Malgré l’amélioration de nos connaissances sur les processus biologiques influençant la répartition des espèces et des communautés de petits mammifères et de coléoptères durant la succession forestière, plusieurs questions n’ont pas été abordées et d’autres ont surgi au cours de l’étude. Par exemple, l’objectif du chapitre 1 était de comprendre l’impact des perturbations anthropiques sur la composition et la structuration des communautés le long de la succession. Néanmoins, les principales perturbations naturelles de l’aire d’étude sont les feux de forêts (Bouchard et al., 2008), une perturbation que je n’ai pas échantillonnée. Puisque les stratégies de gestion écosystémique des forêts tentent de maintenir la biodiversité de l’écosystème en développant des pratiques sylvicoles similaires aux perturbations naturelles (Gauthier et al., 2010b), il serait intéressant d’avoir plus d’informations sur les processus régissant la répartition des espèces durant la succession après un feu de forêt, et de pouvoir comparer ces processus avec ceux après coupe. De plus, on sait que le paysage adjacent peut influencer les coléoptères (Janssen et al., 2009), il est donc possible que l’hétérogénéité naturelle de la matrice de paysage contribuent à la diversité des communautés de coléoptères et des petits mammifères en forêt boréale. On pourrait donc également prendre en compte la matrice environnante dans les analyses de communautés.
Nous n’avons pas observé de différences dans les assemblages de coléoptères et de petits mammifères entre les coupes de 5 à 20 ans après coupes et les peuplements non coupés. La similarité dans les communautés que nous avons observée entre les coupes récentes et les forêts anciennes suggère que les assemblages d'espèces dans les jeunes coupes seraient composés principalement de populations résiduelles d'espèces
106
forestières matures (Niemelä et al., 1993; Pohl et al., 2007). On pourrait éventuellement échantillonner sur cet intervalle de temps en particulier pour avoir plus de détails, ou il serait également intéressant de faire un suivi temporel de la biodiversité dans nos sites de coupes récentes pour mieux comprendre les changements des communautés et des processus biologiques les structurant.
Notre compréhension des interactions entre le campagnol à dos roux et ses prédateurs durant la succession repose en grande partie sur des études qui ne sont pas toutes conduites en forêt boréale de l’Est du Canada (Halle, 1988; Widén, 1994; Sulkava & Huhtala, 1997) Or, il pourrait y avoir d’importantes différences dans les facteurs qui influencent la dynamique des populations régionales et la répartition du campagnol. Il serait intéressant de réaliser des études sur les prédateurs aviaires et terrestres afin de déterminer le rôle précis que jouent les prédateurs dans la régulation des populations de campagnols et de souris durant les différents stades de succession de la forêt boréale. Par exemple, les campagnols sont-ils plus efficacement prélevés par les prédateurs aviaires en début de succession caractérisée par une canopée peu dense qui semble offrir une faible protection ; ou au contraire cela permet-il de les détecter plus facilement ? De même, les prédateurs terrestres sont-ils plus efficaces que les prédateurs aviaires en fin de succession ? Des études portant sur le taux de survie, la reproduction et les causes de mortalité du campagnol et de la souris durant les différents stades de succession dans les forêts boréales pourraient grandement améliorer notre compréhension des processus qui contribuent aux variations observées dans la dynamique des populations du campagnol.
Bien qu’il reste de nombreuses questions de recherche à prendre en compte, mes travaux ont permis de mieux comprendre comment les processus stochastiques, l’hétérogénéité de l’habitat, la prédation, la compétition inter- et intraspécifiques peuvent influencer la répartition des espèces et l’organisation des communautés le long d’un gradient de succession après coupe forestière. Toutes ces questions soulevées devraient nous permettre d’encore mieux comprendre les processus régissant la biodiversité en forêt boréale.
108
Bibliographie
Allard-Duchêne, A., Pothier, D., Dupuch, A., & Fortin, D. (2014) Temporal changes in habitat use by snowshoe hares and red squirrels during post-fire and post- logging forest succession. Forest Ecology and Management, 313, 17–25. Amarasekare, P. (2003) Competitive coexistence in spatially structured environments:
a synthesis. Ecology letters, 6, 1109–1122.
Andersen, A.N. (1991) Responses of ground-foraging ant communities to three experimental fire regimes in a savanna forest of tropical Australia. Biotropica,
23, 575.
Andruskiw, M., Fryxell, J.M., Thompson, I.D., & Baker, J.A. (2008) Habitat-mediated variation in predation risk by the American marten. Ecology, 89, 2273–2280. Angers, V.A., Messier, C., Beaudet, M., & Leduc, A. (2005) Comparing composition
and structure in old-growth and harvested (selection and diameter-limit cuts) northern hardwood stands in Quebec. Forest Ecology and Management, 217, 275–293.
Attiwill, P. (1994) The Disturbance of Forest Ecosystems - the Ecological Basis for Conservative Management. Forest Ecology and Management, 63, 247–300. Aubin, I., Venier, L., Pearce, J., & Moretti, M. (2013) Can a trait-based multi-taxa
approach improve our assessment of forest management impact on biodiversity? Biodiversity and Conservation, 22, 2957–2975.
Azeria, E.T., Fortin, D., Lemaître, J., Janssen, P., Hébert, C., Darveau, M., & Cumming, S.G. (2009) Fine-scale structure and cross-taxon congruence of bird and beetle assemblages in an old-growth boreal forest mosaic. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 18, 333–345.
Azeria, E.T., Ibarzabal, J., & Hébert, C. (2012) Effects of habitat characteristics and interspecific interactions on co-occurrence patterns of saproxylic beetles breeding in tree boles after forest fire: null model analyses. Oecologia, 168, 1123–1135.
Bakker, V.J. (2006) Microhabitat features influence the movements of red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) on unfamiliar ground. Journal of Mammalogy, 87, 124–130.
Beauvais, G.P. & Buskirk, S.W. (1999) Modifying estimates of sampling effort to account for sprung traps. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 27, 39–43.
Begon, M., Townsend, C.R., & Harper, J.L. (2009) Ecology: from individuals to ecosystems. Wiley,
Belyea, L.R. & Lancaster, J. (1999) Assembly rules within a contingent ecology. Oikos,
86, 402.
Bengtsson, J., Nilsson, S.G., Franc, A., & Menozzi, P. (2000) Biodiversity, disturbances, ecosystem function and management of European forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 132, 39–50.
Bergeron, Y., Leduc, A., & Gauthier, S. (1999) Forest management guidelines based on natural disturbance dynamics: stand-and forest-level considerations. The Forestry Chronicle, 75, 49–54.
Bergeron, Y., Cyr, D., Drever, C.R., Flannigan, M., Gauthier, S., Kneeshaw, D., Lauzon, È., Leduc, A., Goff, H.L., Lesieur, D., & Logan, K. (2006) Past,
109
current, and future fire frequencies in Quebec’s commercial forests: implications for the cumulative effects of harvesting and fire on age-class structure and natural disturbance-based management. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 36, 2737–2744.
Bichet, O., Dupuch, A., Hébert, C., Le Borgne, H., & Fortin, D. (2016) Maintaining animal assemblages through single-species management: the case of threatened caribou in boreal forest. Ecological Applications, 26, 612–623.
Boitani, L. & Fuller, T.K. (2000) Research techniques in animal ecology: controversies and consequences. Columbia University Press.
Boonstra, R. & Craine, I.T.M. (1986) Natal nest location and small mammal tracking with a spool and line technique. Canadian Journal of Zoology-Revue Canadienne De Zoologie, 64, 1034–1036.
Boonstra, R. & Krebs, C.J. (2006) Population limitation of the northern red-backed vole in the boreal forests of northern Canada. Journal of Animal Ecology, 75, 1269–1284.
Bouchard, M., Pothier, D., & Gauthier, S. (2008) Fire return intervals and tree species succession in the North Shore region of eastern Quebec. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 38, 1621–1633.
Bouchard, M. & Pothier, D. (2011) Long-term influence of fire and harvesting on boreal forest age structure and forest composition in eastern Quebec. Forest Ecology and Management, 261, 811–820.
Bouchard, M. & Garet, J. (2014) A framework to optimize the restoration and retention of large mature forest tracts in managed boreal landscapes. Ecological Applications, 24, 1689–1704.
Boucher, J., Azeria, E.T., Ibarzabal, J., & Hébert, C. (2012) Saproxylic beetles in disturbed boreal forests: temporal dynamics, habitat associations, and community structure. Ecoscience, 19, 328–343.
Boucher, D., De Grandpré, L., Kneeshaw, D., St-Onge, B., Ruel, J.-C., Waldron, K., & Lussier, J.-M. (2015) Effects of 80 years of forest management on landscape structure and pattern in the eastern Canadian boreal forest. Landscape Ecology,
30, 1913–1929.
Boulet, M., Darveau, M., & Bèlanger, L. (2000) A landscape perspective of bird nest predation in a managed boreal black spruce forest. Écoscience, 7, 281–289. Boulet, M., Darveau, M., & Bélanger, L. (2003) Nest predation and breeding activity
of songbirds in riparian and nonriparian black spruce strips of central Quebec. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 33, 922–930.
Brooks, T.M., Mittermeier, R.A., da Fonseca, G.A.B., Gerlach, J., Hoffmann, M., Lamoreux, J.F., Mittermeier, C.G., Pilgrim, J.D., & Rodrigues, A.S.L. (2006) Global biodiversity conservation priorities. Science, 313, 58–61.
Brown, J. (1988) Patch use as an indicator of habitat preference, predation risk, and competition. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 22, 37–47.
Brown, J.S., Arel, Y., Abramsky, Z., & Kotler, B.P. (1992) Patch use by gerbils (Gerbillus allenbyi) in sandy and rocky habitats. Journal of Mammalogy, 73, 821–829.
Brown, J.S. & Kotler, B.P. (2004) Hazardous duty pay and the foraging cost of predation. Ecology Letters, 7, 999–1014.
110
Buddle, C.M., Spence, J.R., & Langor, D.W. (2000) Succession of boreal forest spider assemblages following wildfire and harvesting. Ecography, 23, 424–436. Buddle, C.M., Langor, D.W., Pohl, G.R., & Spence, J.R. (2006) Arthropod responses
to harvesting and wildfire: implications for emulation of natural disturbance in forest management. Biological Conservation, 128, 346–357.
Burnham, K.P. & Anderson, D.R. (2002) Model selection and multimodel inference: a practical information-theoretic approach. Springer.
Environment Canada. (2012) Recovery strategy for the woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), boreal population in Canada. Environment Canada.
Cardoni, D.A., Favero, M., & Isacch, J.P. (2008) Recreational activities affecting the habitat use by birds in Pampa’s wetlands, Argentina: Implications for waterbird conservation. Biological Conservation, 141, 797–806.
Caro, T. (2007) Behavior and conservation: a bridge too far? Trends in ecology & evolution, 22, 394–400.
Chapin, F.S., Zavaleta, E.S., Eviner, V.T., Naylor, R.L., Vitousek, P.M., Reynolds, H.L., Hooper, D.U., Lavorel, S., Sala, O.E., Hobbie, S.E., Mack, M.C., & Díaz, S. (2000) Consequences of changing biodiversity. Nature, 405, 234–242. Charnov, E.L. (1976) Optimal foraging, the marginal value theorem. Theoretical
Population Biology, 9, 129–136.
Chase, J.M. (2007) Drought mediates the importance of stochastic community assembly. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 17430–17434.
Chen, H.L. & Koprowski, J.L. (2015) Animal occurrence and space use change in the landscape of anthropogenic noise. Biological Conservation, 192, 315–322. Cheveau, M., Drapeau, P., Imbeau, L., & Bergeron, Y. (2004) Owl winter irruptions as
an indicator of small mammal population cycles in the boreal forest of eastern North America. Oikos, 107, 190–198.
Clarke, J.A. (1983) Moonlight’s influence on predator/prey interactions between short- eared owls (Asio flammeus) and deermice (Peromyscus maniculatus). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 13, 205–209.
Clavero, M., Brotons, L., & Herrando, S. (2011) Bird community specialization, bird conservation and disturbance: the role of wildfires. Journal of Animal Ecology,
80, 128–136.
Connell, J.H. (1978) Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs - high diversity of trees and corals is maintained only in a non-equilibrium state. Science, 199, 1302–1310.
Cook, L.M., Grant, B.S., Saccheri, I.J., & Mallet, J. (2012) Selective bird predation on the peppered moth: the last experiment of Michael Majerus. Biology Letters, 8, 609–612.
Courchamp, F., Dunne, J.A., Le Maho, Y., May, R.M., Thébaud, C., & Hochberg, M.E. (2015) Fundamental ecology is fundamental. Trends in Ecology & Evolution,
30, 9–16.
Courtois, R., Ouellet, J.-P., Dussault, C., & Gingras, A. (2004) Forest management guidelines for forest-dwelling caribou in Québec. The Forestry Chronicle, 80, 598–607.
Craiu, R. V, Duchesne, T., Fortin, D., & Baillargeon, S. (2011) Conditional logistic regression with longitudinal follow-up and individual-level random
111
coefficients: a stable and efficient two-step estimation method. Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics, 20, 767–784.
Crête, M., Crête, M., Drolet, B., Huot, J., Fortin, M.-J., Fortin, M.-J., & Doucet, G.J. (1995) Chronoséquence après feu de la diversité de mammifères et d’oiseaux au nord de la forêt boréale québécoise. Canadian Journal of Forest Research,
25, 1509–1518.
Cronbach, L.J. (1987) Statistical tests for moderator variables: flaws in analyses recently proposed. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 414–417.
Donohue, I., Petchey, O.L., Montoya, J.M., Jackson, A.L., McNally, L., Viana, M., Healy, K., Lurgi, M., O’Connor, N.E., & Emmerson, M.C. (2013) On the dimensionality of ecological stability. Ecology Letters, 16, 421–429.
Drost, C.A. & Fellers, G.M. (1991) Density cycles in an island population of deer mice, Peromyscus maniculatus. Oikos, 60, 351–364.
Duchesne, T., Fortin, D., & Rivest, L.-P. (2015) Equivalence between step selection functions and biased correlated random walks for statistical inference on animal movement. PLoS One, 10, e0122947.
Dupuch, A., Morris, D.W., & Halliday, W.D. (2013) Patch use and vigilance by sympatric lemmings in predator and competitor-driven landscapes of fear. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 68, 299–308.
Efron, B. & Tibshirani, R.J. (1994) An Introduction to the Bootstrap. Chapman and Hall/CRC.
Ellwood, M.D.F., Manica, A., & Foster, W.A. (2009) Stochastic and deterministic processes jointly structure tropical arthropod communities. Ecology letters, 12, 277–284.
Englund, G., Johansson, F., Olofsson, P., Salonsaari, J., & Öhman, J. (2009) Predation leads to assembly rules in fragmented fish communities. Ecology letters, 12, 663–671.
Fauchald, P. & Tveraa, T. (2003) Using first-passage time in the analysis of area- restricted search and habitat selection. Ecology, 84, 282–288.
Fauteux, D., Imbeau, L., Drapeau, P., & Mazerolle, M.J. (2012) Small mammal responses to coarse woody debris distribution at different spatial scales in managed and unmanaged boreal forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 266, 194–205.
Fauteux, D., Cheveau, M., Imbeau, L., & Drapeau, P. (2015) Cyclic dynamics of a boreal southern red-backed vole population in northwestern Quebec. Journal of Mammalogy, 96, 573–578.
Fisher, J.T. & Wilkinson, L. (2005) The response of mammals to forest fire and timber harvest in the North American boreal forest. Mammal Review, 35, 51–81. Fortin, D., Beyer, H.L., Boyce, M.S., Smith, D.W., Duchesne, T., & Mao, J.S. (2005)
Wolves influence elk movements: behavior shapes a trophic cascade in Yellowstone National Park. Ecology, 86, 1320–1330.
Fortin, D., Courtois, R., Etcheverry, P., Dussault, C., & Gingras, A. (2008) Winter selection of landscapes by woodland caribou: behavioural response to geographical gradients in habitat attributes. Journal of Applied Ecology, 45, 1392–1400.
112
Fourrier, A., Pothier, D., & Bouchard, M. (2013) A comparative study of long-term stand growth in eastern Canadian boreal forest: Fire versus clear-cut. Forest Ecology and Management, 310, 10–18.
Franklin, J.F., Spies, T.A., Pelt, R. Van, Carey, A.B., Thornburgh, D.A., Berg, D.R., Lindenmayer, D.B., Harmon, M.E., Keeton, W.S., Shaw, D.C., Bible, K., & Chen, J. (2002) Disturbances and structural development of natural forest ecosystems with silvicultural implications, using Douglas-fir forests as an example. Forest Ecology and Management, 155, 399–423.
Freitas, C., Kovacs, K.M., Lydersen, C., & Ims, R.A. (2008) A novel method for quantifying habitat selection and predicting habitat use. Journal of Applied Ecology, 45, 1213–1220.
Fretwell, S.D. & Lucas, H.L. (1970) On territorial behaviour and other factors influencing habitat distribution in birds. I. Theoretical development. Acta Biotheoretica, 19, 16–36.
Fuller, A.K., Harrison, D.J., & Lachowski, H.J. (2004) Stand scale effects of partial harvesting and clearcutting on small mammals and forest structure. Forest Ecology and Management, 191, 373–386.
Gauthier, S., Boucher, D., Morissette, J., & De Grandpré, L. (2010a) Fifty-seven years of composition change in the eastern boreal forest of Canada. Journal of Vegetation Science, 21, 772–785.
Gauthier, S., Vaillancourt, M.-A., Leduc, A., De Grandpré, L., Kneeshaw, D., Morin, H., Drapeau, P., & Bergeron, Y. (2010b) Aménagement écosystémique en forêt boréale. Presses de l’Université du Québec.
Getz, L.L. (1968) Influence of water balance and microclimate on local distribution of redback vole and white-footed mouse. Ecology, 49, 276–286.
Gibb, H. (2011) Experimental evidence for mediation of competition by habitat succession. Ecology, 92, 1871–1878.
Godvik, I.M.R., Loe, L.E., Vik, J.O., Veiberg, V., Langvatn, R., & Mysterud, A. (2009) Temporal scales, trade-offs, and functional responses in red deer habitat selection. Ecology, 90, 699–710.
Gotelli, N.J. (2000) Null model analysis of species co-occurrence patterns. Ecology,
81, 2606–2621.
Gotelli, N.J. & Ellison, A.M. (2002) Assembly rules for new England ant assemblages. Oikos, 99, 591–599.
Gravel, D., Canham, C.D., Beaudet, M., & Messier, C. (2006) Reconciling niche and neutrality: the continuum hypothesis. Ecology letters, 9, 399–409.
Grime, J.P. (1973) Competitive exclusion in herbaceous vegetation. Nature, 242, 344– 347.
Hakkarainen, H., Korpimaki, E., Koivunen, V., & Kurki, S. (1997) Boreal Owl responses to forest management: A review. Journal of Raptor Research, 31, 125–128.
Hall, L.S., Krausrnan, P.R., & Morrison, M.L. (1997) The habitat concept and a plea for standard terminology. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 25, 173–182.
Halle, S. (1988) Avian predation upon a mixed community of common voles (Microtus arvalis) and wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus). Oecologia, 75, 451–455.
113
Halliday, W.D. & Morris, D.W. (2013) Safety from predators or competitors? Interference competition leads to apparent predation risk. Journal of Mammalogy, 94, 1380–1392.
Hart, S.A. & Chen, H.Y.H. (2006) Understory vegetation dynamics of North American boreal forests. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 25, 381–397.
Hastings, D.A. & Gross, D.L. (2012) Encyclopedia of theoretical ecology. University of California Press,
Hebblewhite, M. & Merrill, E. (2007) Modelling wildlife-human relationships for social species with mixed-effects resource selection models. Journal of Applied Ecology, 45, 834–844.
Heyborne, W.H., Miller, J.C., & Parsons, G.L. (2003) Ground dwelling beetles and forest vegetation change over a 17-year-period, in western Oregon, USA. Forest Ecology and Management, 179, 123–134.
Hill, J.K. & Hamer, K.C. (2004) Determining impacts of habitat modification on diversity of tropical forest fauna: the importance of spatial scale. Journal of Applied Ecology, 41, 1413–1424.
Hodson, J., Fortin, D., & Belanger, L. (2010a) Fine-scale disturbances shape space-use patterns of a boreal forest herbivore. Journal of Mammalogy, 91, 607–619. Hodson, J., Fortin, D., Le Blanc, M.L., & Belanger, L. (2010b) An appraisal of the
fitness consequences of forest disturbance for wildlife using habitat selection theory. Oecologia, 164, 73–86.
Hodson, J., Fortin, D., & Belanger, L. (2011) Changes in relative abundance of snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) across a 265-year gradient of boreal forest succession. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 89, 908–920.
Holling, C. (1973) Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual review of ecology and systematics, 4, 1–23.
Holmes, R.T. & Robinson, S.K. (1981) Tree species preferences of foraging insectivorous birds in a northern hardwoods forest. Oecologia, 48, 31–35. Holt, R.D. (1977) Predation, apparent competition, and structure of prey communities.
Theoretical Population Biology, 12, 197–229.
Holt, R.D. & Kotler, B.P. (1987) Short-term apparent competition. The American Naturalist, 130, 412–430.
Hooper, D.U., Chapin, F.S., Ewel, J.J., Hector, A., Inchausti, P., Lavorel, S., Lawton, J.H., Lodge, D.M., Loreau, M., Naeem, S., Schmid, B., Setälä, H., Symstad, A.J., Vandermeer, J., & Wardle, D.A. (2005) Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge. Ecological Monographs, 75, 3–35.
Hubbell, S.P. (2001) The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography (MPB-32). Princeton University Press.
Hutchinson, G.E. (1957) Population studies - animal ecology and demography - concluding remarks. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology,
22, 415–427.
Imbeau, L., Monkkonen, M., & Desrochers, A. (2001) Long-term effects of forestry on birds of the eastern canadian boreal forests: a comparison with Fennoscandia. Conservation Biology, 15, 1151–1162.
Indermaur, L., Schaub, M., Jokela, J., Tockner, K., & Schmidt, B.R. (2010) Differential response to abiotic conditions and predation risk rather than competition
114
avoidance determine breeding site selection by Anurans. Ecography, 33, 887– 895.
Jain, M. & Balakrishnan, R. (2011) Microhabitat selection in an assemblage of crickets (Orthoptera: Ensifera) of a tropical evergreen forest in southern India. Insect Conservation and Diversity, 4, 152–158.
Janssen, P., Fortin, D., & Hebert, C. (2009) Beetle diversity in a matrix of old-growth boreal forest: influence of habitat heterogeneity at multiple scales. Ecography,
32, 423–432.
Janssen, P., Hébert, C., & Fortin, D. (2011) Biodiversity conservation in old-growth boreal forest: black spruce and balsam fir snags harbour distinct assemblages of saproxylic beetles. Biodiversity and Conservation, 20, 2917–2932.
Jobin, L.J., Coulombe, C., Canada. Forestry Canada. Quebec Region., & Laurentian Forestry Centre. (1988) The Multi-Pher® insect trap. [Forestry Canada, Quebec Region, Laurentian Forestry Centre].
Johnson, D.R., Swanson, B.J., & Eger, J.L. (2000) Cyclic dynamics of eastern Canadian ermine populations. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 78, 835–839. Jones, M., Mandelik, Y., & Dayan, T. (2001) Coexistence of temporally partitioned
spiny mice: roles of habitat structure and foraging behavior. Ecology, 82, 2164– 2176.
Kearney, N., Handasyde, K., Ward, S., & Kearney, M. (2007) Fine-scale microhabitat selection for dense vegetation in a heathland rodent, Rattus lutreolus: Insights from intraspecific and temporal patterns. Austral Ecology, 32, 315–325. Klenner, W. & Sullivan, T.P. (2009) Partial and clearcut harvesting of dry Douglas-fir
forests: implications for small mammal communities. Forest Ecology and Management, 257, 1078–1086.
Knight, T.W. & Morris, D.W. (1996) How many habitats do landscapes contain? Ecology, 77, 1756–1764.
Koivula, M. & Niemelä, J. (2002) Boreal carabid beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae) in managed spruce forests – a summary of Finnish case studies. Silva Fennica, 36, 573.
Koivula, M. & Niemelä, J. (2003) Gap felling as a forest harvesting method in boreal forests: responses of carabid beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae). Ecography, 26, 179–187.
Kotler, B.P. & Brown, J.S. (1988) Environmental heterogeneity and the coexistence of desert rodents. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 19, 281–307. Kotler, B.P. & Brown, J.S. (1999) Mechanisms of coexistence of optimal foragers as
determinants of local abundances and distributions of desert granivores. Journal of Mammalogy, 80, 361–374.
Kotler, B.P., Brown, J.S., & Bouskila, A. (2004) Apprehension and time allocation in gerbils: the effects of predatory risk and energetic state. Ecology, 85, 917–922. Krebs, C.J. (2001) Ecology: The experimental analysis of distribution and abundance.
Pearson.
Kuusela, K. (1992) The boreal forests: an overview. Unasylva (FAO).
Lagos, V.O., Contreras, L.C., Meserve, P.L., Gutiérrez, J.R., Jaksic, F.M., & Gutierrez, J.R. (1995) Effects of predation risk on space use by small mammals: a field experiment with a Neotropical rodent. Oikos, 74, 259.
115
Larsen, S. & Ormerod, S.J. (2014) Anthropogenic modification disrupts species co- occurrence in stream invertebrates. Global change biology, 20, 51–60.
Lazarus, J. & Symonds, M. (1992) Contrasting effects of protective and obstructive cover on avian vigilance. Animal Behaviour, 43, 519–521.
Le Blanc, M.L., Fortin, D., Darveau, M., & Ruel, J.C. (2010) Short term response of small mammals and forest birds to silvicultural practices differing in tree retention in irregular boreal forests. Ecoscience, 17, 334–342.
Lecomte, N., Careau, V., Gauthier, G., & Giroux, J.F. (2008) Predator behaviour and predation risk in the heterogeneous Arctic environment. Journal of Animal Ecology, 77, 439–447.
Légaré, J.-P., Hébert, C., & Ruel, J.-C. (2011) Alternative silvicultural practices in irregular boreal forests: response of beetle assemblages. Silva Fennica, 45, 937–956.
Leibold, M.A. (1996) A graphical model of keystone predators in food webs: trophic regulation of abundance, incidence, and diversity patterns in communities. The American Naturalist, 147, 784–812.
Lemaître, J., Fortin, D., Morris, D.W., & Darveau, M. (2010) Deer mice mediate red- backed vole behaviour and abundance along a gradient of habitat alteration. Evolutionary Ecology Research, 12, 203–216.
Lima, S.L. & Dill, L.M. (1990) Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation - a review and prospectus. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 68, 619–640.
Lindenmayer, D.B., Franklin, J.F., & Fischer, J. (2006) General management principles and a checklist of strategies to guide forest biodiversity conservation. Biological Conservation, 131, 433–445.
Loretto, D. & Vieira, M.V. (2005) The effects of reproductive and climatic seasons on movements in the black-eared opossum (Didelphis aurita wied-neuwied, 1826). Journal of Mammalogy, 86, 287–293.
Losier, C.L., Couturier, S., St-Laurent, M.-H., Drapeau, P., Dussault, C., Rudolph, T., Brodeur, V., Merkle, J.A., & Fortin, D. (2015) Adjustments in habitat selection to changing availability induce fitness costs for a threatened ungulate. Journal