DISCUSSION 157 Force while Joyful activation is usually experience with a good measure of movement

Similarly, metaphors such as Wandering (described by "large spaces," "to leave," "to go for a walk," "to wander around," and "journey/trip") are associated with Valence, Wonder, and Joyful activation based on the wonders filling memories of adventurous journeys and the positive feeling associated with healthy pleasure such as going for a walk and wandering around. The metaphor of Flow (described by "harmonious,"

"rocking/swaying," "to float," "to glide," and "to dream") is associated with Peace-fulness, and Tenderness driven potentially on the experiential basis of the tender love of a mother rocking her child. Finally, Interior ("come undone/overwhelmed",

"deep/profound", "inside one’s self", and "internalize/internalization") is linked to Sadness and Nostalgia, based on the internalization of such feelings and the usual experience of these in the context of loneliness. The embodiment as the main frame-work to explain the link between emotions and metaphors in the context of musical meaning has already explored in two main aforementioned theories: the concep-tual blending (Fauconnier & Turner, 2008) and the multilevel grounding in musical semantics (Antović, 2018). The conceptual blending is the mapping of two input spaces, based on a generic space, that creates a blend from which additional meaning emerges. In the case of music, these input spaces have been associated on one hand with musical features (e.g. notes, performance gestures, musical structure) and on the other hand with different aspects of either an affective event (Spitzer, 2018) or an object/concept (e.g. path) (Antovic, 2015). The act of explaining one domain (or input space) in terms of another is founding ground of the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT, (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)). In such theory, a metaphor is defined as a cross-domain mapping in the conceptual system (Lakoff, 1993). These map-pings are based on dynamic cognitive constructs resulting from the embodiment of physical experiences, called image schemas. While not all conceptual metaphors are necessarily grounded in bodily experiences, most might (Goschler, 2005). Similarly, these embodied experiences could support cross-domain mappings with affective domains. Juslin, for the BRECVEMA system, defined emotions themselves as "em-bodied phenomena that serve to guide action" (P. N. Juslin, 2013). Consequently, both metaphors and emotions could share similar embodied cognitive structures linking them in a similar fashion to the music. In the second theory, the multilevel grounding in musical semantics, the elaboration of musical meaning is based on a hierarchical process covering successively physiological, image schematic, connota-tional, conceptual, elaborated cultural, and individual aspects (Antović, 2018). The third level, the connotation level, refers to emotions associated with images schemas.

For example, an ascending musical sequence (VERTICALITY) could be perceived as "majestic" (Cooke, 1959). The fourth level, the conceptual level, is entirely referential or extramusical, connecting music to the experience of the world and cre-ating conceptual metaphors. Both levels are based upon the image schematic level, referring to the embodied experiences. Consequently, looking at both theories, we suggest that embodied cognition might be at the basis of the link between musical metaphors and emotions in the context of musical meaning.

Another aspect of the musical experience is crucial to describe musical metaphors: the acoustic, perceptual, and physiological features. In this present work, they represent important descriptors of the musical metaphors. In multiple studies, acoustic and perceptual features have been associated with musical emo-tions (Gabrielsson and Juslin (1996), see review: (P. N. Juslin & Laukka, 2003)).

While they are neither sufficient nor necessary, the more cues present in the mu-sical excerpts, the more reliable the communication of an emotions (P. N. Juslin, 2000). In a way, music "affords" a certain emotional response, but cannot guarantee it (P. N. Juslin, 2013). These cues are therefore only probabilistic and can be cap-tured by the Lens Model, placing them at the interface between the music creator and listener (Brunswik, 1956; P. N. Juslin, 2000). They can be applied to musical metaphors in a similar fashion. Specific cues are associated in the present work to specific metaphors, associated with different correlations, and the relation between them is most likely probabilistic while this remains to be tested. Entrainment, specifically, is one of the eight mechanisms that directly elicits musical emotions in the BRECVEMA framework (P. N. Juslin, 2013). In similar ways that acoustic cues could be linked to both affects and metaphors, we believe that the importance of entrainment in the emergence of feelings during music listening (Labbé & Grand-jean, 2014) extend to the realm of musical metaphors. The entrainment scale is a major descriptor of each metaphor in this present work.

In the multi-dimensional scaling, our results were displayed onto two dimensions.

While the horizontal dimension seemed to refer to arousal (with higher arousal on the left), the vertical axis could be attributed to valence (with positive valence on top). Musical metaphors and emotions therefore seemed to fit onto a circumplex model (Russell, 1980). In the context of music, some researchers have even proposed an evaluative space model, where positive and negative valence could be activated independently, supporting the presence of ‘mixed’ musical emotions (Cacioppo, Gardner, & Berntson, 1997). Such dimensional models were also highlighted as the most efficient and reliable way of collecting and representing musical emotion

E.4. DISCUSSION 159 data (Vuoskoski & Eerola, 2011). Some authors disagree, preferring a classification approach (Zentner et al., 2008). While we do not suggest the solitary use of a dimensional model to describe musical metaphors and emotions, since this would result in the loss of complex and important nuances, this work supports such model as a supplementary conceptual basis or a kind of basic building block to describe the link between musical metaphors, emotions, acoustics, and perceptual features.

While we think experimenters should get the most nuanced opinion from their par-ticipants by asking free responses, in practicality, we suggest they use at least a combination of the GEMS and GEMMES. In doing so, they should know that the dimensional model is embedded in such scales. If, in any case, the researchers aim to collect quick and less nuanced data, we recommend the use of a dimensional model that constitutes a building block of both scales.

In this work, we have demonstrated that musical meaning in the form of metaphors and emotions can be extracted from Western classical excerpts. Fur-thermore, we highlighted that both musical metaphors and emotions seem to be connected in certain ways. Going back to the different theories introduced, we want to provide link these results to what other researchers have theorized. Concerning the BRECVEMA, visual imagery, one of the eight mechanisms eliciting emotions when listening to music, seems to be a subset of all the cross-domain mappings possible (P. N. Juslin, 2013). Indeed, its visual nature is somewhat limiting the diversity of possible metaphors elicited by music. Moreover, the mechanism appears at the same time as music listening, while the metaphorical meaning of a piece can be explored after listening. Despite these limitations, we have shown that metaphors are associated with different emotions, as it is assumed by the BRECVEMA model.

The directionality and timing of such interaction could unfortunately not be ob-served in this study and remains an important point to clarify in future research.

As hinted by Koelsch, listeners were also able to decode the extra-musical meaning associated with our excerpts, both the iconic and indexal signs (Koelsch, 2011). The coherence in their answers points at the ability of our participants to pick up on the same characteristics in music, such as acoustic and perceptual cues. The last two theories, the conceptual blending and the hierarchical system of six contextual con-straints, states the metaphors as a primary building block to explain meaning and musical emotions. Once again, the order of the mechanisms by which the creation of meaning occurs could not be studied in this assessment. Future studies could focus on the temporality of musical emotions and metaphors, as they most likely evolve over time, similar to emotional prosody (Pell & Kotz, 2011; Schaerlaeken &

Grandjean, 2018).

Experts in music can benefit greatly from the results of this study. Metaphorical and emotional language as well as meaning in general has been the cornerstone of multiple disciplines such as music writing and music education. On the one hand, music writings are generally guided by conceptual models best explained through metaphors (Zbikowski, 1983). Music analysts engage musical works in different ways, creating very different portrayals of involvement (M. a. Guck, 1994b). Edward T Cone claims for example that music depicts the thoughts of a human intelligence, the composer’s persona (Cone, 1974). Consequently, music can be imagined as this persona conducting such or such actions. Aside from musical writings demon-strating the power of metaphors, text painting, despite being a somewhat rarefied compositional technique, points to the basis for metaphorical descriptions of mu-sic (Zbikowski, 2008). Erik Satie, a composer, frequently uses text painting to describe a feeling, or an action, such as "Wonder about yourself", "don’t leave", "on the tip of the tongue". This figurative language conveys how the piece should be place, in fine heard, and persuades students to aim for a certain experience and mode of performance (Barten, 1998). On the other hand, in music education, metaphor-ical and emotional language plays a central role, especially conceptual metaphors linked to space and gesture (M. A. Guck, 1981). They have been shown to be an especially effective theoretical and pedagogical tool (M. a. Guck, 1994b). Music teachers uses images and metaphors can usually be divided into those that convey mood and emotions (e.g., "sing like you’ve just fallen in love") and those that depict motion (e.g., "imagine skipping a stone across a lake") (Woody, 2002). Music edu-cators recommend the use of this approach (Lindström et al., 2003; Woody, 1998), and musicians have shown themselves to be comfortable using it (Sheldon, 2004;

Woody, 2002)). It is argued that classical teaching method such as aural modelling or verbal instruction focused on concrete sound properties can gain from being com-bined to metaphor (Woody, 2006). "The metaphor helps the student attain an emergent multidimensional grasp of the music. . . The metaphor creates an affective state within which the performer can attempt to match the model" (L. Davidson and Scripp (1989), p. 95). Furthermore, research on communication of emotion might be used by music teachers to enhance performers’ expressivity (P. N. Juslin

& Persson, 2002). In more contemporary aspects, we urge music providers (e.g.

Apple music, Pandora Radio, Spotify, Google play music) to classify their enormous library of songs using musical emotions and metaphors. All in all, while our re-sults emerge from an intrapersonal perspective, where the listener faces the music

E.4. DISCUSSION 161