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Fire resistance of reinforced concrete columns and walls
S e r
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li21d
dational Research
Conseil national
no.
784
huncil Canada
de recherches Canada
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A W E D
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FIRE RESISTANCE OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE COLUMNS AND WALLS
by David
E.
Allen and TiamT.
LieReprinted, with permission, from
Proceedings of the Canadian Structural Concrete Conference
Held in Ottawa, Canada, June 1977
p. 17
-
33DBR Paper No. 784
Division of Building Research
SOMMAIRE
Des immeubles d e g r a n d e h a u t e u r e n bEton d e c o n s t r u c t i o n r 6 c e n t e c o m p o r t e n t d e s murs p o r t e u r s e t d e s p o t e a u x r e c t a n g u l a i r e s en b g t o n pouvant c t r e e x p o s 6 s a u f e u s u r p l u s d ' u n cCt6. L e s d e g r E s d e r g s i s t a n c e a u f e u d e c e s E l s m e n t s , 6 t a b l i s 2 p a r t i r de p o t e a u x p o r t e u r s c a r r S s e t e x p o s g s a u x flammes s u r t o u s l e u r s co^tEs s e m b l e n t main- t e n a n t c t r e b e a u c o u p t r o p modgr6s. Des 6 t u d e s a n a l y t i q u e s s u r l e s p r o p r i 6 t 6 s d e s m a t s r i a u x i n f l u e n c g e s p a r l a t e m p g r a t u r e p e u v e n t s e r v i r a u c a l c u l d e l a t e m p g r a t u r e , d e s c o n t r a i n t e s , d e s mouvements e t d e l a r 6 s i s t a n c e d ' u n e s t r u c t u r e d u r a n t un i n c e n d i e ; c e s 6 t u d e s p e u v e n t a u s s i r e m p l a c e r l e s e s s a i s c o d t e u x d e t e n u e a u f e u . On a e f f e c t u 6 une t e l l e 6 t u d e d a n s l e c a s d e p o t e a u x e t d e murs en b g t o n arm6 e t on a 6 t a b l i d e nouveaux d e g r E s d e r g s i s t a n c e a u f e u . L ' a r t i c l e t r a i t e d e s e f f e t s d e l ' i n t e r a c t i o n s t r u c t u r a l e e t d e l ' e f f r i t e m e n t du b 6 t o n s u r l a r g s i s t a n c e a u f e u a i n s i q u e d e l a r e l a t i o n e n t r e l e s e x i g e n c e s d e r 6 s i s t a n c e a u f e u e t l a p r o t e c t i o n e n c a s d ' i n c e n d i e , e n p a r t i c u l i e r dans l e s immeubles d e g r a n d e h a u t e u r . - - - -
FIRE RESISTANCE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS AND WALLS
BY David E . A l l e n and Tiam T . Lie
SYPNOSIS
Recent h i g h - r i s e c o n c r e t e b u i l d i n g s c o n t a i n l o a d - b e a r i n g w a l l s and r e c t a n g u l a r c o n c r e t e columns t h a t may b e s u b j e c t e d t o f i r e on more than o n e s i d e . E x i s t i n g f i r e r a t i n g s f o r t h e s e members, based on a f u l l y l o a d e d s q u a r e column exposed t o f i r e on a l l s i d e s , a p p e a r t o b e e x c e s s i v e l y c o n s e r v a t i v e .
A n a l y t i c a l s t u d i e s based on temperature-dependent m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s can b e used t o c a l c u l a t e t e m p e r a t u r e , s t r e s s e s , movements, c o n s t r a i n t f o r c e s and s t r e n g t h o f a s t r u c t u r e d u r i n g f i r e and t o r e p l a c e c o s t l y f i r e t e s t s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g f i r e r e s i s t a n c e . Such a s t u d y was c a r r i e d o u t f o r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e columns and w a l l s and new f i r e r a t i n g s d e t e r m i n e d . The p a p e r d i s c u s s e s t h e e f f e c t o f s t r u c t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n and s p a l l i n g on f i r e r e s i s t a n c e and t h e r e l a t i o n o f f i r e r e s i s t a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s t o t h e g e n e r a l problem o f f i r e s a f e t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s . KEYWORDS f i r e r e s i s t a n c e ; c o n c r e t e ; columns; w a l l s ; s t r u c t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n ; s p a l l i n g ; d e s i g n c r i t e r i a .
D . E . A l l e n and T.T. Lie a r e r e s e a r c h o f f i c e r s w i t h t h e D i v i s i o n o f B u i l d i n g Research, N a t i o n a l Research Council o f Canada. D . E . A l l e n h a s been engaged i n s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a s o f s t r u c t u r a l s a f e t y and l i m i t s t a t e s d e s i g n , f l o o r v i b r a t i o n and f i r e r e s i s t a n c e of c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s . T.T. Lie h a s been engaged i n f i r e r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a s o f s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e and s t r u c t u r a l f i r e s a f e t y . With t h e i n c r e a s i n g use o f s t r u c t u r a l c o n c r e t e i n h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s t h e r e i s a need f o r c l o s e r s t u d y o f t h e problem o f s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e : what i s r e q u i r e d ? ; what do c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s a c t u a l l y p r o v i d e ? T h i s p a p e r d i s c u s s e s t h e q u e s t i o n w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o l o a d - b e a r i n g columns and w a l l s . As i n t r o d u c t i o n a b r i e f review f o l l o w s o f how s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e r e l a t e s t o t h e g e n e r a l problem o f f i r e s a f e t y i n b u i l d i n g s , e s p e c i a l l y h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s .
STRUCTURAL FIRE RESISTANCE A N D FIRE SAFETY OF BUILDINGS
Of fundamental concern i s human s a f e t y - o c c u p a n t s may b e k i l l e d o r i n j u r e d d u r i n g f i r e from a s p h y x i a t i o n , h e a t , b u r n s , s t r u c t u r a l c o l l a p s e o r p o s s i b l y a s a r e s u l t o f a p a n i c s i t u a t i o n . Although t h e d e a t h r a t e from f i r e i n Canada (Table I ) i s about an o r d e r o f magnitude lower t h a n t h a t f o r c a r a c c i d e n t s , i t i s a b o u t two o r d e r s o f magnitude h i g h e r t h a n t h a t f o r s t r u c t u r a l c o l l a p s e i f c o n s t r u c t i o n a c c i d e n t s a r e e x c l u d e d . The p r e s e n t f i g u r e f o r f i r e , however, r e p r e s e n t s f a t a l i t i e s c a u s e d mainly by a s p h y x i a t i o n and b u r n s , and t h e s e a r e c o n t r o l l e d more by measures s u c h a s f i r e d e t e c t i o n , smoke c o n t r o l and s p r i n k l e r s than by s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , human s a f e t y i n h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s i s c l o s e l y l i n k e d w i t h s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e .
A second c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s economics; f i n a n c i a l l o s s e s from f i r e damage can b e v e r y l a r g e . Such l o s s e s i n c l u d e c o n t e n t s , p r o d u c t i o n and b u i l d i n g r e p a i r o r replacement. The economic goal i s t o minimize t h e t o t a l f i r e c o s t , which i n c l u d e s t h e c o s t o f f i r e p r o t e c t i o n p l u s e x p e c t e d l o s s , e x p e c t e d l o s s b e i n g e q u a l t o t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f f i r e t i m e s t h e f i r e l o s s . Because t h e p o t e n t i a l l y
l a r g e f i r e l o s s a l s o r e p r e s e n t s a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p e n d i t u r e o f e n e r g y , t h e c o s t o f t h a t energy may a l s o have t o b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e f u t u r e .
F i r e p r o t e c t i o n i s t h e means of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e above-mentioned
hazards. A p p r o p r i a t e measures i n c l u d e : f i r e p r e v e n t i o n ; f i r e d e t e c t i o n ; f i r e s u p p r e s s i o n ( i n c l u d i n g s p r i n k l e r s and f i r e
f i g h t i n g ) ; communication; e v a c u a t i o n , r e f u g e o r r e s c u e ; u s e of
b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s w i t h a low c o n t r i b u t i o n t o f i r e growth; smoke c o n t r o l { p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s ) ; f i r e c o n t a i n m e n t ;
s t r u c t u r a l s t a b i l i t y . With t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n of t h e f i r s t two,
a l l o f t h e s e a r e i n v o l v e d i n b u i l d i n g d e s i g n . Design f o r f i r e
s a f e t y i s t h e r e f o r e a m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y a c t i v i t y . S t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r s should concern themselves p r i m a r i l y w i t h f i r e containment and s t r u c t u r a l s t a b i l i t y , o r s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e .
F i r e containment o r compartmentation i s a fundamental p r i n c i p l e o f f i r e c o n t r o l and f i r e s a f e t y . The b a s i c i d e a i s t o c o n t r o l t h e s p r e a d o f f i r e o r t o p r e v e n t f i r e from e n t e r i n g r e f u g e a r e a s such a s f i r e s t a i r s . F i r e containment r e q u i r e s n o t o n l y t h a t t h e r e be no gaps through which f i r e can s p r e a d , b u t a l s o t h a t a d j a c e n t
compartments n o t h e a t t o i g n i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e . S t r u c t u r a l c o l l a p s e
o b v i o u s l y means l o s s o f f i r e containment, and t h i s i s why s t r u c t u r a l
f i r e r e s i s t a n c e and f i r e containment a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d . F i g u r e 1
i n d i c a t e s how f i r e containment r e d u c e s f i r e h a z a r d s f o r l a r g e b u i l d i n g s . Without f i r e containment t h e e x p e c t e d l o s s goes up roughly a s t h e s q u a r e o f t h e f l o o r a r e a .
F i r e containment i s r e g u l a t e d i n b u i l d i n g c o d e s by s p e c i f y i n g minimum f i r e r e s i s t a n c e r a t i n g s f o r t h e components between compart-
ments and f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e s u p p o r t i n g them. The f i r e r e s i s t a n c e
r a t i n g f o r any component i s t h e number o f hours o f s a t i s f a c t o r y performance d u r i n g a s t a n d a r d f i r e t e s t . The r e q u i r e d r a t i n g s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e f i r e l o a d s (combustible c o n t e n t k ) l i k e l y to o c c u r and t o t h e r i s k s and h a z a r d s i n v o l v e d i n c a s e o f f a i l u r e ; i n t h e N a t i o n a l B u i l d i n g Code o f Canada ( 1 ) they range from 1 / 3 t o 4 h o u r s ,
w i t h 2 h o u r s s p e c i f i e d f o r h i g h - r i s e o f f i c e and r e s i d e n t i a l
b u i l d i n g s . To a c h i e v e f i r e containment, however, i t i s n o t
s u f f i c i e n t t h a t w a l l s and f l o o r s between compartments have a minimum
f i r e r a t i n g . The f i r e may f i n d some o t h e r r o u t e , f o r example, from
s t o r e y t o s t o r e y v i a windows.
S t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s a l s o d e f i n e d i n b u i l d i n g codes i n terms o f h o u r s o f s a t i s f a c t o r y performance d u r i n g t h e s t a n d a r d f i r e t e s t and t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e t h e same a s f o r f i r e containment; e . g . , 2 h o u r s f o r most h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s .
Another d e f i n i t i o n o f s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s i n terms
o f f i r e l o a d . During any f i r e t h e s t r u c t u r e weakens u n t i l a
minimum l o a d - b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y ( s t r e n g t h ) i s reached a f t e r burn-out o f t h e f i r e l o a d . T h i s minimum s t r e n g t h d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e i n f i r e l o a d and t h e c r i t i c a l f i r e l o a d i s t h a t f o r which t h e a s s o c i a - t e d minimum s t r e n g t h i s e q u a l t o t h e a p p l i e d s t r u c t u r a l l o a d . I t i s t h e f i r e l o a d (combustible c o n t e n t s ) j u s t s u f f i c i e n t t o cause s t r u c t u r a l c o l l a p s e . The f i r e r e s i s t a n c e s a f e t y f a c t o r i s d e f i n e d a s t h e r a t i o o f t h e c r i t i c a l f i r e l o a d t o t h e e x p e c t e d f i r e l o a d . This d e f i n i t i o n i s more c l e a r l y r e l a t e d t o t h e l i m i t s t a t e of s t r u c t u r a l c o l l a p s e and may e v e n t u a l l y r e p l a c e t h e conventional d e f i n i t i o n .
REQUIRED STRUCTURAL FIRE RESISTANCE
How much s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s n e c e s s a r y ? The answer t o t h i s q u e s t i o n r e q u i r e s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f human s a f e t y and economics (and energy c o n s e r v a t i o n ) .
With r e g a r d t o t h e economic a s p e c t , r e s u l t s o f an economic- r i s k s t u d y f o r a t y p i c a l b u i l d i n g ( 2 ) a r e shown i n F i g u r e 2. They i n d i c a t e t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s n o t economic f o r normal s m a l l b u i l d i n g s , a l t h o u g h i t i s f o r medium o r l a r g e b u i l d i n g s o r f o r b u i l d i n g s w i t h v a l u a b l e c o n t e n t s . The economic f i r e r e s i s t a n c e s a f e t y f a c t o r s h o u l d , i n f a c t , i n c r e a s e with t h e s i z e o f t h e b u i l d i n g t o compensate f o r t h e g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d p r o b a b l e f i r e l o s s i n l a r g e b u i l d i n g s ( F i g u r e 1 ) . I n c i d e n t a l l y , t h e c o s t o f p r o v i d i n g f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i n c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s i s v e r y s m a l l compared t o t h a t f o r o t h e r f i r e p r o t e c t i o n measures.
How much s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s needed f o r human s a f e t y ? For low b u i l d i n g s , t h e s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e r e q u i r e d f o r human s a f e t y need o n l y b e o f t h e o r d e r o f 1/2 h o u r , o r enough time t o c l e a r t h e b u i l d i n g c o m p l e t e l y . T h i s assumes, o f c o u r s e , t h a t d u r i n g t h i s time t h e r e a r e s t a i r s and e x i t s a d e q u a t e l y f r e e o f f i r e and smoke. For t a l l b u i l d i n g s , however, t h e s i t u a t i o n i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . Evacuation time i n c r e a s e s c o n s i d e r a b l y i n v e r y t a l l , h e a v i l y p o p u l a t e d b u i l d i n g s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e p e o p l e who may n o t b e c a p a b l e o f d e s c e n d i n g many s t a i r s u n d e r emergency c o n d i t i o n s . Furthermore, f i r e m e n r e q u i r e s a f e a c c e s s f o r f i r e f i g h t i n g and r e s c u e . F i n a l l y , i t may b e p r e f e r a b l e t o u s e r e f u g e a r e a s r a t h e r t h a t a t t e m p t t o e v a c u a t e t h e b u i l d i n g . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s t h e r e should b e a low r i s k o f c o l l a p s e , assuming complete b u r n - o u t o f any compartment. I t a p p e a r s t h a t s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e o f v e r y t a l l s t r u c t u r e s s h o u l d b e g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t r e q u i r e d f o r f i r e containment a l o n e . Before any changes i n e x i s t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s can b e proposed, however, more s t u d i e s a r e r e q u i r e d .
STRUCTURAL FIRE RESISTANCE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS AND WALLS E x i s t i n g f i r e r e s i s t a n c e r a t i n g s f o r c o n c r e t e columns and w a l l s g i v e n i n Supplement No. 2 , N a t i o n a l B u i l d i n g Code o f Canada ( 3 ) ~
r e q u i r e a minimum t h i c k n e s s f o r members f u l l y exposed t o f i r e o f about 12 i n c h e s t o p a s s t h e 2-hour r e q u i r e m e n t f o r most t a l l b u i l d - i n g s . T h i s i s u s u a l l y e a s i l y met by columns, b u t i t m y be a problem f o r u n p r o t e c t e d w a l l s l o c a t e d w i t h i n a f i r e compartment.
F i r e r e s i s t a n c e h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y been d e t e r m i n e d by s t a n d a r d f i r e t e s t s of i s o l a t e d members c a r r y i n g s p e c i f i e d l o a d s . I t can a l s o b e determined by s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s , i n t h e same way a s f o r normal s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n . Using t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f h e a t t r a n s f e r , a t e m p e r a t u r e a n a l y s i s o f t h e member c r o s s - s e c t i o n under s t a n d a r d f i r e c o n d i t i o n s i s c a r r i e d o u t . T h i s i s f o l l o w e d by a s t r e s s a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e c t i o n , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t e m p e r a t u r e s t r a i n s , a p p l i e d l o a d s and s t r e s s - s t r a i n p r o p e r t i e s of c o n c r e t e ( F i g u r e 3) and s t e e l ( F i g u r e 4 ) a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e . As may b e s e e n i n
F i g u r e 5, a column o r w a l l s e c t i o n i s h i g h l y s t r e s s e d n e a r t h e o u t - s i d e d u r i n g f i r e and c r a c k e d i n t h e c e n t r e . As t h e f i r e p r o g r e s s e s , t h e o u t e r c o n c r e t e weakens, t h e s t r e s s e s a r e r e d i s t r i b u t e d toward t h e c e n t r e , and t h e s e c t i o n f a i l s when t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u - t i o n i s r e a c h e d . Ultimate s e c t i o n s t r e n g t h can t h e r e f o r e b e c a l c u - l a t e d f o r any t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and p l o t t e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f time o f f i r e . The f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s t h e time i t t a k e s f o r s t r e n g t h t o b e reduced t o t h e l e v e l o f t h e a p p l i e d l o a d . F i g u r e 6 shows s t r e n g t h i n t e r a c t i o n c u r v e s d u r i n g f i r e f o r a t y p i c a l column, f i r e r e s i s t a n c e b e i n g o f t h e o r d e r o f 2 h o u r s . (The f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i n F i g u r e 6 i s g r e a t e r i n compression t h a n i n b e n d i n g b e c a u s e t h e c o n c r e t e c o r e h e a t s more s l o w l y than t h e r e i n f o r c i n g . )
Buck1 i n g e f f e c t s become more i m p o r t a n t d u r i n g f i r e b e c a u s e t h e o u t e r l a y e r s weaken f i r s t , e f f e c t i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e s l e n d e r n e s s o f t h e column o r w a l l . The i n i t i a l c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r s q u a r e columns
( 4 ) took b u c k l i n g i n t o account by t h e ACI method, which i n v o l v e d c a l c u l a t i n g .the E u l e r b u c k l i n g l o a d from an i n t e g r a t e d s e c t i o n s t i f f n e s s and magnifying t h e moment o r e c c e n t r i c i t y . This method was used i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r a t i n g s i n Supplement No. 2 .
I n more r e c e n t c a l c u l a t i o n s o f w a l l s and t h i n r e c t a n g u l a r columns (5) t h e somewhat e m p i r i c a l ACI approach was abandoned i n f a v o u r o f a more r a t i o n a l l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n b u c k l i n g a n a l y s i s ( s e e F i g u r e 7 ) . End r e s t r a i n t i s t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t by a b u c k l i n g l e n g t h f a c t o r k and i m p e r f e c t i o n s such a s c o n s t r u c t i o n t o l e r a n c e s and honeycombing a r e t a k e n i n t o account by a n i n i t i a l d e f l e c t i o n yo. The r e s u l t s o f such l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n a n a l y s e s a r e shown i n F i g u r e 8 f o r d i f f e r e n t f i r e t i m e s , and s t r e n g t h s a r e picked o f f a s t h e maximum l o a d s . I n t h i s way s t a n d a r d c u r v e s of s t r e n g t h v e r s u s time a r e c a l c u l a t e d ( F i g u r e s 9 and 101 and t h e f i r e r e s i s t a n c e r a t i n g i s the t i m e a t which s t r e n g t h becomes l e s s than a p p l i e d l o a d . For example, F i g u r e 10 i n d i c a t e s t h a t a f u l l y - l o a d e d 8 - i n c h w a l l 9 f e e t h i g h , s u b j e c t e d t o f i r e on b o t h s i d e s , h a s a f i r e r e s i s t a n c e o f about 2 h o u r s compared t o t h e p r e s e n t r a t i n g o f 1 h o u r . More e x t e n s i v e r e s u l t s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n R e f e r e n c e ( 5 ) . TO check t h e s e c a l c u l a t e d r a t i n g s , a r e s e a r c h program o f column t e s t i n g w i l l b e c a r r i e d o u t i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h P o r t l a n d Cement A s s o c i a t i o n i n a new f a c i l i t y b e i n g i n s t a l l e d a t t h e N a t i o n a l Research C o u n c i l . S t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e can a l s o b e c a l c u l a t e d i n terms o f f i r e l o a d by r e p l a c i n g t h e s t a n d a r d f i r e t e m p e r a t u r e c u l v e by more r e a l i s t i c c u r v e s t h a t depend on f i r e load and v e n t i l a t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( 6 ) . F i g u r e 11 shows t h e r e s u l t s o f such an inves- t i g a t i o n , where t h e c r i t i c a l f i r e l o a d (one t h a t j u s t c a u s e s f a i l u r e ) r a n g e s from 22 t o 32 kg/m2 o f wood, depending on v e n t i l a t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , Such an approach, which i s
of
s p e c i a l importance f o r t h e s a f e t y o f v e r y t a l l b u i l d i n g s , needs f u r t h e r development.Not o n l y i s i t p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e f i r e r e s i s t a n c e o f i s o l a t e d members b u t a complete frame a n a l y s i s can b e c a r r i e d o u t by d e t e r m i n i n g member p r o p e r t i e s and t h e i r i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n d u r i n g f i r e . Some c a l c u l a t e d s t r u c t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s (5, 6) w i l l
F i g u r e 12 shows t h e e f f e c t o f end c o n d i t i o n s and i m p e r f e c t i , o n s by v a r y i n g k and yo f o r a 6 - i n c h w a l l . Wall end c o n d i t i o n s a r e s e e n t o b e v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h f i r e r e s i s t a n c e r a n g i n g from 1 / 2 hour f o r pinned s u p p o r t s t o 1 1 / 2 h o u r s f o r f i x e d s u p p o r t s . For s t a n d a r d f i r e r e s i s t a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s i t was assumed t h a t k = 0 . 7 and yo = 0 . 4 i n c h , which c o r r e s p o n d s r o u g h l y t o t h e s t a n d a r d f i r e t e s t w i t h some allowance f o r i m p e r f e c t i o n s . The e f f e c t o f end c o n d i t i o n s i s even more i m p o r t a n t f o r w a l l s h e a t e d on one s i d e o n l y ; a s shown i n F i g u r e 1 3 a pin-ended w a l l h a s a v e r y low f i r e r e s i s - t a n c e because o f t h e l a r g e warping d e f l e c t i o n ( a b o u t 1 / 2 f o o t ) , whereas a r e s t r a i n e d w a l l h a s a l a r g e f i r e r e s i s t a n c e , g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t n e c e s s a r y f o r h e a t containment. F o r t u n a t e l y most c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s a r e g e n e r a l l y w e l l r e s t r a i n e d , b u t p o o r l y connected p r e f a b r i c a t e d b u i l d i n g s may n o t b e .
Thermal movements a r e l a r g e d u r i n g a f i r e and g i v e r i s e t o l a r g e r e s t r a i n t f o r c e s t h a t a r e sometimes d e t r i m e n t a l . F i g u r e 14 i n d i c a t e s what happens when r e s t r a i n t t o column expansion i s t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t ; t h e a p p l i e d l o a d i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e r e b y d e c r e a s i n g t h e f i r e r e s i s t a n c e assumed f o r an i s o l a t e d member. Large a x i a l r e s t r a i n t , however, i s u s u a l l y accompanied by l a r g e b e n d i n g r e s t r a i n t , and a s shown i n F i g u r e 14 a more r e a l i s t i c assumption f o r end c o n d i t i o n s can make up t h e d i f f e r e n c e . Another d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t i s l a t e r a l d i s p l a c e m e n t r e s u l t i n g from e x p a n s i o n o f t h e f l o o r s l a b above t h e f i r e . This i s u s u a l l y n o t s e r i o u s f o r b e n d i n g f a i l u r e s b e c a u s e o f d u c t i l i t y and f o r c e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n ( S ) , b u t i t can b e s e r i o u s f o r s h e a r f a i l u r e . A s h e a r f a i l u r e does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean s t r u c t u r a l c o l l a p s e , b u t a c l o s e r examination s h o u l d b e made o f t h e p o s s i b l e consequences when a row o f lower- s t o r e y columns i s s h e a r e d .
These i n t e r a c t i o n s t u d i e s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t s t r u c t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y and i n d e t e r m i n a c y p l a y i n f i r e r e s i s t a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s . Without c o n t i n u i t y , f i r e r e s i s t a n c e can b e c o n s i d e r a b l y lowered owing t o t h e l a r g e warping e c c e n t r i c i t i e s t h a t can d e v e l o p i n a f i r e . Without s t r u c t u r a l i n d e t e r m i n a c y ( i . e . , s t r u c t u r a l i n t e g r i t y ) t h e r e i s a ' s i g n i f i c a n t r i s k o f p r o g r e s s i v e c o l l a p s e i f any member f a i l s . I n f a c t ,
e x p e r i e n c e h a s shown t h a t c o n t i n u i t y , i n t e g r i t y , and good d e t a i l i n g a r e t h e major r e a s o n s why c a s t - i n - p l a c e c o n s t r u c t i o n g e n e r a l l y h a s a h i g h e r f i r e r e s i s t a n c e than t h a t i n d i c a t e d by t e s t s o f i s o l a t e d components. SPALLING S p a l l i n g o r s p l i t t i n g o f f o f c o n c r e t e c o v e r d u r i n g f i r e can d e c r e a s e f i r e r e s i s t a n c e . Such s p a l l i n g can o c c u r e x p l o s i v e l y e a r l y i n t h e f i r e , a f t e r 1 / 4 t o 1 / 2 h o u r , d i r e c t l y e x p o s i n g t h e main s t e e l t o h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e . For c o n t i n u o u s beams and s l a b s t h e r e d u c t i o n i n f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s u s u a l l y n o t s e r i o u s b e c a u s e o f moment r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , b u t i t can b e s e r i o u s f o r simply-supported p r e s t r e s s e d beams, h e a v i l y r e i n f o r c e d columns under h i g h l o a d o r
Explosive p a l l i n g is due p r i m a r i l y t o b u i l d - u p o f steam p r e s s u r e (7), which c a u s e s t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s [Dp i n F i g u r e 1s)
.-
a c t i n g outward towards t h e exposed f a c e . A secondary cause i s high
compressive temperatulle s t r e s s (oc i n F i g u r e 17) n e a r t h e edge ( s e e F i g u r e 5)
.
The b u i l d - u p o f steam p r e s s u r e depends on the anount o f f r e e w a t e r p r e s e n t , t h e r a t e o f v a p o r i z a t i o n , and t h e p e r m e a b i l i t yof
t h e c o n c r e t e c o v e r . Explosive s p a l l i n g w i l l take p l a c e a t t h el o c a t i o n o f v a p o r i z a t i o n , a t a t e m p e r a t u r e somewhat above 10o°C. The p o t e n t i a l f o r s p a l l i n g i n c r e a s e s a s t h i s l o c a t i o n
moves
inward d u r i n g t h e f i r e because t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e i n f r e e water c o n t e n t due t o condensation o f inward-flowing steam and because t h e r e i s more c o n c r e t e t o r e s i s t outward steam flow. A c r i t i c a l d i s t a n c e i s a b o u t 2 i n c h e s . I f s t i r r u p s a r e l o c a t e d c l o s e r t o t h e edge than t h i s , s p a l l i n g i s c o n t a i n e d . T h i s i s why Supplement No. 2 t o t h e National B u i l d i n g Code r e q u i r e s a d d i t i o n a l mesh f o r l a r g e cover i n c o l u m s.
The p o t e n t i a l f o r s p a l l i n g depends mainly on moisture c o n t e n t , t y p e o f a g g r e g a t e ( s i l i c a t e s spa11 more than c a r b o n a t e s o r l i g h t w e i g h t s ) , r e s t r a i n t s t r e s s e s , p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y . F u r t h e r s t u d y i s needed t o i d e n t i f y under what c o n d i t i o n s s p a l l i n g o r s p l i t t i n g can b e s e r i o u s and what d e s i g n measures should b e t a k e n t o c o n t r o l t h e problem.
CONCLUSIONS
1 . S t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i n l o w - r i s e b u i l d i n g s i s r e q u i r e d p r i m a r i l y t o c o n t a i n f i r e s f o r economic (and energy c o n s e r v a t i o n ) r e a s o n s . For h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s , however, i t i s a l s o e s s e n t i a l f o r human s a f e t y .
2 . S t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e o f i s o l a t e d columns o r w a l l s can b e c a l c u l a t e d by h e a t t r a n s f e r and s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s u s i n g tempera- t u r e - d e p e n d e n t m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s . (New f i r e r a t i n g s a r e c a l c u l a - t e d f o r w a l l s and r e c t a n g u l a r columns l o c a t e d w i t h i n a f i r e compart-
ment. )
3. I n t e r a c t i o n s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e depends p r i m a r i l y on s t r u c t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y , i n t e g r i t y and d e t a i l i n g , and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l c a s t - i n - p l a c e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s e x p e c t e d t o perform much b e t t e r d u r i n g f i r e than p o o r l y connected p r e f a b r i c a t e d systems s u s c e p t i b l e t o p r o g r e s s i v e c o l l a p s e .
4. F u r t h e r s t u d y i s needed t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which s p a l l i n g o r s p l i t t i n g w i l l occur e a r l y i n a f i r e and t o i d e n t i f y
what d e s i g n measures, i f any, should b e taken t o c o n t r o l t h e problem.
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NO. ST1, J a n u a r y 1972.4 . L i e , T.T. and A l l e n , D.E., " C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e F i r e R e s i s t a n c e o f Reinforced C o n c r e t e Columns," N a t i o n a l Research C o u n c i l , Division o f B u i l d i n g Research, August 1972.
5 . Allen, D.E. and L i e , T.T.. " C a l c u l a t e d F i r e R e s i s t a n c e o f Reinforced Concrete Walls and R e c t a n g u l a r Columns." To b e P u b l i s h e d .
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7 . S h o r t e r , G . W . and Harmathy, T.Z., D i s c u s s i o n o f " F i r e R e s i s t a n c e o f P r e s t r e s s e d C o n c r e t e , " P r o c . , I . C . E . , Vol. 20, 1961, p . 313.
This paper i s a c o n t r i b u t i o n from t h e D i v i s i o n o f B u i l d i n g Research, N a t i o n a l Research Council o f Canada and i s p u b l i s h e d w i t h t h e approval o f t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e D i v i s i o n .
T a b l e I Annual Death Risk from A c c i d e n t s p e r M i l l i o n Average Canadian A l l c a u s e s T r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s 270 Drowning 60 F i r e 35 S t r u c t u r a l c o l l a p s e 0 . 2 C o n s t r u c t i o n Worker ( O n t a r i o ) A l l work r e l a t e d c a u s e s S t r u c t u r a l c o l l a p s e 30
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