People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and ScientificResearch
University of Mohammed Seddik Ben Yahia-Jijel Faculty of Letters and Languages
Department of English language and literature
An Investigation of Teachers’ and Students’ Perceptions towards
the implementation of Text -Messaging in EFL Learners’
Academic Writing
(The Case of Master 2 Students at Mohamed Seddik Ben Yahia
University-Jijel)
Dissertation submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Masters’ Degree in Didactics
Submittedby: Supervisedby:
BoulkrouneAsma Dr. BennacerFawzia
AridNesrine
Board of Examiners
Chairperson: Mrs. Hadji Sabrina University ofJijel
Supervisor: Dr.BennacerFawzia University ofJijel
Examiner: Mrs. ChioukhChadia Universityof jijel
II
Dedications
Everything I am today and everything I may become tomorrow is all for the sacrifices
my parents made for me. Thank you so much for giving me life, for being my teachers and
mentors who show me how to be a good human being, and for countless love and support.
Big thanks go to
My dear siblings “Elina”,” Nabila” and “Houssem” for your care, support, guidance
My lovely nephews “Yanis“and “Adem” for bringing happiness to my life,
All my family members “uncles”, “aunts”, and “cousins”.
All my friends with no exception, who have helped me and stood by my side directly or
indirectly in every moment of my life.
Asma
This work is dedicated
To my dear parents who made me the person I am today, who gave me infinite love and
affection and taught me that with will everything is possible,
To my siblings who were present from day one cheering me up,
To my niece ‘Norhane’ and my nephews ‘Jawad’, ‘Ali’ and ‘Areslane’ who filled my life
with their innocent spark,
To my friends, who were by my side all along this journey,
To my beloved one who believed in my success,
To every person who helped me in any manner.
III
Acknowledgments
First and above all, we would like to thank the Almighty God who we look up too,
who graced our lives with opportunities, who blessed us with much courage and motivation to
reach this stage of our lives.
We would like to convey our sincere gratitude and deep regards to our respected
supervisor Dr. BennacerFawzia, who had always been there for us right from the onset of
this research work. Without her exemplary encouragement, proper guidance, patience and
priceless advice, this dissertation would have been little success.
We owe a profound gratitude to Mr. NailiRedouane, our lecturer and our head of
Department for his valuable directions, which helped us to see the light at the end of the
tunnel. We would like to thank all teachers for their encouragement and acceptance to answer
the questionnaire.
We would like also to thank the members of the jury, who accepted to devote their
IV
Abstract
The present research investigates students’ perception and teachers’ point of view towards the
effect of text-messaging on academic writing. The research hypothesized that due to the high
positive attitudes towards text-messaging,is likely to be negatively affected who use more
abbreviations and shortcuts in their electronic communication will produce strong informal
writing but weaker academic writing. To validate these hypotheses, a descriptive method was
opted to obtain data; two questionnaires were designed for both Master 2 students of English
(63) out of 120 representatives, and teachers with different years of experiences at
Mohammed Seddik Ben Yahia University -Jijel. The results of this investigation confirmed
the hypotheses. They revealed that most of the students and teachers view that texting has a
negative impact and could be a serious threat on the academic written production. However,
the results indicate that other factors, including the lack of respect for the traditional rules of
writing, competence mistakes, lack of reading, lack of practice and laziness, may all weaker
students’ academic writing . On the basis of the results obtained, some pedagogical
recommendations have been proposed for both students and teachers to overcome any other
factor that may hamper their academic research papers, and at the same time to appreciate the
value ofwriting.
V
List of Abbreviations AC: Asynchronous Communication
BBS: Bulletin Board System
CMC: Computer-Mediated Communication
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
E-mail: Electronic mail
FB:Facebook
IRC: Internet Relay Chat
MUD: Multi-user Domain
MSN: Messenger
SC: Synchro-nous Communication
TM: Text-Messaging
VI
List of Figures
Figure 1: Process Model of Writing Instruction ………..………….…...……..…..23
Figure 2: The Structure of the Writing Model………...24
Figure 3: The Structure of Academic Writing…….……….26
VII
List of Tables
Table 1: Students’ used clipped word, emoticons and abbreviation and their explanations….40 Table 2:Students’ examples and explanation about used formal writing forms………….….43 Table 3: Teachers’ experience………..51
VIII
List of Graphs
Graph 1.Frequency of Using Social Media………..………37
Graph 2.Text-messaging Usageby students……….……38
Graph 3.Frequency of using text-messaging by students………...……….….38
Graph 4.Students’ use of clipped words, emoticonsandabbreviations….………...39
Graph 5.The frequency of formal language usewhiletexting……...40
Graph 6.Students’ attitudes towards the influence of text-messaging onwriting capacity…. 41 Graph 7.Students’ use of symbols and abbreviation in theiracademic writing………41
Graph 8.Students’ justifications for using shortenings in students’academicwriting…..….43
Graph 9.Students attitudes about texting affects on theirformalwriting……….43
Graph 10.The most influenced aspectsofwriting by text-messaging ………….………...….44
Graph 11.Text-messaging and vocabulary improvement……….………….……...44
Graph 12.Students’ evaluation of their levelinwriting……….…...45
Graph 13.Reasons behind students’ academicscoresreduction……….…..45
Graph 14.Students’ attitudes towards the lack of feedback on text-messaging effect………..46
Graph 15.Students’ attitudes on the effect of games’ shortened words on academic writing..47
Graph 16.Students attitudes on textism knowledge and written language outcomes………...49
Graph 17: Students’ attitudes towards the intention of using text-message language in their exam papers. ……….………53
Graph 18: Students ‘attitudes towards the effect of text-messaging language on their ability to memories correct and full form of spelling………...………54
Graph 19: Students’ attitudes towards the effect of text-messaging language in their written comprehension than in written expression………...……….54
Graph 20: Teachers’ perceptions on the positive effect of text-messaging on the students’ academic writing………...………56
Graph 21: Teachers’ perceptions on the students’ non distinction of the context of using formal and informal language………...57
Graph 22: Teachers’ perceptions on the ignorance of capitalization,the option of uncommon abbreviation in their formal writing………..57
IX
Graph 23: Teachers’ perceptions on the negative effect of text-messaging on students ‘academic writing………..58
Graph 24: Teachers’ perceptions towards the effect of text-messaging that is spotted in good students assignments……….…………58
Graph 25: Teachers’ perceptions towards the use of shortening in their students’ formal writing………...………59
Graph 26: Teachers’perceptions on the most affected aspect in their students’academic writing………...…………60
Graph 27: Teachers’ perceptions on the positive development that text-messaging provide on the students’ academic writing……….60
Graph 28: Teachers’ perceptions on the omission of consonants and vowels that destroy their students’ writing………..………..61
Graph 29: Teachers’perceptions towards the misunderstanding that shortened word create in their students’ academic writing………..………61
Graph 30: Teachers’ perceptions towards text-messaging as a sign of creativity and proficiency………62
Graph 31.Teachers opinions on students TM’s use………..………..……..57
Graph 32.The violation of Punctuation is a result of text-messaging or not ………..……..…59
X Table of Content DEDICATIONS ... II ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... III ABSTRACT ... IV LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... V LIST OF FIGURES ... VI LIST OF TABLES... VII LIST OF GRAPHS ... VIII TABLE OF CONTENT ... X
GENERAL INTRODUCTION ... 1
1) BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ... 1
2) STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ... 3
3) AIMS OF THE STUDY... 4
4) RESEARCH QUESTIONS ... 4
5) HYPOTHESIS ... 4
6) MEANS OF RESEARCH ... 4
7) STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY ... 4
CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 6
SECTION ONE: COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION... 6
INTRODUCTION ... 6
1.1.1. DEFINITION OF COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION ... 6
1.1.2. MODES OF COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION ... 7
1.1.3. BENEFITS OF COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATION ... 7
1.1.4. COMMUNICATION THROUGH COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATION ... 8
1.1.5. TEXT-MESSAGING...12
1.1.5.1. TEXT –MESSAGE LANGUAGE ...13
1.1.5.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF TEXT-MESSAGINGLANGUAGE ...14
1.1.5.3. TEXT -MESSAGING USERS ...16
1.1.6. SOCIAL MEDIA ...18
CONCLUSION ...19
SECTION TWO: WRITING AS A SKILL ...20
INTRODUCTION ...20
1.2.1. DEFINITION OF WRITING ...20
1.2.1.1. FORMAL AND INFORMAL STYLES OF WRITING ...22
1.2.2. THE STAGES OF WRITING PROCESS ...23
1.2.3. ACADEMIC WRITING ...26
1.2.4. THE IMPORTANCE OF WRITING ...28
1.2.5. THE COMPONENTS OF WRITING ...29
XI
1.2.7. THE IMPACT OF TEXT –MESSAGING ON STUDENTS’ WRITING ...31
CONCLUSION ...32
CHAPTER TWO: FIELD OF INVESTIGATION ...33
SECTION ONE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY...33
INTRODUCTION ...33
2.1.1. METHODOLOGY ...33
2.1.2. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS ...34
2.1.3. RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS ...34
2.1.3.1. QUESTIONNAIRES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE IN THE RESEARCH ...34
2.1.3.2. DESCRIPTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRES ...35
2.1.3. PROCEDURE OF DATA ANALYSIS ...36
2.1.4. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ...37
CONCLUSION: ...37
SECTION TWO: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS ...38
INTRODUCTION ...38
2.2.1. THE ANALYSIS OF THE STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE ...38
2.2.2. THE ANALYSIS OF THE TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE ...51
2.2.3. DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS ...63
CONCLUSION ...65
SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...66
GENERAL CONCLUSION ...67
REFERENCES ...69
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1) Background of the Study
In a world craving development and means that may help in easing the daily struggles,
it seems impossible to escape the presence of technology that has, without any doubt, enriched
people lives and resulted in significant advances in every part of human life. Internet, for
instance, is ever-changing and expanding day after day, more options are available for the
public. It is making, not only communication instant, but also having an unlimited access to
knowledge anywhere you are. When we say internet, the first thing that comes to mind is
communication, since it is the basis of international wireless human connection. People are
spending hours on their cell phones surfing and scrolling down their feeds. Social media
became a major part of the human daily life. This phenomenon has in one way or another
given rise to a new register of language called ‘textese ‘which is a new form of written
language used in short messages andtexting.
In the last decade, text-messaging has become the most preferable technological device
used to communicate among people more particularly youth generation. Swartzlander (2010)
admitted that “It is a language that has swept our world like a tsunami, in less than a decade”
(p. 117). “ The language of texting has its own style, and the dominant features in
text-messaging language are the use of abbreviations , slang , syntactic reductions, asterisk,
emoting, deletion of parts of speech, especially subject pronoun, preposition, articles, copula,
auxiliary or modal verbs and contractions” (Doring, 2002; Ling, 2008, p. 156). Text
messaging has become a significant part of students’ social lives (Harley, Pemberton, Win,
&Wilcox, 2007, p. 237). However; due to the extensive use of text-messaging, students tend
This tendency leads many researchers to take the effect of text-messaging on students’
academic performance as a problematic that needs to be investigated, which resulted in the
occurrence of two opposite schools of thought. Some researchers believe that text messaging
cannot be seen as a new language, and therefore, not as a threat to the Standard English
language. Among the strong supporters of this view and the positive effects of textese on
academic writing is David Crystal who held that it boosts their written skills, thus, is a
blessing. Crystal (2008) thought otherwise “Text messaging does not really pose a threat as
many fear it can. The more students write, the more they improve their writing skills.
Therefore, its increased use rather enhances the literacy of users, especially the youth instead
of harming it “(Crystal, 2008, p.2).
Furthermore, Mildren (2010) found that the correlation between students who use text
language in their classrooms and their ability to spell and use proper forms of English is
extremely positive, pointing out that the extensive text use can have “a significant impact on
their ability to spell and write properly” (Mildren, 2010,p.30).
On the other hand; some researchers argued that text messaging has negative impact
on students’ academic writing. According to Niedzielski& Preston (1999) and Cameron
(1995) “... Students sometimes confuse the lines between formal English and the very
informal SMS language. This is thought to be causing them to make a lot of spelling and
grammatical errors in their assignments and tests, and makes it hard for teachers to distinguish
what they are trying to say”.(p.12885)
Moreover, there is a believe that the extensive use of text messaging make the
language eternal, through its use people can understand each other and develop mutual
intelligibility, in this regard; Baron (2010) maintained that “unless we learn to regulate our
current language use, we will have difficulty understanding each other and the standardized
forms of our written language will be lost.” (Maynard, 2009, p. 2)
standards spelling and orthography words, especially in paper and pencil writing has always
been the responsibility of text messaging. Thurlow (2006) suggested that the format of
language that youth are addicted to use results in bad writing habits and will produce incorrect
non-standard written work. Saloman and Perkins (1989)proposed “a Low- Road/High-Road
Theory of Transfer of Learning where low-road transfer suggests a learned, somewhat
automatic transfer of skills when two tasks are closely related to each other, while high-road
transfer suggests that previously acquired skills are used with more conscious intent or
effort”(p. 423). Low –road transfer is automatic triggering of well practice routines in a
similar context that anyone can perform the skill without thinking about it, while High- road
transfer demands time for exploration and the investment of mental effort of the acquired
skills.
This theory implies that the daily usage of shortcuts and abbreviations in writing can
be predicted to be transferred and used in Formal English writing which may hinder the
writing skill. Furthermore, Low-road transfer may be seen when the language of text
messaging is “similarly situated” to informal or non-standard language, thus, this may lead to
weaker informal writing. However, when the language of text messaging is dissimilar to
informal language, the theory would assume more high –road transfer implying less negative
impact on writing.
2) Statement of the Problem
In this era, we witnessed two different standpoints relatedto teachers’ and students’
perceptions towards the implementation of Text -Messaging in EFL learners’ academic
writing. Many researchers did investigate the issue matter but however each era and each
environment play a major role in the obtained result which made it necessary to further
3) Aims of theStudy
The present study aims to investigate students’ and teachers’perceptions towards the use
of text -messaging in academicwriting.
4) ResearchQuestions
To fulfill the previously mentioned aims, the present study is directed by the following
research questions:
-What attitudes do EFL Master 2 students at JijelUniversity hold towards the impact of text-messagingon their academic writing?
-What attitudes do teachers at the English language Department of Jijel University hold
towards the use of text-messaging in their learners’ academic writing?
5) Hypothesis
The following hypotheses to be examined in the present study are:
- Students who use more abbreviations and shortcuts in their electronic communication will
produce better informal writing but weaker academic writing.
6) Means of Research
In order to achieve the objective of the study and to test the research hypotheses, the
quantitative research tools used during data gathering,questionnaires for both students and
teachers.
7) Structure of the Study
Our research is divided into two parts: the theoretical part and the field of study. The
text-messaging placed under the umbrella of “Computer –Mediated Communication”. We will
present the concept of (CMC) and its modes. Moreover, we will provide an account of its
benefits on the users as an intra/interpersonal communication channel. Furthermore, we will
spot the light on the medium of text -messaging, its language and the different characteristics
of its language, as well as the users of text-messaging .Whereas, section two deals with the
dependent variable which is academic writing. It discusses the various definitions of writing,
formal and informal styles of writing, academic writing, its importance and its components. It
shows the relationship between text-messaging and the writing skill and it concludestheimpact
of text-messaging on students’ academic writing as being the most important element in the
research.
Chapter two, which is the field of investigation, i.e. the practical part is divided into
two sections. Section one demonstrates the methods used in this research and describes the
means and procedures to collect and analyze data. Section two presents the reader with the
results and discussion of the findings obtained from data. At the end of this chapter some
pedagogical recommendation have been suggestedwhich may contribute in the improvement
of writing among students of English .Furthermore, suggestions for further research have
Chapter One: Literature Review
Section One: Computer-Mediated Communication
Introduction
This section presents CMC, its modes and benefits. It provides information about
different forms of CMC in general, and covers “Text-messaging” as another form of CMC in
particular; giving further detail on its language, its characteristics and the type of users that
cannot underestimate its importance in their lives. Finally, it concludes with social media at
the end of this chapter; spotting the light on Facebook as the most popular and used social
media platform over the world.
1.1.1. Definition of Computer-Mediated Communication
Hiltz and Turoff (1978) were the first ones to coin and to launch the term (CMC) while
making a test on computer conferencing via internet. They describe CMC as the process by
which people use networked telecommunication systems that ease transmitting, encoding and
decoding messages.
CMC is broadly defined as “Human communication via computer” (Higgins, 1991, p.
69).In different, but related context, December (1997), more specifically stated that CMC is a
process of human communication through computers, engaging people, placed in particular
setting, involving processes to modeled media for a variety of purposes.
In that sense, according to Nguyen (2008), “CMC has been extensively researched from
disciplinary and various methodological perspectives. This form of communication with a
broad scope of processes and tool-used, facilitates information design and delivery, and
human-human and human-machine interactions with structural, cognitive and socio cognitive
1.1.2. Modes of Computer-Mediated Communication
There are two major modes synchronous CMC and Asynchronous CMC.
Computer communication are synchronous when the participants are aware of real time
interaction; they are online at the same time like spoken interaction, synchronous CMC
requires its communicators to be online simultaneously for successful communication.
Furthermore, synchronous CMC allows for interactive written communication, for example,
in different forms of chat (web chat, IRC, etc.). According to Wanschauer (2001),
“Synchronous computer-mediated communication, where by people communicate in real time
via chat or discussion software, with all participants at their computers at the same time” (p.
207). Video and audio are synchronous when the participants can see and hear other
participants, more or less in realtime.
According to Wanschauer (2001), “Asynchronous CMC, where by people communicate
in delayed fashion by computers, e.g., by e-mail; and the reading and writing of online
documents via the internet” (p. 207).Simply put, asynchronous CMC does not require the
responses of participants to be immediate and simultaneously online at the same time or place
in order for communication to take place successfully. Therefore, the sender takes advantage
of time for planning and editing the message, in this context. Asynchronous CMC then seems
like traditional writing. The commonly examples of asynchronous CMC are e-mail and SMS.
1.1.3. Benefits of Computer Mediated Communication
Computer-mediated communication helps people to exchange and store information at
any time, easily and at low priced. It makes it easier for individuals to engage in
communication with other parties regardless of time or location, mediated by interconnected
computers (Kang, 2007, p.2).
Unlike traditional social communication, Computer-mediated communication is
particularly attractive for those who perceive themselves as shy, but have the innate desire to
interact socially with others; they can build meaningful online relationships without having to
be too close, or engage in extensive conversation. He described this phenomenon as a “virtual
experience of present absence” (p. 1027).Furthermore, since shy individuals believe that they
do not possess the necessary repertoire of behaviors to participate effectively in social
encounters,CMC may be a way for them that seems less riskier than face-to-face interaction to
develop closeness quickly and to overcome their fears of negative self-presentation.
Similarly, Caplan (2003) reported in his research regarding the perceived benefits of
computer-mediated communication that it requires interpersonal simplicity which makes
iteasier for a lot of users. In addition, it was regarded to be less risky than face-to-face
communication since it offers relative anonymity, control over self-presentation, reducing the
risks of self-disclosure, and less social responsibility toward others (pp. 2-3).
1.1.4. Communication through Computer Mediated Communication
The development of media communication has increased and it is always on the rise;
people have been always looking for new different ways to use it. First of all, they have used
the telephone as a technological device of swapping voice symbols, and transmitting the
written materials over it. Although the latter invention is different in its communication (voice
communication over the phone line), it has the same history with communication over the
internet; that was generally bound to text-based exchanges. World Wide Web, E-mail ,
Bulletin Board System (BBS) , Multiuser Domain (MUD), and Internet Relay Chat ( IRC) are
forms of exchanging textual messages. Earlier, people in online communication were using
only words, but now they can share sounds and images through their laptops or smartphones.
CMC’s forms are examined by scholars as thefollowing:
Text-based computer-mediated communication; the interaction and transfer of
However, one emerging trend is that even within text-based computer
mediatedcommunication there was always a tendency to include images and sound (such as in
Email); an important aspect of what has come to be known as visual language or visual
communication (Horn, 1999, p. 135).
The World Wide Web (WWW); The acronym “WWW” stands for the World Wide
Web, According to Holt (2004) “the web ’’is ‘‘the set of interlinked hypertext documents on
serves around the world ’’ (p. 4). In the sense that by means of hypertext links users are given
access to a vast way of documents.
Moreover, Dudeney (2007, p. 3) defined the web as the medium of options either for
new users or experienced ones on the net; it makes it easier for them to obtain any files or
documents that have been stored in the computer.
Most modern computers already come supplied to get connected to the Internet .What
is needed is an internet service provider, a phone line, a modem ,followed with one mouse-
click and one can be anywhere in the world . Thus, since the WWW is a form of CMC that
possesses many functions and communicative properties such as possessing discussion groups
and e-mail links, and the capability to check out the latest newsgroup messages, or chatting
with some friends through the Web, it becomes a doorway for people to the other text-based
forms.
Electronic Mail and Listserv Interaction; Email is the short form for “Electronic mail”; it
is one of the fundamental internet technologies and the most popular channel that was used by
nearly every person for the sake of communication. It is a way to send and receive messages
of unlimited length to one person or many people at once over a computer network instead of
being sent through the traditional mail (the post) .In Herring’s (1996) words, email was
defined as follows:
A text-based asynchronous, and involves message-by-message transmission. A
header, containing ‘to’’, ‘‘from’, and the subject lines as well as routing
information (p. 119).
The first mail was sent in 1971, and it was used by the government in the United States.
Originally emails at that time were text only, did not support having documents, photos, or
videos attached to them. It was only in the late 1980s email started to look like it does today;
with the possibility to attach document, photos, and computer files, having access to web
services like Amazon, Facebook...etc. so one can be safely identified and connected.
Moreover, it does not cost, and it is used a lot by adults especially teachers. According
to Dudeney (2007, p. 10), Email is for many reasons the most used tool on the internet; it is
easy to use , it is for free, it arrives almost instantly and usually reliable. It can be used directly
from the browser (Firefox, internet explorer). Furthermore, most emails are not intended for
public view; it is usually written by one person to another person. This is what makes the
language often informal and contains punctuation and spelling mistakes.
Another form of asynchronous CMC is Bulletin Board Systems (BBS), Bulletin Board
System emerged as one of the earliest known forms of social media, through the 1980s and
early 1990s, before the WWW arrived. Later, with the rise of the Internet, the BBS has come
to refer to a central, online repository or forum .It is a computer server or an application of
communication devoted for sharing or exchanging information or events that might be
interested among users on the Internet.
According to Wood & Smith (2005, p. 12), Bulletin Board System (BBS) is an
alternative of e-mail and also a form of text-based communication, but distinguished by the
size of the audience. On some BBSs, it is possible for the users to upload and download
software and data, read news and bulletins, and exchange messages with other users through
public message boards and sometimes via direct chatting. Some bulletin boards are considered
more of a talk-net than a platform to exchange research information. Most BBSs updating
Internet Relay Chat (IRC); IRC rises from the roots of BBS and was initially intended to
extend it, offering a similar service and experience. It has remained in use until this day. IRC
was the internet’s first widely popular quasi –synchronous (CMC) that attracts every one
attention. According to Thurlow, Tomic&Lengel (2004), IRC is a ‘‘synchronous, multi-user
text based chat technology” (p. 182) Furthermore, Internet relay chat is defined in Wikipedia
(2010) as “a form of real-time Internet text messaging (chat) or synchronous conferencing. It
is mainly designed for group communication in discussion forms, but also allows one-to-one
communication via private message as well as chat”.
In other words, users on IRC have the opportunity to communicate simultaneously with
each other either publicly or privately. Werry (1996, p. 47-63) in that context pointed out that
this multiparty communication mechanism takes part on the so called “channels” that are
upheld by means of server networks. When users want to participate in one or more IRC
conversations, they use an IRC client (program) like (mIRC) that is connected to anIRC
Network. An IRC network is made up of one or more IRC servers that are all connected to
each other. By connecting to any of the servers on a particular network, and joining a channel
(i.e. choose their screen “nickname”) and enter a channel, they will instantly begin to see chat
messages from other IRC.
Furthermore, Werry (1996, p. 50), indicated that (IRC) has “netiquette” (i.e. “rules” for
acceptable and non-acceptable behavior). Once users are identified at the time of connection
by a chosen nickname that usually represent their personality or individuality, they attempt to
use the same nickname each time they connect to IRC. If the desired nickname is already
taken by another user, then another nickname must be chosen. Any specific nickname may or
may not be available when a user attempts to connect to the IRC network. It is also possible to
change nicknames while connected to IRC.
Multiuser Domains (MUD) is another form of synchronous communication that is
the fantasy role-playing game "Dungeons and Dragons”. It is a multiplayer computer online
game that combine elements of role-playing games, player versus player and social Internet
Relay Chat channels where interaction among users crop up; typically running on a bulletin
board system or Internet server. Originally, it composed of nothing than the words on
computer screen and user’s imagination; where players interact with each other in some kind
of virtual world via commands they have to type, all other things about a MUD are created.
Although it is all rule-governed by the administering program, MUD participants admire the
freedom in adopting characters that have nicknames, in turning words into movement via the
virtual fantasy environment that they follow on the screen (Wood & Smith, 2005, p. 14).
However not all MUDs are games; some are designed for educational purposes, while others
are purely chat environments.
1.1.5. Text-Messaging
Text messaging is defined as the use of social networking services that encompasses
messages to facilitate exchanging information over mobile phone between groups and
individuals (Tilley, 2009, p. 56).In that sense, text-messaging can be considered as the most
popular and the fastest growing medium of electronic communication used in computer
mediated communication. Text messaging, or more specifically SMS (Short Message
Service), is known as “textese” and” text speak, it enables texters to send and receive no more
than to 160 characters by mobile phones. Although text-messaging is the main source of
updating things happening around people, and it has revolutionized the world of
communication, it has led to a new variety of written language known for its particular
the most preferable channel among teens and young adult, In order to get more details,
subjective information have been settled in the comingsubsections.
1.1.5.1. Text –MessageLanguage
The change and development in communication technology, has given birth to new
variation in written language generally used in young people's CMC, named ‘Net speak’,
’Net lingo ’,’Cyber slang’ and ‘text-speak’. In that sense, Text messaging has developed its
own language that is often referred to astext-speak or ―textisms (Durkin et al., 2010, p. 57).
Text language is differential; its foundations are rooted in the fundamentals of the
written language but it contains characteristics of the spoken language (Durkin et al., 2010, p.
57). This form of language has been as a way to save space in order to fit more information
instead of sending multiple messages which cost a lot (Mose, 2013, p.12).
In text language, users generally shorten words by dropping vowels or endings or by
using single letters, numbers, symbols or combinations as a replacement for letters, syllables,
or whole words (Durkin et al., 2010, p. 57). For example, words are shortened (e. g, .sat rather
than Saturday), numbers are used to replace words (e.g.2 for two), also symbols are used to
replace words (e.g., & instead of and). In addition to the overuse use of abbreviation such as
“tq” for “thank you” which can save time, and can also determine one’s membership of a
social group (Green, 2003; Taylor & Harper, 2001).On the light of alteration in the structure
of language, Artistic (1984 p. 140)stated that:
Only when the printed word freed itself completely from sound did it become
natural to regard words as arbitrary signs of the ideas they called to mind .In the
centuries following the invention of the printing press, interest in the power of all
kinds grewremarkably.
is the most striking feature of text–message.
1.1.5.2. Characteristics of Text-MessagingLanguage
The use of text-messaging as a means of global communication has significantly
increased among people. Particular language with different characteristics has occurred at the
level of typographic symbols and emoticons, contractions, clippings and shortening, acronyms
and initialisms, accent stylizations and non-standard spellings, letter/number homophones,
and onomatopoeic spelling.
Typographic Symbols and Emoticons: The use of typographic symbols and emoticons are applied extensively to show the reaction of CMC users. Typographic symbols are single
or several characters which portray whole words (Bieswanger, 2008, p.146), they are used in
textism in order to transmit the feelings of the speakers. Example of these multiple characters
that are often found in SMS is punctuation as in (!!) to express emphasis, and “…” to show
contemplation, the use of capitalization of words to show emphasis (e.g.SURE).
Moreover, the use of emoticons is the non-verbal graphical signal of emotion
(Dresner&Herring2010, p.146), and it is commonly used as a replacement for illustrating the
emotional tone and non-verbal gestures such as facial expressions (Derks et al. 2008).
Emoticons or smiley refers to the combination of punctuation marks such as :) and :( to
express happiness and sadness. However, in computer mediated communication, the absence
of nonverbal cues constrains the communicators’ ability to disseminate social information
(Rice, 1984, p. 188).
Contractions, Clippings and Shortenings: Contractions are associations of two words that lead to a smaller number of characters than the spelling of the two words separately.
Moreover, in contractions, letters are usually removed from the middle of the new
combination which is similar to medial clippings. Contractions are words with omitted middle
(Crystal, 2008). Reported contractions include "txt/text" and "hmwr/homework" (Plester,
Wood & Joshi, 2009). Clipping occurs as parts of a word are deleted. Thus, clipping includes
the deletion of letters at the end of a word, which Cannon (1989, p. 108) called "traditional
clipping" or G-clippings which is the most used category by text users example
“gettin/getting. It includes also forms that show letter omission at the front, i.e. initial clipping
(e.g., burger/hamburger), together with medial clipping, and letter deletion in different places
in the same word, i.e. mixed clipping (e.g. flu/influenza).
Shortenings are all lexical forms that are made up by writing fewer characters rather than
the full form of a word or a mixture of words. Shortenings are words with missing end letters
(Thurlow& Brown, 2003), for example the way days and months are written “mon /Monday»,
and “aprl/April”.
Acronyms and Initialisms: In general terms, acronyms and initialisms involve shortening words to their initial letters (Crystal. 2008). Acronyms regarded as formal
shortenings that are accepted in formal writing especially in academic settings. Bauer (1988)
defined acronyms as “Words formed from the initial letters in a name, title or phrase” (Bauer,
1988: 39). Such as UNESCO for (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization), WTO for (World TradeOrganization).
The second most commonly used form of abbreviation is called initialisms, where all
letters of a word are dropped except for the first ones (Crystal, 2008, p. 42). Denning, Kessler,
and Leber (1995) pointed out that initialisms are created because people want to “Reduce
potentially long names to something manageable” (Denning et al, 1995: 59). Furthermore,
initialisms are considered as informal shorter forms that consist of the first letter (s) of a
mixture of more than one word such as (omg for oh my God).
Accent Stylizations and Non-standard Spellings: Accent stylizations, categorized broadly as "Youth code" (Plesteretal. 2008), refer to words which their spelling are aligned
(Crystal, 2008). Accent stylizations are also often employed as humorous alternatives
(Thelwall,2009).Non-conventional spellings are words that vary in their orthography as
opposed to the formal version of the word, but with unimpaired phonology e.g. ‘fite’ for fight.
Despite the fact that Non-standard or non-conventional spellings follow legitimate
letter-sound correspondences in a language, they are not the traditional spelling for that particular
word, for example, "sum/some", "thanx/thanks, and the much publicized use of "k" in"school"
(Thurlow& Brown, 2003).
Letter/Number Homophones: Letter-/Number-Homophones are among the most remarkable features of text messaging. Also termed logograms, phonetic reductions, or
syllabograms, letter number homophones use a letter or-number to represent a word or
part of it (Thurlow&Poff, 2013, p. 146). Crystal (2001, p. 229) referred to the phenomenon
of replacing words or parts of words by letters and numbers as "Rebus-like potential" of
letters and numbers. Example “wuu2/what you up to ". It demonstrates both types of
homophone, where "wuu/what you up" indicate a letter homophone and "2/to indicates a
numberhomophone.
Onomatopoeic spellings: It is when the same word or letter is repeated a number of times throughout the same piece of writing. (e.g.,“haha”).
1.1.5.3. Text -Messaging Users
According to a new online poll of 2,089 U.S. teenagers, “Merry Christmas” is the very
first text that was sent on the 3rdof December, 1993 by a student who was working for the
Nokia Corporation .Since then, text messaging has gained popularity and has become one of
the preferred methods of telecommunication for teens and young adults; for them texting has
been seen as an alternative that replaces talking on cell phones (Lindley, 2008, p. 19). This
trend is clearly on the move. Over five years ago Pew Internet and American Life Project
Ys(i.e., 18-27 years old), as 63% of those with cell phones regularly send text messages”
(Pew Internet and American Life Project, 2005, p. 1).
Such claims were supported by the Pew Research Centre, where a recent study by
Amanda Lenhart, Rich Ling, Scott Campbell, and Kristen Purcell (2010) reported that
“between February 2008 and September 2009, daily use of text messaging by teens shot up
from 38% in 2008 to 54% of all teens saying they text every day in 2009” (p. 30). Beyond the
increase infrequency, teens are also reported to be sending large quantities of text messages
day. According to Lenhart, Ling, Campbell, and Purcell (2010):
About 14% of teens send between 100-200 texts a day, or between 3000 and 6000 text
messages a month. Another 14% of teens send more than 200 text messages a day –or
more than 6000 texts a month. In light of these findings, it is not surprising that three-
quarters of teens (75%) have an unlimited text messaging plan. (p. 32).
All these percentages lead to one truth, that there were more people in the world sent
text- messaging than who had electricity in their homes.
Every day in Britain, 32% of adults are anticipated to send and receive text messages
(Office for National Statistics, 2003). Teenagers and young adults are not the only users; text
messaging is also widespread among young children (Ling, 2010; Ofcom, 2011a; Nielsen,
2010). More particularly, in an Australian surveys have revealed that 19% of 8- to 11-year-
olds and 76% of 12- to 14-year-olds possess mobile phone (Cupitt, 2008), and that 69% of
mobile phone users aged 14 years and over use text-messaging (Australian Government,
2008).
Text-messaging as a means of communication plays an ever-increasing role in
contemporary life, with nine point six trillion text-messages expected to be sent in 2012
(Portio Research, 2012). In Malaysia 32% of adult texters cannot stay away from texting
2007) and Japan (Ishii, 2006), young adults with lower social skills prefer texting to voice
communication. In the U.S.A, Filipino mothers with children extensive use texting to preserve
real-time relationships with their children (Uy-Tioco, 2007).
Similarly but with different context, young generation or “Net generation” has
embraced textisms as short cuts when communicating via electronic communication. The use
of textisms was encouraged by the limitations imposed by the small screens, alphanumeric
keypads, and 160-character message limit of early mobile phones. However, despite the
advent of QWERTY keyboards and word-predicting software, the use of textisms is still an
essential part of text-messaging for many, especially younger texters (De Jonge& Kemp,
2012; Wood et al., 2011).
1.1.6. SocialMedia
“The term medium stems from the Latin word ‘medius’, which means in the middle, or
the middle one. Media have to do with mediation. Social media mediate the social
relationships of human beings (Artz&Kamalipour, 2005, p. 189). The first term “social”
indicates the instinctual needs; we humans have to connect with other humans, the second
term “media” indicates the instruments that we adopt, and with which we make those
connections.
Social media or what is sometimes called “social network” is a kind of websites that
provide platforms where users can build connections, strengthen their socialites and
opportunities through creating virtual communities (groups) and pages to generate and share
content. This discriminates it from the earlier websites and other forms of broadcasts media
where users are limited to the passive viewing of content(Smith ET al.2011). The
mostworldwide platforms that Mankind has enormously benefited from and cannot
underestimate their importance in their lives are Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter…
website that was launched in February, 2004 by Harvard undergraduate Mark Zuckerberg.
This social utility was originally constructed for Harvard colleague students to get to know
each other. Facebook allows its users to create and customize their own profiles with photos,
videos, information and sharing online conversations with friends and family.
Although social media platforms are constantly changing and new ones are emerging,
Facebook by far remain the most popular and widely used social media platform on a global
level, with more than 1billion users worldwide. Bodomo (2010) defined FB as:
Facebook, the new CMC medium, would become one of the most popular Websites and now
attracts more than a 100 million participants. Its popularity has increased so much so that not
only the youth but some prominent members of older generations, such as businessmen and
politicians, even use it to get in touch with customers, constituents and other target groups (p.
316).
Conclusion
The process in which people deliver their sensations and thoughts is known as
communication. Through this section, entitled computer mediated communication (CMC), the
latter is presented referring to its different modes of communication, it different forms and text
–messaging, be they the main concepts that are associated to online communication. Besides,
text-messaging language was discussed with its main characteristics. This section ended up
with an overview about social media; giving the example of Facebook platform as the most
popular and used social media websites all over the world. In the following section, we will
Section Two: Writing as a Skill
Introduction
Writing represents one of the fundamental skills to students due to its primary use
inside the classroom. It is a complex process, especially when it is in a foreign language,
students may find difficulties to compose correct sentences. However, because of the daily use
of the internet, students may adapt wrong languagehabits.
This section provides a definition of writing in general, displaying the main
differences between formal and informal writing and how writing is processed with a brief
overview on academic writing. It includes its components and its importance. Finally, it
covers the relation between text messaging and students’ writing and how student’s writing is
affected by text messaging.
1.2.1. Definition of Writing
Writing is a productive skill that represents the action of assembling words to create
sentences, paragraphs and essays in order to deliver information. Byrne (1988) argued that
writing is more than assembling ‘graphic symbols’. According to him, “writing involves the
encoding of a message of some kind: that is, we translate our thoughts into language” (p. 1).
In addition, Widdowson (1978) viewed writing as a productive and visual medium that
produces “letters which are arranged into groups to form words in accordance with the
grapho-logical system of English” (p. 62). Moreover, Nunan (1989) considered writing as “an
extremely complex cognitive activity in which the writer is required to demonstrate control of
a number of variables simultaneously” (p. 36). In a nutshell, writing was agreed on as a
complex, productive process of transforming spoken language into words.
Previously, writing was not important as it is nowadays. According to Halliday (1985), the
enough to fulfill the communication needs of people. However, due to cultural changes
writing became much more required. This cultural shift leads to the development of writing
(p. 39).Writing became more requested, as Halliday (1985) stated:
Language had to be reduced to a form where it existed rather than simply happening—where a text could be referred to over and over again, instead of having to be performed each time like the literature and sacred texts of oral
communities. In modern jargon, a process had to be transformed into a product
(pp. 39-40).
Echoing the view that writing is a complex process that required the control of different
variables, Murray and Moore (2006) stated that:
Writing involves starting, progressing and finishing a complicated, challenging
combination of tasks. It requires you to activate lots of different skills and
orientations, sometimes at different stages and phases in the process, sometimes
all at the same time. Some researchers have claimed that writing can be
experienced as one of the most difficult of all skills, requiring an intricate
combination of neurological, physical, cognitive and affective competencies […].
Others […] claim that even if writing makes complicated demands on your skills
and abilities, it is possible to make writing easy, or at least easy enough for it to
feel worth tackling regularly and with good effect. (p.6)
According to Nunan (1999), besides developing students’ academic capabilities, the
importance of teaching involves also preparing students to use different kinds of writing for
different purposes outside the classroom. Nevertheless, it can be challenging to achieve
length, coherency and fluency in a piece of writing in the second language (Hayik, 2018 p.
Moreover, teaching writing prepares students to adapt and master any genres of
writing in an academic way since EFL learners have to be skilled when it comes to writing due
the format of the exam test which is most of the time essays. Nevertheless, as important as
writing is, it does not cancel or diminish its complexity as aprocess.
1.2.1.1. Formal and Informal Styles ofWriting
Writing styles vary depending on the subject, the audience and the purpose behind it.
Bell (1997) viewed stylistic variation as the outcome of how individuals express themselves in
diverse ways, and how the same person can formulate the same idea differently depending on
the audience through using different modalities (p.240-241). Due to the variation in writing
styles, ‘a complete language has its formal and informal styles’ (Haugen, 1997,p.349).
Heylighen and Dewaele (1999) asserted that among language styles and registers,
formal/informal dimension has been considered as an essential style (p. 1). Additionally,
Jordan (1999) stated that both written and spoken English share the formal and informal
dimensions, and that they are the most important styles of writing. She stressed the fact that
the two styles should be used separately to achieve uniformity and consistency (p.88).
Formal and informal writing vary on different linguistic levels. Both styles are correct, but
they are used for different purposes; formal English is used in academic writing and other
formal situations like business, work, etc., andinformal English is used in casual conversation
between friends and daily life. Heylighen and Dewaele (1999) stated that: “A formal style is
characterized by detachment, accuracy, rigidity and heaviness; an informal style is more
flexible, direct, implicit, and involved, but less informative”.(p.1)
According to Heylighen and Dewaele (1999), formality features are described as context
independent; in other words, explicit and that through the use of nouns and adjectives to
supplementalinformation, discourse markers and articles increase the formality of a text. The
next feature of formality is precision; less fuzziness in the text. Last but not least, long
sentences increase the formality of texts (p. 4-13). Additionally, Chang and Swales (1999)
stated that the features of informality are using first person pronouns, broad reference, split
infinitive, conjunctive adverb at the beginning of sentences, sentence fragments, contractions,
direct questions, exclamations, ending sentence with prepositions and listing expressions.
(p.148)
According to Begaga (2016), the writing styles differ on several levels. When it comes to
grammar, informal writing is based on the use of contractions, the use of the first, second or
third person, the use of second person pronoun to address readers, and the use imperative and
active voices, etc. Whereas formal writing is based on the usage of full words, the use the
third person only, the avoidance of the use of second person pronoun to address readers, the
avoidance of the use of the imperative voice and passive voice, and the use of short and
simple sentences. In terms of vocabulary, in informal style, the writer uses: colloquial words
but in the formal way it is avoided; the writer should write normal words. In addition, in
informal style the writer may use abbreviations, but the full forms of words are required in
formal style (p. 22-23). The two common styles of writing (formal and informal) have
different features and are used for differentpurposes.
1.2.2. The Stages of WritingProcess
The writing process differed over the years; there were different visions when it came to
how writing is managed. According to Hyland (2003), the writing process is ‘recursive,
interactive, and potentially simultaneous’ where the writer can go back and forth between the
Figure 1: Process model of writing instruction. (Hyland, 2003 p.11)
The illustration above puts forward the writing stages, starting with choosing the topic
of the piece of writing and brainstorming ideas related the selected topic. Thereafter, the ideas
are written and discussed among the group or with the teacher to be then adjusted and
approved. Before the evaluation of the teacher, the piece of writing should be checked
concerning the form, style, the layout … etc. Finally, the piece can be published or presented
which is an optional stage to then be criticized and examined.
Flower and Hayes (1980) described the stages of writing as a ‘set of distinguishable
processes that the writer mustorchestrate in the act of writing’. These processes are: planning;
the stage where the thinking, the brain storming, the organizing, and the deciding are made,
translating; is putting the planned idea into words and last but not least reviewing;is the
evaluation of the end product. However, these processes are conducted under the supervision
of three items whichare:
Task environment: it is everything that the writer is surrounded by; it can be the
The writer’s long term memory (LMT): is all the information the writer has about not
only the target topic but also the process ofwriting.
The monitor: is ‘the executive of the writing process’ who decides when to move to the
next stage of the writingprocess.
This model of writing is simplified in the following figure:
Figure 2: The structure of the writing model (Flower & Hayes, 1980 p.208)
As the figure above shows, the writing process starts with defining the topic, the
audience and the exigency which is the environment of the written piece. After setting the
environment, the writing process begins with specifying the aim and organizing the ideas
related to the topic through brainstorming with a constant monitoring of the teacher. Last but
not least, the produced work is then evaluated and revised.
different elaborated processes of writing, each writer has its own and personal way and stages
he goes by while producing a piece ofwriting.
1.2.3. Academic Writing
Academic Writing represents one type of writing. It is characterized by its formal
styleand objectivity. It is any formal written work produced in academic settings like school,
work, Etc. Academic writing is the writing style that is required in university and college. It
varies from the other kinds of writing by its tone, audience and purpose. The tone is based on
thewordchoice,thegrammaticalstructuresofsentencesandsentenceslength.Theaudiencein
academic writing is the teacher or instructors. Lastly, the purpose, which shapes the piece of
writing, organizes the writing in a way that suits its purpose (Oshima& Hogue, 2006,
p.265).Furthermore, Geyte (2013) defined academic writing as follow:
Academic writing is writing which is done by scholars (students oracademics) for
otherscholars to read. It can take many forms: journalarticles, textbooks, dissertations,
group project reports, etc. Althoughstudents are increasingly being asked to write
different types of academictext, the essay still remains the most popular type of
assignment. (p. 9)
English academic writing is known for its formality. It is characterized by the absence
of conversational features and the use of an appropriate academic vocabulary. It also avoids:
contractions,interjections and hesitation fillers,addressing the reader directly, phrasal verbs,
direct questions, adverbs in initial or final positions, inappropriate negative forms, short forms
of the words or slang and figures at the beginning of the sentence.Moreover and since
academic should preserve an objective and scholarly tone, adopting an appropriate point of
view (the use of personal pronouns) is crucial in the piece of writing’s structure. However,
personal pronouns are avoided in academic writing which leans more toward impersonal
conclusion which is called ‘a cautious manner of writing’. The latteraims accuracy and
protection of the author from critics for possible errors or invalidclaims. Cautious writing also
allows for other opinions or points ofview. The main linguistic ways of doing this is through:
using modal verbs,using adjectives that express probability,using a there is construction with
the word possibility, using adverbs that express certainty and probability, using verb phrases
that distance the writer from the statements or conclusions he/she makes, using quantity
words and using statements of shared knowledge, assumptions, and beliefs.(Yakhontova,
2003, p. 25-31)
The following figure demonstrates how academic writing is structured:
Figure 3: The structure of academic writing (Hood, 2013 p.6)
The figure above outlines the structure of academic writing in a triangle. It summaries
it as a combination of introduction of the topic, information and facts about the topic that
would lead the reader to the aim of the piece of writing to concluded it.
Accordingly, academic writing stands out from the other kinds of writing based on its
audience, tone and purpose which lead to a distinct structure of writing. It is used for
academic purposes. It is characterized by its formality, choice of words, objectivity, scholarly
1.2.4. The Importance of Writing
A long time ago, there was an insistence on the priority of spoken language over
writing .This view is found even in De Saussure’s work (1916). However, after the Second
World War the situation has effectively changed, when linguists such as Pulgram (1951) and
Berry (1958) started to explore written language .The written language, nowadays and in most
societies has a significant social and educational role and its status has had, and still has a
high social dignity (Urbanova& Oakland, 2002, p. 31). In the importance of writing, Bacon
(1989) said “Reading makes a full man, conference a ready man, and writingan exact man”
(p. 80). Writing plays a crucial role in a person’s day to day life in several spheres like
official, academic, media and personalsettings.
In the field of education, writing plays a dominant role for writing projects,
assignments, examinations etc…,.Coffin et al. (2003) argued that writing is important since it
is used as tool of evaluation, it boosts student’s language abilities and it trains students as
future professionals in particular disciplines; once learners become more able to write well
and transmit their thoughts and ideas in papers, they are expected to perform perfectly in their
future as action researchers or professionals. In fact, writing is the only mode through which
learners are evaluated formally in academicsettings.
Writing is more demanding and required formal directions and instruction; in contrast,
speaking can be acquired naturally. Hence, the teachers of languages, more particularly of
English, have to help and encourage their learners to acquire all the skills in enhancing their
writing skills in order to facilitate the needs of the learners inside and outside the classroom.
According to Kroll (2003), “improving the writing abilities of students has both academic and
social implications.” (p. 30). Therefore, the importance of writing is a point that is commonly
shared by teachers as well as researchers in the field of language teaching and learning. In
“Writing is a powerful instrument of thinking because it provides students with a
way of gaining control over their thoughts. Writing shapes their perception of
themselves and the world .It aids in their personal growth and in their affecting
change on the environment. Students are often unaware of the power of the
written word yet the written word enables the writer perhaps for the first time to
sense the power of language to affect another through using, selecting and
rejecting, arranging and rearranging language, the student comes to understanding
how language is used” .(p. 12)
In this sense, one may assert that the ability to write shows the capability of one’s own
thought power and opinions that he/ she has had in his/ her minds and pen them down in a
creative fashion and that this skill is good way to help students develop their ability to use
language both personally and professionally since they have the sense of understanding how it
isused.
1.2.5. The Components ofWriting
Based on a study conducted by Diederich (1974), five main components of writing
were distinguished. The first component is concerned with the idea expressed: its richness,
soundness, clarity, development, relevance to the topic and its purpose. The second one is
related to mechanism: sentence structure, punctuation and spelling. The next component is
organization and analysis. The fourth one is wording and phrasing, i.e., the choice and
arrangement of words. Last but not least, the style which reflects the personal qualities
revealed by the writing, for instance: individuality, originality, interest and sincerity (p. 6-8).
However, Raimes (1984) identified nine components of writing which are: content, syntax,
grammar, mechanics, organization, word choice, purpose, the audience and the writer’s
The following diagram shows the components that a writer goes through to write a
good piece of writing:
Figure 4 1: Components of writing (Raimes, 1984:6)
The figure above demonstrates the elements of writing that a writer should take into
consideration and follow. In order to create a clear, fluent and easy to understand piece of
writing, the writer should define the topic, the audience and the purpose of the written piece.
Afterward, ideas are brainstormed and organized into paragraphs while taking into
consideration: grammar, mechanics, word choice and syntax.
The mastery of writing requires the collaboration of different components. In other terms,
writing is considered as complex or multidimensional process that implies a number of
features.
1.2.6. Text –Messaging andWriting
One of the most important characteristics of Text-messaging (TM) and many other
communication technologies is the potential learning tool. It is considered as a bridge that
plays a crucial role in helping students to learn school-related content , as it is affirmed by
teachers who ‘‘encourage students to use instant messaging shorthand to spark their thinking
