provide a platform for shared understanding of music’s affective quality (Pannese et al., 2016). In fact, metaphors may intervene at the inter- and intra-personal level.
The former resulting in a better communication of musical and affective meaning across individual, from the composer to the musician to the listener. The latter con-tributing possibly to the transition between emotion perception and induction (Pan-nese et al., 2016). Musical meaning is attributed to a specific type for metaphors, conceptual metaphors, based on the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT, (Lakoff
& Johnson, 1980)). In this theory, Lakoff and Johnson see metaphors as a pro-cess of “mapping” between a target domain, that one tries to understand, and a source domain, well known to the instigator of the metaphor. These mappings in the case of music feel natural since subjective experiences (e.g. music, emotions) are often hard to describe in non-metaphorical thoughts (Lakoff and Johnson (1999), p. 59). Conceptual metaphors in this way allow for the expression of ideas that would be difficult to formulate in a literal way and in the meantime, they provide a compact, rich, and vivid way to communicate complex information (Ortony, 1975).
Mappings between music and language in the form of conceptual metaphors depend on image-schematic structures that are common to the two domains (Zbikowski, 2008). Image-schemas are defined as “a recurring, dynamic pattern of our percep-tual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience” ((M. Johnson, 1987), xiv). They provide a theoretical basis to describe music with the use of metaphors grounded in embodied experience. However, since human nature is varied in many ways (e.g. languages, social circumstances, individ-ual propensities), metaphors are deeply subjective and show great inter-individindivid-ual differences (cf. (Sinha & De López, 2000)). Nevertheless, as observed by Zbikowski, it is unlikely that a participant would describe “the first note more like an apple, the second more like a banana” (Zbikowski (2002), p. 70). Consequently, this suggests that there are constrains in the creation of a concept, and that some universality might exist. In that regard, conceptual metaphors are central to music (Zbikowski, 2008) since they combine both physiological (universal) and cultural (contextual) aspects of music experience, for they act both as a cognitive process and as a cultural process (Maccormac (1985), pp. 5–6). A very good example of such cultural differ-ences can be found in metaphors associated with pitch. In the Western culture, since at least the Middle Ages, musical pitches are usually described in terms their dis-position in space (a pitch can be “higher” or lower than another) (Zbikowski, 2008).
However, many different cultures describe pitches differently: “small” vs. “large”
used in Bali and Java (Stone, 1981), “light” vs. “heavy” used by Kpelle people in Liberia (Stone, 1981), “young” vs. “old” used by the Suya people of the Amazon basin (Zbikowski, 1997), or “weak” vs. “strong” used by the Bashi people of central Africa (Merriam & Merriam, 1964). Mappings onto space is obviously not the only option in Western culture. Time and space have both been defined as the “essence”
of music (Clifton, 1983) . Acoustic features are also described in terms of motion through space (Eitan & Granot, 2006; Rigas & Alty, 2005), e.g. jump, ascend, and rise. Musicological writings are in fact dominated by metaphors referencing music as a continuous, unidirectional, forward movement across space (Cumming, 2000).
The relationship between music and motion is engrained within the physicality and embodiment of human experience of music (E. Clarke, 2001). So much so, that it could be regarded as a perceptual relationship. In fact, since sounds can help de-scribe (among other aspects) the motional characteristics of their source in everyday world, it is natural that music would also specify the movements and gestures that create the sound (E. Clarke, 2001). Children, for example, before being capable of expressing verbal metaphors, create music-motion analogies through movement.
3-year-olds are already capable of understanding tempo and dynamics with locomo-tive movements such as running and walking (McDonald & Simons, 1989; Moog, 1976; Sims, 1988). The human body is therefore seen as a natural mediator between subjective experience of music and physical reality of movement, as explained in the paradigm of embodied music cognition (Leman, 2008). In fact, meaning, in general, is also assumed to be grounded in embodied experience (Aksnes, 2002; Borgo, 2004a;
Chuck, 2004; A. Cox, 2001; M. L. Johnson, 1997; Walker, 2000).
Barsalou (2005) proposed a neuroscientific theory for the encoding and decoding of information contributing in the emergence of analogies and metaphors (Barsalou, 2005). It stated that the perception of a physical entity engages a number of coor-dinated feature detector, located in the sensorimotor areas, which are relevant to a given perceptual mode. In higher levels of the brain, conjunctive neurons, located in an association area, capture the patterns of activated feature detector neurons for later use. This allows the pattern to be reactivated even in the absence of the bottom up sensory stimulation. For example, when one tries to remember the per-ceived physical entity, conjunctive neurons will reenact the sensorimotor states that were active while encoding it (Barsalou (2005), p. 399). Under certain circum-stances, the configuration of properties and relationships captured for a simulator for a certain category may be applied to a different category. This gives rise to an analogical mappings between one domain and another. Consequently, music can
A.9. GOALS 37 produce brain maps that can be correlated with brain maps produced by different modalities (including taste, vision, proprioception, and smell). These correlations act as symbols or image schemas to form the basis of conceptual knowledge. They are deeply embodied. Finally, while one could associate a new concept with a lot of these images schema, as mentioned before, cultural knowledge might provide one constraint on which structures are chosen (Barsalou, 1999).
Importantly, not only do the conceptual metaphors play a role in music listening and performing, but also in music education (M. A. Guck, 1981). There are seen as a powerful tool for music theory and pedagogy (M. a. Guck, 1994a). Despite carrying the disadvantage of needing the students to share the same metaphorical language as their teacher (Persson, 1996), music educators wishfully endorsed us-ing metaphors in music teachus-ing (Lindström, Juslin, Bresin, & Williamon, 2003;
Woody, 1998). Furthermore, in many cases, musicians seem to be comfortable with such method (Sheldon, 2004; Woody, 2002). In addition, a better understanding of musical metaphors could be applied to therapeutic methods such as the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music (GIM, (R. Blake & Bishop, 1994)). In such approach, patients are encouraged and guided to experience visual imagery during music listening. The trained therapist can explore unconscious aspect of self and past traumas with such methods. GIM has been used successfully with persons with multiple personality disorder (Pickett, 1991; Pickett & Sonnen, 1993), post-traumatic stress disorder (R. Blake & Bishop, 1994; R. L. Blake, 1994), individuals recovering from physical, emotional, or sexual abuse (Borling, 1992; Rinker, 1991;
Tasney, 1993; Ventre, 1994). In general, it facilitate insight and cognitive reorga-nization (R. Blake & Bishop, 1994), and increase a sense of meaning (Wrangsjö &
Körlin, 1995).
A.9 Goals
As stated by Koelsch (2011), it is essential to understand that there is no objectivity in music (Koelsch, 2011). Although the production of sounds required objective and precise gestures, all other movements associated with music share a certain level of subjectivity. Music can elicit an impetus to move, but it falls onto the individual’s hands to decide to move. In the same way, understanding the music in terms of conceptual metaphors and producing expressive music are both bestowed onto the individual’s desire to do so. Finally, “being moved” by music is characterized by incredible individual and cultural differences. Knowing such limitation, our goal
in this present work is to explore the creation of meaning in music perception and production and the key role of motion in such process. Chapter 1 will explore the impact of the presence of a virtual audience onto the musician’s gestures and the audience appreciation of the performance. It will help understand what affects musical gestures and how they can be modelled. Chapter 2 will cover the brain regions associated with the perception of musical gestures with different amount of information available. It will also answer questions about musical training and gesture perception. Chapter 3-5 will feature the creation of a metaphor scale, its relationship with musical emotions, as well as its impact on musical gestures and the perception of a performance. It will link metaphorical movement to actual musical gestures. Overall, we aim to investigate musical motion, from production to perception, from metaphors to emotions, to be able to push our understanding of such a ubiquitous and crucial aspect of the musical experience.
Part II Studies 1-5
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