11(X, Y ) = 0 ❛♥❞ ▲❡♠♠❛ ✶✷ ✐♠♣❧✐❡s σ10(X, Y ) = 0✳ ❚❤✉s V ⊂ W ✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡s t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✽✱ ✭✷✮✳
❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❛r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t ♦❢ t✇♦ tr✐✈❛r✐❛t❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✶✼
