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Structural failures due to human error : what research to do?
Allen, D. E.
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Ser
THI
no.
13U.
National Research Conseil nationala . 2
*
Council Canada de recherches Canada Division of Division desBuilding Research recherches en batiment
Structural Failures Due to Human Error
-
What Research to Do?
by D.E. Allen
ANALYZED
Appeared in
Proceedings of
a
Symposium on Structural Technology and Risk, pp. 127- 136 University of Waterloo, 18-21 July 1983 (DBR Paper No. 131 1)Reprinted with permission
Price $1.50 NRCC 24847 p i * - - . . : , - , , , - ' I.,
-
.P*. -
i
I
. --.--
-ABSTRACT
The paper reviews r e s e a r c h on human e r r o r l e a d i n g t o s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e and suggests a p o s s i b l e program f o r t h e f u t u r e . The suggested program i s t o e s t a b l i s h b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o r f a c t o r s t h a t cover f a i l u r e due t o human e r r o r and, based on t h e s e , e v a l u a t e and improve e x i s t i n g procedures t o prevent such f a i l u r e s
.
Cette communication examine les travaux de recherche s u r l ' e r r e u r humaine c o m e cause des dgsordres s t r u c t u r a u x et propose un programme pour l e s anni5es
a
venir. C e programme c o n s i s t e 3 d t a b l i r les p r i n c i p e s ou les f a c t e u r s fondamentaux relies aux dgsordres dus 3 l ' e r r e u r humaine, et-_a
'evaluer e t- - - --- -- ~-
amgliorer les n - ~ - - - - &a f i a b i l i t g
pour prgvenir S e r npte de ces
p r i n c i p e s ou f a c N a t i o n d Research Council T H ~
Division o f Bldg. Research N21d
Paper no. 1311
A l l e n , D. E. c. 2
STRUCTURAL FAILURES DUE TO
HUMAN
ERROR-
WHAT RESEARCH TO DO?D.E. Allen
Franz Knoll has persuaded m e t o do r e s e a r c h on human e r r o r l e a d i n g t o s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e . Now I must t r y t o f i n d o u t what t o do. T h i s i s t h e reason f o r t h i s s h o r t c o n t r i b u t i o n , which I hope w i l l s t i m u l a t e o t h e r s embarking i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n .
What
Do
FailuresTell Us?
Information on f a i l u r e s i n Canada (1) t e l l s u s t h a t some s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e s a r e due t o normal overloading o r u n d e r s t r e n g t h (e.g., tornado damage), some a r e due t o a c c i d e n t a l l o a d s o r weaknesses (e.g., f i r e ,
explosion), b u t most a r e due t o human e r r o r . Most d e s i g n e r r o r s r e s u l t i n g i n s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e o t h e r t h a n d e t e r i o r a t i o n a r e due t o a misconception o r l a c k of c o n s i d e r a t i o n of s t r u c t u r a l behaviour, e s p e c i a l l y of t h e
d e t a i l s , and of t h e k i n d s of l o a d s and i n f l u e n c e s t h a t occur. Most c o n s t r u c t i o n e r r o r s r e s u l t i n g i n s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e a r e due t o i n c o r r e c t procedures such a s improper bracing, omissions, misplacements, wrong products and overloading. The f a i l u r e i n f o r m a t i o n a l s o i d e n t i f i e s t h e kinds of human e r r o r t h a t cause most of t h e t r o u b l e
-
misconception, l a c k of c o n s i d e r a t i o n , l a c k of f o r e s i g h t , m i s a p p l i c a t i o n , l a c k ofcommunication, missing o r i n c o r r e c t information, m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , e t c . Most of t h e s e e r r o r s cannot be r e l a t e d i n any meaningful way t o d e v i a t i o n s i n p h y s i c a l parameters.
Haw Do We Prevent
Failures
Due
to Human Error?Anyone who g e t s up i n t h e morning o r r e a d s t h e newspaper knows t h a t human e r r o r i s a r e a l i t y of l i f e and t h e r e f o r e cannot b e eliminated. What we can do, however, i s minimize t h e u n d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t s of human e r r o r
through v a r i o u s measures. Many of t h e s e measures a s s o c i a t e d w i t h normal l i v i n g a r e i n s t i n c t i v e and many a r e a matter of common s e n s e based on experience and f o r e s i g h t .
The b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s , which i n c l u d e s planning, design, c o n s t r u c t i o n and use, encompasses a l a r g e number of d e c i s i o n s and a c t i v i t i e s by v a r i o u s people w i t h d i f f e r e n t s k i l l s . Building f a i l u r e s a r i s i n g from human e r r o r d u r i n g t h e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s c a n b e inconvenient, expensive t o r e p a i r and o c c a s i o n a l l y dangerous. The people a f f e c t e d a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t t h e ones who make t h e e r r o r s . More s y s t e m a t i c measures t o avoid f a i l u r e due t o human e r r o r a r e t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s t h a n f o r normal l i v i n g . Such measures i n c l u d e checking, i n s p e c t i o n , comnunication, proper o r g a n i z a t i o n of a p r o j e c t , e t c . , and come under t h e g e n e r a l heading of q u a l i t y assurance. A s an example, g u i d e l i n e s on t h e p r e v e n t i o n of p r o f e s s i o n a l negligence claims given i n Table 1 ( 2 ) r e l a t e d i r e c t l y t o q u a l i t y assurance measures c a r r i e d o u t by t h e engineer. Design s a f e t y
f a c t o r s cushion t h e blow a l i t t l e but they a r e e s s e n t i a l l y i n e f f e c t i v e a g a i n s t most f a i l u r e s due t o human e r r o r .
Building p r o j e c t s a r e g r a d u a l l y becoming more complex, a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n s more numerous and t h e consequences of f a i l u r e more f a r reaching. It i s t h e r e f o r e d e s i r a b l e t h a t q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e measures be based on a f i r m u n d e r s t a n d i n g of human e r r o r and t h e c o n t r o l of i t s e f f e c t s .
What is the
Goal
ofResearch
on Human Error?The g o a l of r e s e a r c h on human e r r o r i s t o d e v i s e b e t t e r q u a l i t y
a s s u r a n c e measures and t o make t h e ones we apply now more e f f e c t i v e . More d i r e c t l y , i t i s t o h e l p prevent f a i l u r e s due t o human e r r o r . Another p o s s i b l e b e n e f i t i s b e t t e r working c o n d i t i o n s on p r o j e c t s , based on a b e t t e r understanding of human e r r o r . D e s p i t e t h e s e p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t s , however, t h e r e i s s k e p t i c i s m about whether a n y t h i n g u s e f u l w i l l come o u t of research.
Error Research So Far
Most of t h e r e s e a r c h s o f a r i s based on s t u d i e s of a c t u a l s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e s .
I n s t u d y i n g a number of major f a i l u r e s , Pugsley (3) i d e n t i f i e d e i g h t parameters ( T a b l e 2) t h a t appear t o i n £ luence t h e l i k e l i h o o d of a p r o j e c t f a i l u r e . By weighting t h e s e parameters and determining t h e i r sum, one c a n
estimate a measure c a l l e d e r r o r proneness; t h i s procedure c a n b e a p p l i e d t o p r o j e c t s ( o r t o proposed systems) t o i n d i c a t e a r e a s of weakness and t h e l i k e l i h o o d of f a i l u r e compared t o t h e a v e r a g e case. Blockley ( 4 ) and
Fox (5) d i d s i m i l a r s t u d i e s u s i n g 22 and 16 parameters r e s p e c t i v e l y . One d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h e e r r o r proneness procedure i s t h a t t h e w e i g h t s a s s i g n e d b e f o r e a f a i l u r e by t h e people working on a p r o j e c t can d i f f e r g r e a t l y from t h o s e a s s i g n e d by e x p e r t s a f t e r a f a i l u r e . To overcome t h i s d i f f i c u l t y , Pugsley recommended t h a t a p a n e l of e x p e r t s apply t h e procedure e a r l y i n a p r o j e c t . Another shortcoming i s t h a t t h e e r r o r
proneness f u n c t i o n does n o t h e l p t h e people involved i n a p r o j e c t f i n d and c o r r e c t e r r o r s . It does, however, p r o v i d e a c h e c k l i s t f o r a s s e s s i n g
q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e s t r a t e g i e s .
Matousek and Schneider ( 6 ) s t u d i e d 800 f a i l u r e s and determined t h a t most could have been avoided had normal q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e procedures s u c h a s checking and i n s p e c t i o n been c a r r i e d o u t , i n c l u d i n g checks of more obvious e r r o r s by o t h e r s coming l a t e r i n t h e b u i l d i n g process. Matousek ( 7 ) d e s c r i b e s measures t h a t can be a p p l i e d t o avoid f a i l u r e s due t o human e r r o r . These i n c l u d e a number of u s e f u l c h e c k l i s t s . T h i s i s a n i m p o r t a n t s t e p i n t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n .
Murphy's Law s t a t e s t h a t i f something can go wrong, i t w i l l . The v a r i o u s ways a p r o j e c t c a n go wrong o r f a i l a r e c a l l e d h a z a r d s c e n a r i o s and i t i s important t o c o n s i d e r t h e s e a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e a c t i v i t y (8). Although t h e "hazard s c e n a r i o " concept c r e a t e s a
a l l t h e t h i n g s t h a t can go wrong. This i s why a new concept o r
a p p l i c a t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y more prone t o e r r o r t h a n one t h a t h a s s t o o d t h e t e s t of experience. The s o l u t i o n i s n o t t o resist change but t o i d e n t i f y change and apply more f o r e t h o u g h t ( c o n s i d e r a t i o n of h a z a r d s c e n a r i o s ) when
i t occurs.
R e l i a b i l i t y methods have been used t o o p t i m i z e d e s i g n s a f e t y f a c t o r s . They can a l s o be used t o o p t i m i z e q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e procedures. Which procedures a r e c o s t e f f e c t i v e ? How much should be s p e n t on q u a l i t y
assurance? When should t h e procedures b e c a r r i e d out? Some e f f o r t s have been i n i t i a t e d i n t h i s a r e a (9) but a s y e t t h e r e a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t data.
Attempts have been made t o model t h e e f f e c t s of human e r r o r
mathematically. E a r l y a t t e m p t s ( i n c l u d i n g one by t h e a u t h o r ) a s s o c i a t e d human e r r o r e f f e c t s w i t h d e v i a t i o n s i n p h y s i c a l parameters used i n d e s i g n c a l c u l a t i o n s b u t t h i s p i c t u r e does n o t f i t w i t h f a i l u r e i n f o r m a t i o n
d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r . Some a t t e m p t s have been made t o look a t simple
checking p r o c e s s e s t o estimate t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s ( 1 0 , l l ) . Other models r e l a t e d t o t h e d e t e c t i o n of e r r o r s o r t h e flow of i n f o r m a t i o n have been proposed. Franz K n o l l (12) proposed a modelling of t h e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s i t s e l f t o be used a s a t o o l f o r determining a p p r o p r i a t e q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e measures. Because t h e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s comprises a number of interwoven human, p h y s i c a l and p r o c e d u r a l parameters, such modelling i s n o t a n e a s y t a s k . P o s s i b l y we c a n b e g i n by modelling a simple p r o j e c t i n v o l v i n g few people. I am n o t s u r e , however, t h a t i t i s worthwhile modelling a n y t h i n g u n t i l w e know more about t h e b a s i c n a t u r e of human e r r o r and i t s r o l e i n t h e b u i l d i n g process.
What
Are
theParameters Involved?
A major d i f f i c u l t y i n modelling h a s been t h e d e f i n i t i o n of
parameters. A t a r e c e n t IABSE workshop on q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e , N i e l s Lind asked, "What i s t h e most important parameter a f f e c t i n g q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e ? " The answer g i v e n by most p a r t i c i p a n t s w a s human behaviour. Human
behaviour i m p l i e s a number of parameters ( t r a i n i n g and e x p e r i e n c e , working c o n d i t i o n s , s o c i a l s k i l l s , etc.). It a p p e a r s t h a t i f w e want t o g e t somewhere w i t h r e s e a r c h on human e r r o r w e must n o t f o r g e t parameters a s s o c i a t e d w i t h human behaviour.
Other parameters of t h e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s a f f e c t i n g q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e a r e t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e complexity and n o v e l t y of t h e p r o j e c t , consequences of f a i l u r e , o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e p r o j e c t , i n s t i t u t i o n of q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e procedures, r e s o u r c e s , t i m e , e t c . Franz K n o l l (12) l i s t e d 71 parameters. This i s a f a r c r y from t h e c l e a r l y d e f i n e d
parameters u s e d i n s t r u c t u r a l engineering. Is t h e r e any p o s s i b i l i t y of i d e n t i f y i n g a few very b a s i c parameters?
What Can We Learn frar
the
Histery ofStructural
E n g i - r h g ?The primary g o a l of t h e proposed r e s e a r c h on human e r r o r i s t o h e l p p e o p l e a v o i d f a i l u r e due t o human e r r o r . The primary g o a l of t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g r e s e a r c h , which d a t e s back s e v e r a l hundred y e a r s ,
has been t o h e l p people avoid f a i l u r e due t o t e c h n i c a l cause. There i s no doubt t h a t i t h a s h e l p e d p r e v e n t s u c h f a i l u r e s . P o s s i b l y w e c a n l e a r n something from t h i s . It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t much of t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r a l r e s e a r c h was i n i t i a t e d a s a r e s u l t of f a i l u r e s .
The most s u c c e s s f u l a p p l i c a t i o n of s t r u c t u r a l r e s e a r c h t o t h e
p r a c t i c e of s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g i s t h e s e t t i n g up of a sound knowledge base of p r i n c i p l e s ( i n c l u d i n g b a s i c phenomena) and p r a c t i c a l r u l e s based on t h e s e . These b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s a r e r e t a i n e d i n t h e mind of t h e e n g i n e e r and a p p l i e d a t any t i m e d u r i n g a p r o j e c t
--
concept, design, checking, i n s p e c t i o n and a l t e r a t i o n . Although s i t u a t i o n s change, b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s do n o t and a r e t h e r e f o r e easy t o remember and apply. I have n o t i c e d t h a t s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r s a t a n o t h e r w i s e d u l l committee meeting o r p a p e r s s e s s i o n become a l e r t when someone s t a r t s t a l k i n g about a f a i l u r e-
how does t h i s f a i l u r e r e l a t e t o b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s s o t h a t I can avoid a similar mistake i n t h e f u t u r e ? Without t h i s knowledge base I do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t a s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r could e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r i b u t e t o a p r o j e c t .Table 3 is an a t t e m p t t o show how f a i l u r e s due t o human e r r o r d g h t be avoided by f o l l o w i n g t h e methods used t o a v o i d f a i l u r e s due t o
t e c h n i c a l cause, It appears t h a t w e l a c k a n understanding of t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o r f a c t o r s involved. P o s s i b l y t h e s e a r e known b e t t e r by p e o p l e i n o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s such a s human behaviour and management. A b e t t e r understanding of p r i n c i p l e s o r f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d w i l l h e l p determine more e f f e c t i v e q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e measures a s w e l l a s more e f f e c t i v e modelling approaches.
P o s s i b l y w e can l e a r n from o t h e r a r e a s such a s t h e manufacturing p r o c e s s , t h e a e r o s p a c e i n d u s t r y and t h e p r a c t i c e of medicine. There a r e , however, important d i f f e r e n c e s . For example, t h e manufacturing of a product i s a s t e a d y - s t a t e p r o c e s s t h a t c a n be a l t e r e d d u r i n g a n i n i t i a l t e s t i n g s t a g e whereas a p a r t i c u l a r b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t i s unique and cannot g e n e r a l l y be t e s t e d b e f o r e use. Design, development and p r o d u c t i o n of a f l e e t of a i r p l a n e s o r a few s p a c e v e h i c l e s i s somewhere i n between t h e s e two extremes. The b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s , however, does have r e p e t i t i v e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The p r a c t i c e of medicine i n v o l v e s d i a g n o s i s of a n i l l n e s s f o r cause, c u r e and r e p a i r ( s u r g e r y ) , a n a c t i v i t y c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r e n t t h a n checking a d e s i g n on paper. Nevertheless t h e s e a r e a s a r e worth l o o k i n g i n t o .
The b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s i s a complex i n t e r a c t i v e a c t i v i t y i n v o l v i n g a wide v a r i e t y of human, p h y s i c a l and p r o c e d u r a l parameters t h a t c a n
c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e f a i l u r e of t h e f i n a l product. Research on human e r r o r t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e s a m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y approach i n v o l v i n g b o t h " s o f t " human s c i e n c e s a s w e l l a s "hard" p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s . The g o a l of r e s e a r c h on human e r r o r i s t o h e l p people a v o i d b u i l d i n g f a i l u r e s due t o human e r r o r w i t h a minimum of e f f o r t . Based on t h e f o r e g o i n g d i s c u s s i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g program of r e s e a r c h i s recommended:
(1) E s t a b l i s h b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o r f a c t o r s f o r t h e cause of f a i l u r e s due t o human e r r o r . Case h i s t o r i e s and f a i l u r e i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l h e l p e s t a b l i s h these.
( 2 ) Using b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o r f a c t o r s , e v a l u a t e e x i s t i n g q u a l i t y assurance procedures and t o o l s and i n v e s t i g a t e new ones. Tools i n c l u d e c h e c k l i s t s and p h y s i c a l measurements. New t o o l s t h a t h e l p people i d e n t i f y d e f e c t s might prove u s e f u l .
( 3 ) Take advantage of f a i l u r e information and mathematical modelling t o
make e f f i c i e n t u s e of t h e measures a v a i l a b l e .
It is human n a t u r e t h a t r e s e a r c h e r s embarking i n a new a r e a w i l l follow d i f f e r e n t routes. This makes s e n s e because otherwise w e d g h t a l l head i n t h e wrong d i r e c t i o n . A t t h i s e a r l y s t a g e , however, it i s
important t h a t r e s e a r c h e r s d i s c u s s t h e i r approaches w i t h e a c h other. T h i s paper i s a c o n t r i b u t i o n from t h e D i v i s i o n of B u i l d i n g Research,
National Research Council of Canada, and i s published w i t h t h e approval of t h e D i r e c t o r of t h e Division.
Table
1
Prevention of Professional Negligence Claims ( 2 )Good Communication
-
Practice effective and uncomplicated oral and written comuunicat ion.-
Be brief and stick to the facts.-
Have all correspondence checked by a principal.-
Use precise definitions in specifications.-
Proofread all documents carefully.-
Produce clear and simple drawings.-
Show each dimension, quantity or capacity only once.-
Hold regular site meetings and keep formal minutes.-
Introduce a foolproof drawing revision system.-
Encourage the art of effective speaking and writing among your staff.-
Avoid issuing oral instructions on matters of importance.-
Keep and distribute notes of important telephone conversations. 2. Human Error-
Keep a written diary or regular notes.-
Develop sound engineering judgement.-
Avoid design and documentation delays by careful scheduling.-
Resist impossible deadlines; eschew "short-cuts".-
Avoid employing temporary design or drawing staff.3.
Financial Implications-
Only undertake work within your firm's competence.-
Check your client's financial resources.-
Investigate the competence of other members of the professional t earn.-
Negotiate appropriate professional fees right at the beginning.-
Confirm the scope of all engagements in writing.-
Prepare conservative estimates and define the scope thereof.-
When concerned with partial design services, ensure adequate comuunication with subsequent supervisory staff.
-
Employ only capable personnel.-
Update technical knowledge constantly.4.
Technical Procedures-
Institute a rigid and careful checking system.-
Use only tried and tested clauses in specifications.-
Employ standard drawing details wherever applicable.-
Review shop drawings promptly.-
Word the "review stamp" carefully to define limits of responsibility.-
Specify tried and tested items of equipment.-
Treat all projects, large and smell, as being equally important.-
Avoid doing the contractor's work or taking over hisresponsibilities.
5.
Dealing with Mistakes-
Inform the client immediately.-
Offer solutions, not excuses.-
Deal with the client face-to-face; do not hide behind correspondence.Table 2 Error Proneness Parameters ( 3 )
1. new or unusual materials
2. new or unusual method of construction
3. new or unusual type of structure or component
4 . experience and organization of design and
construction team
5. research and development background
6. industrial climate
7. financial climate
Table 3 To Avoid S t r u c t u r a l F a i l u r e s Due t o :
T e c h n i c a l Cause Human E r r o r
1. Apply Basic
-
l o a d s o r i n f l u e n c e s Are t h e r e c l e a r l y P r i n c i p l e s d e f i n e d p r i n c i p l e s-
load t r a n s f e r o r s t a t i c s o r f a c t o r s ?-
m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s-
movements-
resonance 2. Apply-
d e f l e c t i o n<
span1360-
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e t - u p P r a c t i c a lRules
-
r e c t a n g u l a r stress block-
checking procedures-
i n t e r a c t i o n formulas-
i n s p e c t i o n proceduresReferences
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Lausanne.
Pugsley, A.G. The P r e d i c t i o n of Proneness t o S t r u c t u r a l Accidents. The S t r u c t u r a l Engineer 5 1 ( 6 ) , June 1973, p. 195-196.
Blockley, D.I. Analysis of S t r u c t u r a l F a i l u r e s . Proceedings of I n s t . of C i v i l Englneers, P a r t 1, 62, February 1977, p. 51-74.
Fox, S.R. P r e d i c t i n g t h e Proneness of Buildings t o Gross E r r o r s i n Design and Construction. M.A.Sc. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of Waterloo, March 1982.
Matousek, M. and Schneider, J. Untersuchungen z u r S t r u k t u r d e s Sicherheitsproblems b e 1 Bauwerken. I n s t . f u r B a u s t a t i k und Konstruktion ETH, B e r l c h t No. 59, Zurich, Februar 1978.
Matousek, M. Measures Against E r r o r s i n t h e Building Process. NRG-TT2067, N a t i o n a l Research Council Canada, 1983.
S o c i e t y of Swiss Engineers and A r c h i t e c t s . General P r i n c i p l e s of Q u a l i t y Assurance f o r S t r u c t u r e s . Based on SIA260, Zurich, November 1979.
Allen, D.E. C r i t e r i a f o r Design S a f e t y F a c t o r s and Q u a l i t y Assurance Expenditure. Proceedings of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress on S t r u c t u r a l S a f e t y and R e l i a b i l i t y , Trondheim, 23-25 June 1981.
Melchers, R.E. The I n f l u e n c e of Control Processes i n S t r u c t u r a l Engineering. Proceedings ICE, P a r t 2 , 65, Dec. 1978, p . 791-807. Lind, N.C. Models of Human E r r o r i n S t r u c t u r a l R e l i a b i l i t y . S t r u c t u r a l S a f e t y , 1, 1983, p. 167-175.
Knoll, F. Human E r r o r i n t h e Building Process
-
A Research Proposal. IABSE J o u r n a l 5-17/82, November 1982.T h i s p a p e r , w h i l e b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d i n r e p r i n t form by t h e D i v i s i o n of B u i l d i n g R e s e a r c h , remains t h e c o p y r i g h t of t h e o r i g i n a l p u b l i s h e r . It s h o u l d n o t be r e p r o d u c e d i n whole o r i n p a r t w i t h o u t t h e p e r m i s s i o n of t h e p u b l i s h e r . A l i s t of a l l p u b l i c a t i o n s a v a i l a b l e from t h e D i v i s i o n may be o b t a i n e d by w r i t i n g t o t h e P u b l i c a t i o n s S e c t i o n , D i v i s i o n of B u i l d i n g R e s e a r c h , N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l of C a n a d a , O t t a w a , O n t a r i o , K1A OR6. Ce document e s t d i s t r i b u g s o u s forme de t i r 6 - 3 - p a r t par l a D i v i s i o n d e s r e c h e r c h e s e n b b t i m e n t . Les d r o i t s de r e p r o d u c t i o n s o n t t o u t e f o i s l a p r o p r i 6 t 6 de l ' 6 d i t e u r o r i g i n a l . Ce d o c u m e n t n e p e u t S t r e r e p r o d u i t en t o t a l i t g ou en p a r t i e s a n s l e consentement de l ' d d i t e u r . Une l i s t e d e s p u b l i c a t i o n s de l a D i v i s i o n p e u t S t r e o b t e n u e en 6 c r i v a n t B l a S e c t i o n d e s p u b l i c a t i o n s , D i v i s i o n d e s r e c h e r c h e s e n b b t i m e n t , C o n s e i l n a t i o n a l d e r e c h e r c h e s Canada, Ottawa, O n t a r i o , K l A OR6.
