Kyoto, Japan April 4-6, 2006 International Symposium on GRAPHIC GGRRAAPPHHIICC Groundwater Resources Assessment Under the Pressures of Humanity and Climate Changes

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(1)Groundwater Resources Assessment Under the Pressures of Humanity and Climate Changes. GRAPHIC. International Symposium on GRAPHIC April 4-6, 2006 Kyoto, Japan. Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RIHN).

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(3) Preface. Groundwater is the major water resource across much of the world but there has been very little research on the potential effects of climate change, because of the invisibility of the phenomena and difficulty of the evaluations. Groundwater acts as a component of the global water cycle on the Earth, and awareness of the importance of global groundwater issues is now increasing. In this International symposium, the UNESCO-GRAPHIC (Groundwater Resources Assessment under the Pressures of Humanity and Climate Changes) project is introduced, and an overview of global groundwater issues such as the effects of climate changes and human activities on groundwater, methodologies for evaluating those effects, and a brief summary of current activities by an international scientific team in this field and the pilot projects are envisaged.. April 2006. Makoto Taniguchi Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Japan.

(4) List of content Agenda ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 Oral Presentation ‘‘UNESCO activities on groundwater studies’’ by Jose Luis Martin, Alice AURELI (UNESCO-IHP, France) ---------------------------------------------------- 9 ‘‘Introduction of the International Symposium on GRAPHIC’’ by Makoto TANIGUHI (RIHN, Japan) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------17 ‘‘Spatial Scaling of Surface Water Infiltration and its Implications for Estimating Groundwater Recharge’’ by Timothy R. GREEN (USDA, U.S.A)-----------------------------------------------------------------------------22 “Declining low flows, retention dams, and offshore groundwater resources: three key examples of changes in groundwater discharge, recharge and storage’’ by Henk KOOI (Vrije Universiteit, The Netherlands) --------------------------------------------------------------29 “U.S. Geological Survey’s Research Activities in a Highly Stressed Regional Aquifer, the High Plains Aquifer, USA” by Bret BRUCE (USGS, U.S.A) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34 “Understanding groundwater response to human- and climate-induced stresses: High Plains Aquifer, United States” by Jason GURDAK (USGS, U.S.A) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------39 “Temporal change of groundwater and subsurface environment at Tokyo Metropolitan area for recent sixty-years and its relation to human activities” by Tomochika TOKUNAGA (University of Tokyo, Japan) -------------------------------------------------------43 “Detection of regional land water mass variations in Indochina using GRACE satellite gravity data’’ by Yoichi FUKUDA (Kyoto University, Japan) ---------------------------------------------------------------------48 “Impacts of urbanization on groundwater quality in the Pearl River Delta, China” by Jianyao CHEN（CAS Sun Yat-sen University, China）----------------------------------------------------------52 “Distinguishing effects of climate variability and land use changes on hydrochemical composition – a case study from Japan” by Jens HARTMANN (University of Technology Darmstadt, Germany) ---------------------------------------57 “Variation in contaminant transport with urbanization: Comparison of some Asian cities” by Shin-ichi ONODERA (Hiroshima University, Japan) ----------------------------------------------------------62 “Molecular microbiological approaches to understand biogeochemical processes in deep aquifers” by Takeshi NAGANUMA (Hiroshima University, Japan) ---------------------------------------------------------66 “Best practice to reduce the impact of nitrate on groundwater quality – The europian water4all experience” by Kevin HISCOCK (University of East Anglia, U.K) ------------------------------------------------------------71 “Groundwater Resources as Subsystem for Domestic Water Supply Case Study Jakarta Metropolitan City, Indonesia” by Joesron Loebis (Research Institute for Water Resources, Indonesia) -----------------------------------------77 “Characteristics of isotopes and chemicals along Dongjian River, China” by Changyuan TANG (Chiba University, Japan) -------------------------------------------------------------------80 “Groundwater problems and database in Spain” by Juan Maria Fornes AZOCOITI (Geological and Mining Institute of Spain, Spain)----------------------85 “Human Security and Japan’s ODA Policy in Water Sector” by Masahiro MURAKAMI (Kochi University of Technology, Japan) ------------------------------------------89 “Groundwater in the Limpopo River Basin: Competing sector uses and their impacts’’ by Ola BUSARI (DBSA, South Africa) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------97 “A New Agenda for Community Development with Water, Sanitation and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa” by Kenji OHARA (Kochi University of Technology, Japan) ----------------------------------------------------101 2.

(5) “Strategy for groundwater resource development in Rayalaseema region in Southern India’’ by Yellaturu Venkatarami REDDY (Sri Venkatewara University, India) -------------------------------------105 “Framework for the Global Monitoring of Groundwater Resources’’ by Neno KUKURIC (IGRAC, Holland) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------110 “Climatic and Human Influences on Groundwater in Low Atolls’’ by Ian WHITE (Australian National University, Australia) ------------------------------------------------------116 “Application of remote and ground sensing techonologies in groundwater studies” by J.O.OKONKWO (Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa) --------------------------------------123 “Proposal of a study on strategy of sustainable groundwater use in Mongolia” by Maki TSUJIMURA (Tsukuba University, Japan) -------------------------------------------------------------128 “Changes of subsurface thermal environment and groundwater flow system measured by borehole temperature profiles and hydraulic heads at the interval of 4 years” by Yasuo SAKURA (Chiba University, Japan) ---------------------------------------------------------------------135 Poster Presentation “Storage and desalination of water of inferior quality produced in densely populated urban areas as a measure to mitigate impact of dry climate.” by Arie S. ISSAR (Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Islael) ------------------------------------------------142 “Techniques to assess human and climate impacts on groundwater - High Plains aquifer perspective” by Jason GURDAK and Breton BRUCE (USGS, U.S.A) ------------------------------------------------------143 “Modelling the impacts of climate change on Chalk groundwater resources for irrigation in eastern England (2011-2070)” by Kevin HISCOCK (University of East Anglia, U.K) -----------------------------------------------------------144 “Effect of the groundwater physico-chemical features by the recharged water from the paddy field” by Kunihide MIYAOKA (Mie University, Japan) ----------------------------------------------------------------145 “Laboratory experiments on nitrate movement in response to artificial rainfall events in heterogeneous porous media” by Fumi SUGITA (Chiba University of Commerce, Japan) -----------------------------------------------------146 “ARTIFICIAL GROUNDWATER RECHARGE IN QUETTA, PAKISTAN: NEED FOR COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AND CAPACITY BUILDING” by Asif Mumtaz Bhatti (Kochi University of Technology, Japan) ----------------------------------------------147 “Evaluation of groundwater resources in small islands” by S. Priyantha Ranjan (Tohoku University, Japan) -----------------------------------------------------------148 “Effects of sea level change on fresh coastal water” by Tomotoshi ISHITOBI (RIHN, Japan) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------149 Discussion -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------150 List of Participants ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------154 Pictures --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------156. 3.

(6) INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM on GRAPHIC Groundwater Resources Assessment under the Pressures of Humanity and Climate Change. Agenda th. Tuesday, 4 April 09.00–09.30 09.30–09.40 09.40–10.00 10.00–10.20. Registration Welcome address by Toshitaka HIDAKA (RIHN, Japan) UNESCO activities on groundwater studies by Jose Luis Martin (UNESCO-IHP, France) Introduction of the International Symposium on GRAPHIC by Makoto TANIGUHI (RIHN, Japan) Session 1: Changes in groundwater recharge, discharge and storage Chair: Ian White. 10.30–10.50. “Spatial Scaling of Surface Water Infiltration and its Implications for Estimating Groundwater Recharge” by Timothy R. GREEN (USDA, U.S.A) 10.50–11.10 “Declining low flows, retention dams, and offshore groundwater resources: three key examples of changes in groundwater discharge, recharge and storage” by Henk KOOI (Vrije Universiteit, The Netherlands) 11.10–11.30 “U.S. Geological Survey’s Research Activities in a Highly Stressed Regional Aquifer, the High Plains Aquifer, USA” by Bret BRUCE (USGS, U.S.A) 11.30–11.50 “Understanding groundwater response to human- and climate-induced stresses: High Plains Aquifer, United States” by Jason GURDAK (USGS, U.S.A) 11.50–12.10 “Temporal change of groundwater and subsurface environment at Tokyo Metropolitan area for recent sixty-years and its relation to human activities” by Tomochika TOKUNAGA (University of Tokyo, Japan) 12.10–12.30 “Detection of regional land water mass variations in Indochina using GRACE satellite gravity data by Yoichi FUKUDA (Kyoto University, Japan) 12.30–14.00 Lunch break Session 2: Changes in groundwater quality due to climate change and human activities Chair: Jason Gurdak. 14.00–14.20 14.20–14.40. “Impacts of urbanization on groundwater quality in the Pearl River Delta, China” by Jianyao CHEN（Sun Yat-sen University, China） “Distinguishing effects of climate variability and land use changes on hydrochemical composition – a case study from Japan” by Jens HARTMANN (Darmstadt 4.

(7) 14.40–15.00 15.00–15.20 15.20–15.40 15.40–16.00 16.00–16.20. 16.20–16.40. 18.00–20.00. University of Technology, Germany) “Variation in contaminant transport with urbanization: Comparison of some Asian cities” by Shin-ichi ONODERA (Hiroshima University, Japan) “Molecular microbiological approaches to understand biogeochemical processes in deep aquifers” by Takeshi NAGANUMA (Hiroshima University, Japan) Coffee break “Best practice to reduce the impact of nitrate on groundwater quality – The europian water4all experience” by Kevin HISCOCK (University of East Anglia, U.K) “Groundwater Resources as Subsystem for Domestic Water Supply Case Study Jakarta Metropolitan City, Indonesia” by Joesron Loebis (Research Institute for Water Resources, Indonesia) “Characteristics of isotopes and chemicals along Dongjian River, China” by Changyuan TANG (Chiba University, Japan) Concert and Reception – KYOTO GARDEN PALACE HOTEL Karasuma Shimo-chojamachi agaru, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto, 602-0912 Phone:+81- (0)75-411-0111 Fax:+81-(0)75-411-0403. Wednesday, 5th April Session 3: Managements, policy, and capacity building for groundwater Chair: Keven Hiscock. 09.30–09.50 09.50–10.10 10.10–10.30 10.30–10.50 10.50–11.10. 11.10–11.30. 11.30–13.40. “Groundwater problems and database in Spain” by Juan Maria Fornes AZOCOITI (Geological and Mining Institute of Spain, Spain) “Human Security and Japan’s ODA Policy in Water Sector” by Masahiro MURAKAMI (Kochi University of Technology, Japan) “Groundwater in the Limpopo River Basin: Competing sector uses and their impacts“ by Ola BUSARI (DBSA, South Africa) Coffee break “A New Agenda for Community Development with Water, Sanitation and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa” by Kenji OHARA (Kochi University of Technology, Japan) “Strategy for groundwater resource development in Rayalaseema region in Southern India “ by Yellaturu Venkatarami REDDY (Sri Venkatewara University, India) Lunch break Session 4: New methodologies for evaluating groundwater change Chair: Jun Shimada. 13.40–14.00 14.00–14.20 14.20–14.40 14.40–15.00 15.00–15.20. “Framework for the Global Monitoring of Groundwater Resources “ by Neno KUKURIC (IGRAC, Holland) “Climatic and Human Influences on Groundwater in Low Atolls “ by Ian WHITE (Australian National University, Australia)up discussion I, continuation “Application of remote and ground sensing techonologies in groundwater studies” by J.O.OKONKWO (Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa) “Proposal of a study on strategy of sustainable groundwater use in Mongolia” by Maki TSUJIMURA (Tsukuba University, Japan) “Changes of subsurface thermal environment and groundwater flow system 5.

(8) 15.20–15.40 15.40–18.00. measured by borehole temperature profiles and hydraulic heads at the interval of 4 years” by Yasuo SAKURA (Chiba University, Japan) Coffee break Poster Session. Thursday, 6th April 09.30–12.30 12.30–14.00 14.00–18.00. Discussion and Conclusions (including 10.50 – 11.10 Coffee break) Lunch break Excursion (Option, to be announced shortly). 6.

(9) Poster Presentations: “Storage and desalination of water of inferior quality produced in densely populated urban areas as a measure to mitigate impact of dry climate.” by Arie S. ISSAR (Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Islael) “Techniques to assess human and climate impacts on groundwater perspective” by Jason GURDAK and Breton BRUCE (USGS, U.S.A). High Plains aquifer. “Modelling the impacts of climate change on Chalk groundwater resources for irrigation in eastern England (2011-2070)” by Kevin HISCOCK (University of East Anglia, U.K) “Effect of the groundwater physico-chemical features by the recharged water from the paddy field” by Kunihide MIYAOKA (Mie University, Japan) “Laboratory experiments on nitrate movement in response to artificial rainfall events in heterogeneous porous media” by Fumi SUGITA (Chiba University of Commerce, Japan) “ARTIFICIAL GROUNDWATER RECHARGE IN QUETTA, PAKISTAN: NEED FOR COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AND CAPACITY BUILDING” by Asif Mumtaz BHATTI (Kochi University of Technology, Japan) “Evaluation of groundwater resources in small islands” by S. Priyantha RANJAN (Tohoku University, Japan) “Effects of sea level change on fresh coastal water” by Tomotoshi ISHITOBI (RIHN, Japan) “Groundwater resources assessment under the pressures of humanity and climate change” by Makoto TANIGUCHI (RIHN, Japan), Alice AURELI(UNESCO-IHP, France). 7.

(10) Oral Presentations.

(11) UNESCO-IHP activities in Groundwater Resources Jose Luis Martin, Alice Aureli (UNESCO-IHP, France). UNESCO-IHP promotes the recognition of the particularities of the different water resources or components of the hydrological cycle according to the principle of integration with a focus on the sustainable management of water resources. IHP seeks to address the impact of global change (e.g. climate change and human pressures) on the water cycle to strengthen the relevant knowledge base for improved preparedness of societies. UNESCO-IHP serves the needs of the Member States combining the global character of the programme with the regional needs through providing coordination and opportunities for thematic regional networking. In many nations, unsustainable groundwater management practices are contributing to significant and irreversible damage of the resource base. IHP builds capacities for improving integrated groundwater resources management at national and international levels. Towards this aim, IHP compiles and makes available reliable global data and information on groundwater resources, including aquifer locations and characteristics, to the international scientific and management community. At the regional level, responding to specific needs, IHP prepares and publishes regional case studies and organizes regional workshops and training courses on various themes. A broad range of groundwater studies and training material are published and made freely available in UNESCO’s Water Portal. In the arid regions, water scarce zones and on small islands, groundwater is often the only freshwater resource and its sustainable use requires taking into consideration the specificities of these environments and variability in the hydrological processes. IHP investigates measures to minimize threats to vulnerable water resource systems, including in emergency situations like floods and droughts and their consequences; and develop integrated basin or watershed approaches to land, surface and groundwater management. Rational use of groundwater to respond to emergency situations is promoted through e.g. preparing an inventory of groundwater bodies resistant to natural and human impacts in pilot regions and through developing guidelines on groundwater use in emergency situations. IHP also recognizes the importance of groundwater in supporting ecosystems such as in wetlands and lakes. High priority is given to managing water as a scarce resource for human needs, particularly in developing countries. IHP develops regional networks in order to improve national and regional capacities to manage water resources, especially in arid and semi-arid lands and in urban areas. Work on shared groundwater resources is carried out through the International Shared Aquifer Resource Management (ISARM) initiative, which aims at identifying and characterizing transboundary / shared aquifers at the regional level in order to enable their sustainable management, including the legal and institutional aspects.. 9.

(12) UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION. UNESCO. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. A UN specialized agency created in 1946 with the mission of building peace through international cooperation in the fields of education, science and culture. International Hydrological Programme. Overview of IHP-VI and IHP’s Groundwater activities José Luis Martin Bordes GRAPHIC Symposium Kyoto, 4-5 April 2006. Current International Framework shaping UNESCOUNESCO-IHP’ IHP’s actions. International Hydrological Programme. Millennium Development Goals 9 Poverty reduction, sustainable environment, water supply goal. The only global intergovernmental scientific programme on water resources of the UN system. Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (WSSD, 2002) Emphasizes water and sanitation goals, national water management strategies. 9. * Created in 1975 after the International Hydrological decade * Member States define needs and plans of phases * Growing emphasis on management and social aspects * Executed by Member States and other partners; UNESCO provides seed money. Water for Life Decade (2005(2005-2015). OVERVIEW OF THE SIXTH PHASE OF IHP. Water Interactions : Systems at Risk and Social Challenges. Theme 1 Global Resources. Changes. and. Water. Land Habitat Hydrology. Focal Area 3.1, Drylands (*)(**) Focal Area 3.2, Wetlands (*) Focal Area 3.3, Mountains (*)(**) Focal Area 3.4, Small islands and coastal zones (*) Focal Area 3.5, Urban areas and rural settlements (*). Theme 2 Integrated Watershed and Aquifer Dynamics. Theme 4. Focal Area 2.1, Extreme events in land and water resources management (*) Focal Area 2.2, International River Basins and Aquifers(*) Focal Area 2.3, Endorheic Basins (*) Focal Area 2.4, Methodologies for integrated river basin management (*)(**). Phase VI (2002(2002-2007) International Hydrological Programme of UNESCO. Theme 3. Focal Area 1.1, Global estimation of resources: water supply and water quality (*) (**) Focal Area 1.2, Global estimation of water withdrawals and consumption (**) Focal Area 1.3, Integrated assessment of water resources in the context of global land-based activities and climate change (*)(**). Theme 5. Water and Society. Focal Area 4.1, Water, civilization and ethics Focal Area 4.2, Value of water Focal Area 4.3, Water conflicts - prevention and resolution (**) Focal Area 4.4, Human security in water-related disasters and degrading environments (*)(**) Focal Area 4.5, Public awareness raising on water interactions (*)(**). Water Education and Training. Focal Area 5.1, Teaching techniques and material development (*)(**) Focal Area 5.2, Continuing education and training for selected target groups (*) Focal Area 5.3, Crossing the digital divide (*) Focal Area 5.4, Institutional development and networking for WET (*) (*) Indicates connections with FRIEND (**) Indicates connections with HELP. 10. 1.

(13) UNESCO - OAS. Resolution XIVXIV-12., June 2000, 2000,. ISARM of the AMERICAS. Intergovernmental Council of UNESCO’ UNESCO’s IHP, representing 160 Member States, decided to adopt a resolution to promote studies in regard to internationally shared aquifers. 60 transboundary aquifers inventoried The “UNESCO/OAS ISARM Americas Programme” is a regional initiative that is part of the world-wide UNESCO Programme entitled “Internationally Shared (Transboundary) Aquifer Resources Management (ISARM)”.. Launch of The Project on. Internationally Shared /Transboundary Aquifer Resources Management ISARM OAS – FAO – UNECE – IAH – IGRAC - ESCWA. UNESCO ISARM in the BALKANS 47 transboundary aquifers inventoried UNESCO ISARM AFRICA Middle Sarmatian-Pontian GWB .22. 39 transboundary aquifers inventoried. 9. Backa & Banat. 2. Kupa 1. Dragonja. 7. Sava. 3. Kupa. 21.Upper Pannonian-Lower Pleistocene. 8. 20. Central Serbia. 10. Srem.. 4. Una. Many countries and large urban conglomerations in Africa depend to a major extent or entirely on groundwater and the large shared aquifer resources represent often the only source for drought security and life sustenance of large populations in semi-arid areas. 19. East Serbia 23.Sarmatian & 24.Upper Jurassic -Lower Cret.GWB. 11. West Serbia. 5. Cetina 6. Neretva. 12. SW Serbia. 43.Svilengrad 44.Topolograd 45.Malko Tarnovo 37.Nastan Sandansky 46.Rezovska 38.Smolyan 34. 41.Svilengrad Dojran Gevgelija 32. .33 39.Rudozem 42.Orestiada 35.Gotze 29. 40.Erma Reka 47.Meric Delchev 30.Pelagonija 36.Orvilos 28. & 31.Florina 13.. 25. Vjosa. 14.. 16. Gaber-Nesla 17. Znepole 18. Tran 15. Zemen. 26.Pagoni 27.Mourgana. UNESCO Chair/International Network of Water-Environment Centres for the Balkans (INWEB), Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece.. WHYMAP. UNECE Survey of European transboundary aquifers. Transboundary Aquifer Systems. UNECE has a lead role in the implementation of the Helsinki Convention (1992) on the Protection. 1:25 000 000. and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International. 11. BGR / UNESCO 2006. 2.

(14) Multidisciplinary aspects of ISARM ¾. Legal. ¾. Scientific. ¾. Socio-economic. z. z. z. eg Treaties, interstate agreements. Water security, accesibility, efficiency, poverty reduction. Institutional Capacity Building. ¾. Environmental z. Within the framework of the ISARM project, a multidisciplinary ad-hoc task force of experts has been established by UNESCO to assist the Special Rapporteur of the UNILC on the preparation of a new International legal instrument on Transboundary Aquifers. Hydrology, hydrogeology, conceptual modelling. ¾. z. UNESCO-IHP and the United Nations International Law Commission (UNILC). Awareness raising, counterpart agencies Sustainability, biodiversity, risks, vulnerability. The development at the UN International Law Commission. The development at the UN International Law Commission ¾ -. Last session of the ILC (2005) Establishment of a WG to review the draft articles: 8 articles reviewed, WG will be reconvened in 2006 to complete the review.. . Third report (2005) complete set of draft articles for a convention on the law of transboundary aquifers Encourages regional and bilateral arrangements Equitable and reasonable utilization with specific factors concerning aquifers Monitoring Protection, preservation and management Consideration of nonnon-renewable groundwaters. 6th committee of the UN GA (October 2005) States delegations express their appreciation to the work accomplished by the SR for his work and encourage the ILC to complete its task.. . WHYMAP Project World Hydrogeological Map 1 : 25 000 000 Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) has the potential to be a major contributor to the UN Millennium Development Goals for water supply, especially for village supplies in semi-arid and arid areas.. MAR is part of the groundwater manager’s tools, which may be useful for repressurising aquifers subject to declining yields, saline intrusion or land subsidence. On its own it is not a cure for over-exploited aquifers, and could merely enhance rates of abstraction. However it may play an important role as part of a package of measures to control abstraction and restore the groundwater balance. UNESCO-BGR- IAH-CGMW-IAEA. BGR / UNESCO 2006. 12. 3.

(15) Risk management of groundwater resources in emergency situations (GWES). Identification and management of strategic groundwater bodies to be used for emergency situations as a result of extreme hydrological events and in case of conflicts. Climatic (floods, droughts,…) and geological hazards (earthquakes, landslides,…): Colapse of public drinking water supplies Import of water in bottles and tanks The distribution of drinking water become most important among the emergency activities.. Groundwater risk management in flood areas. Groundwater risk management in regions prone to droughts. A scene characterising the severity of a recent drought in Western India: skeletal remains of perished livestock and mitigation measures through supply of drinking water. The flooded Temple of Surat in Gujarat (India). Groundwater risk management in areas affected by volcanic activities. Groundwater risk management in regions affected by earthquakes. Smoking Mahameru Volcano Jawa of Indonesia. Photo by Jan-Pieter Nap (July 11 2004). Devastation of a building in an urban area during the Bhuj (India) earthquake of 26 January 2001. The earthquake caused complete failure of basic amenities, including the water supply system. 13. 4.

(16) Groundwater risk management in areas affected by landslide disasters. Tsunami groundwater risk management. The devastating Tsunami that hit the coastal areas of South-East Asia on 26 December 2004 left in its wake a wide swath of death and destruction. A scene shows destruction due to tsunami event in Tamilnadu (India). Landslide in Jiangxi Province of south-eastern China in September 29, 2004. Groundwater risk management in regions affected by storm events. The aim of the GWES To consider in advance natural and man-induced catastrophic events that could adversely affect human health and life or have serious influence on the environment. This results in a special approach to the development of groundwater in many affected regions.. A photograph of an hurricane in Florida (USA) which produced natural calamity resulting in an emergency situation. Objectives of the GWES project. Management of strategic groundwater bodies to be used for emergency situations. to elaborate effective methodologies for determining strategic groundwater resources safe against extreme and catastrophic events to introduce suitable hydrogeological and isotopehydrological techniques into the investigation of such groundwater resources to elaborate an inventory of resistant aquifers in selected pilot regions and present case studies of the participating countries to elaborate and publish a guide for identification, investigation, development and management of strategic groundwater bodies to be used for emergency situations. To eliminate the dependence of population on vulnerable water supply systems during climatic or geological hazards: Resistent low vulnerable groundwater resources protected from the earth surface and with a long residence time should be identified and evaluated. They should substitute the standard drinking water supplies before they are restored to normal operation and quality and eliminate the consequences for the time after the catastrophic events. 14. 5.

(17) GWES – Activities Activities and outcomes. GWES - UNESCO future action. International working group formed by UNESCO and IAEA representatives and experts from different regions of the world, cooperation with National Geological and Groundwater Databases Centers and IGRAC is expected International seminars and workshops in cooperation with UNESCO Regional Offices – OAS, ESCAP, OSS, SADC – cooperation with PWRI will be established, Methodological guidelines based on case studies and workshops proceedings, GWES project duration will be from 2005 to 2008. Preparation of a Groundwater for Emergency Situations « GIS-oriented » WORLD MAP to highlight risk hot spots, linking the existing maps on natural hazards (earthquakes, floods,..) with aquifer systems characteristics maps. UNESCOUNESCO-IHP projects and initiatives: •International Groundwater Resources Assessment Center (IGRAC)-UNESCO-WMO. UNESCO - GRAPHIC project. •Joint International Isotopes in Hydrology Program (JIIHP)-UNESCO-IAEA. Groundwater Resources Assessment under the Pressures of Humanity and Climate Change. •Setting up of groundwater indicators for Sustainable Development •Earth Observation for Integrated Water Resources Management in Africa (TIGER) ESA-UNESCO •Groundwater in arid zones component (G-WADI) • Water. Programme for Environmental Sustainability through climate change adaptation measures (WPA) – UNESCO/Italian Ministry for Environment and Territory. Existing Centers and Institutes. Existing Centers and Institutes. CATEGORY 2 (cont.): ¾. RCTWS – Regional Center for Training and Water Studies in Arid & Semiarid Zones (Cairo, Egypt) - 2001 RCUWM – Regional Center on Urban Water Management (Teheran, Iran) - 2002 ¾ ICQHHS – International Center on Qanats and Historic Hydraulic Structures (Yazd (Yazd,, I.R. of Iran) -2005. CATEGORY 11- legally part of UNESCO: ¾ UNESCOUNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education (Delft, The Netherlands) - 2003. ¾. CATEGORY 2 – under the auspices of UNESCO: ¾ IRTCES - International Research & Training Center on Erosion Erosion & Sedimentation (Beijing, China) - 1985 ¾ IRTCUD – International Research & Training Center on Urban Drainage (Belgrade, Serbia & Montenegro) -1988 ¾ CATHALAC – Centro del Agua para los Tró Trópicos Húmedos de LAC (Panama City, Panama) - 1992 ¾ Humid Tropics Hydrology Center for South East Asia & the Pacific (Kuala Lumpur, Malasia) Malasia) - 1998. 15. ¾. CAZALAC - Centro del Agua para Zonas Aridas y Semiá Semiáridas de LAC - (La Serena, Chile) – (2006). ¾. International Center for WaterWater-Related Risks and Hazards – ICHARM (Tsukuba, Japan) – (2006). ¾. Regional Ecohydrology Center – Europe (Lodz (Lodz,, Poland) – (2006). ¾. IHPIHP-HELP Centre for Water Law, Policy and Science (U Dundee, UK) – (2006). 6.

(18) UNESCO Water Portal www.unesco.org/water www.unesco.org/water. Centers in the pipeline ¾. Centro Regional para la Gestió Gestión del Agua en Zonas Urbanas LAC (Cali, Cali, Colombia) – expected in 2006. ¾. IGRAC – International Groundwater Assessment Center (Utrecht, The Netherlands). ¾. Regional Drought Center for Subsharan Africa ( location TBD). ¾. Regional Center for Shared Aquifer Resources (Tripoli, Libia) Libia). ¾. Regional Ecohydrology Center - LAC (Argentina). ¾. Regional Ecohydrology Center – SE Asia & Pac (Indonesia). IHP Thanks you for your attention. International Hydrological Programme. 16. 7.

(19) Groundwater Resources Assessment under the Pressures of Humanity and Climate Changes (GRAPHIC) Makoto Taniguchi (RIHN, Japan). Groundwater is the major source of water across much of the world but there has been very little research on the potential effects of climate change, because of the invisibility of the phenomena and difficulty of the evaluations. Groundwater acts as a component of the global water cycle on Earth, and awareness of the importance of global groundwater issues is now increasing. In this study, the UNESCO-GRAPHIC (Groundwater Resources Assessment under the Pressures of Humanity and Climate Changes) project is introduced, and I present an overview of global groundwater issues such as the effects of climate changes and human activities on groundwater, methodologies for evaluating those effects, and a brief summary of current activities by an international scientific team in this field and the pilot projects envisaged. The pilot study assesses the effects of climate change and human activities on the subsurface environment, an important aspect of human life in the present and future but not yet evaluated. This is especially true in Asian coastal cities where population increase and concentration occurs rapidly, and uses of subsurface environment have increased. The primary goal of this pilot study is to evaluate the relationships between developmental stage of cities and various subsurface environmental problems, as extreme subsidence, groundwater contamination, and subsurface thermal anomalies. We will focus on evaluations of (1) degradation of subsurface environments and changes of reliable water resources, (2) accumulations of materials (contaminants) in subsurface environment and their transports from land to ocean, and (3) subsurface thermal anomaly due to global warming and heat island effect.. 17.

(20) A brief history of UNESCO-GRAPHIC project. GRAPHIC International Symposium April 4-6, 2006, Kyoto, Japan. • •. UNESCO- GRAPHIC project. •. GRAPHIC: Groundwater Resources Assessment under the Pressures of Humanity and Climate Change. •. Makoto Taniguchi. The first GRAPHIC meeting at UNESCO-Paris on Mar.1-3 2004 (organizing, kickoff) GRAPHIC session (H21F) at AGU (SF) on Dec. 2004 The second GRAPHIC meeting at England on Apr. 3-5, 2005 (implementation) International Symposium on GRAPHIC will be held at Kyoto (RIHN) on April 4-6, 2006. Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. Purposes of the GRAPHIC project. Global groundwater depression. • Groundwater is an extremely important natural resource as a primary source for agriculture, domestic, and industrial water supplies in many countries. • In order to maintain the sustainable uses of groundwater resources, evaluations of changes in (not only groundwater storage but also in) groundwater fluxes (recharge rates and discharge rates) and quality are necessary and important. • This project will deal with groundwater resources assessment and future forecasting under the various pressures of human activities and climate changes.. Groundwater depression: 200km3/year (Foster, 2000) ⇒1.2mm/year (per unit area of land). Structure of GRAPHIC. Subjects. To make the GRAPHIC project and its sub-elements manageable, the structure of the project will be divided into 5 subjects, 4 methods and regions.. (1) Recharge. Quality (4). Recharge/Discharge. Quantity (Storage) (3). (2) Discharge. Groundwater System (5) Management. 18. 1.

(21) 1:Recharge. 2:Discharge. recharge enhancement. recharge reduction. Surface water. Groundwater. irrigation. deforestation. Temperature. 1xCO2. ２xCO2. Precipitation. Plantation forestry ヒットライナー. ＊Groundwater discharge is about 10 ％ of total discharge from land to the ocean. ＊Dissolved material transports by groundwater is much important that water itself.. Urbanization. 12. Green et al., (1997). New York (IOC/IHP). 17. 42 34. 45. 25. 14. 5 23. 23 23. 3: Storage. 38. 23 23. 23. 37 40. 22. 23. Sicily (IAEA/IHP). 24. Brazil (IHP/IAEA). Climate changes (decreased precipitation). 19,20 32. Perth (IOC/IHP). Intercalibration to evaluate groundwater discharge. Storage reduction (North China). 36 23. 3 11. Florida (SCOR/LOICZ). Climate change (decreased ET). 21. 33 1,15,31 43 26,27. 17 4,6,7,8,9,30 13,28 10,35. Climate change (increased P). 43 18,29. 2,16,41 39. 44. Locations of Intercalibration. Climate change → Social reaction→ Subsurface environmental change. Storage enhancement (Tokyo) 1960. groundwater. 2000. Surface water. Pumping → subsidence → regulation → increased GL→floating Steal weight. Global warming. Increase in variability of Precipitation. Changes in reliable water resources (surface water → groundwater). Subway station. North of Yellow River, China. •. Groundwater mining Negative balance between R and D Saltwater intrusion due to excessive pumping & sea level rise Groundwater contamination. 4: Quality. • • • •. Nitrate of Groundwater (mg L-1). • • •. subsidence. Decrease in groundwater level. Recovery of groundwater storage due to regulation of pumping Underground dam Positive balance between R & D. Changes of reliable water resources Surface water ⇔ Groundwater. 5: Management Policy. SCENARIOS. 1900’s 1800’s 1700’s Formed Year of the town near Tokyo. Sector policies. ACTIVITIES. Total Nitrogen Loading (Green et al. 2003) IMPACTS. OUTCOMES. Environment. Social. Economic. Vulnerability of geogr zones. Environmental. National development goals. Distribution of red tide. Groundwater →red tide, algal bloom ?. Chlorophyll – a. 19. 2.

(22) IGRAC database. 1: Database. Methods. http://igrac.nitg.tno.nl/ggis/start.html. 2: Satellite GRACE. 3: Modeling & Simulation. Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment Mean radius 1000 km. Groundwater Recharge. mm/y. Döll et. al., 2003. Groundwater Discharge into the Ocean • Observed gravity is mainly determined by the water balance at the earth surface. Fukuda & Yamamoto 2005. Kooi et. al., 2004. 4: Proxy. Pilot study in Tokyo (1): Human impacts Nitrate concentration (mg/L). Reconstructions of paleohydrology. 1900. 1800. 1700. Year of city formed around Tokyo. Anthropogenic effect on groundwater quality around Tokyo. 20. 3.

(23) Pilot study in Tokyo (2): Climate variability. Agenda. Tuesday, 4th April (Day 1). • Opening • Session 1: Changes in groundwater recharge, discharge, and storage • Session 2: Changes in groundwater quality due to climate change and human activities • Reception. (1) Reconstructions of surface warming from borehole data. (2) Reconstructions of precipitation change from borehole data. Wednesday, 5th April (Day 2) • Session 3: Managements, policy, and capacity building for groundwater • Session 4: New methodologies for evaluating groundwater change • Poster Session. Agenda. Sessions, coffee, and lunch. Thursday, 6th April (Day 3) • Discussion Pilot study in Tokyo Potential pilot studies Special issue on GRAPHIC of VZJ Database Future activities Next GRAPHIC expert meeting • Conclusions • Excursion. You are here !!. Excursion: 14:00-18:00, April 6 2,000 JY per person. Kifune Shrine (God for water). Cherry Blossom (“Hanami”). Sake Brewer (using groundwater). Please sign up before 16:00, Apr. 4. 21. 4.

(24) Spatial Scaling of Surface Water Infiltration and its Implications for Estimating Groundwater Recharge Timothy R. Green (USDA, U.S.A). The GRAPHIC Project has identified priority research topics related to groundwater recharge, discharge, storage, and water quality. This presentation focuses on some physical aspects affecting spatial groundwater recharge estimation and uncertainty associated with spatial variability. Previous work has shown the importance of quantifying plant water use based on vegetation response and soil hydraulic properties. Consequently, the effects of climate change on deep seepage and groundwater recharge vary with the vegetation and soils. The present study illustrates the potential complexities added by spatial variability of infiltration rates and associated soil properties based on field measurements. Our field experiments include 150 sorptivity and steady infiltration measurements taken at ten landscape positions with nested patterns of variability. The field site is an undulating agricultural terrain cropped with winter wheat under conventional tillage. No irrigation has been applied to the study area, but pivot irrigation is commonly applied in the region of eastern Colorado, USA. In addition to quantifying the observed spatial variability in soils and infiltration rates, inferences will be made for scaling up measurements from 0.30-m diameter rings to areas on the order of 30-m by 30-m for each landscape position. Furthermore, process-based modeling of infiltration and its scaling behavior under different soil scaling in space will be discussed. These results are intended to shed new light on research needed to address spatial variability of soils and interactions between land areas when modeling infiltration and recharge under different climates and land management strategies.. 22.

(25) International Symposium on GRAPHIC. Outline. Spatial Scaling of Infiltration: Implications for Estimating Groundwater Recharge. • Review of simulating potential effects of soils and plants on groundwater recharge under climate change (Australia view) • Spatial scaling in rain-fed agricultural fields (Colorado, USA view): nested structure • Analysis of new spatial infiltration and terrain data from Colorado • Theoretical simulations of scaling infiltration with run-off/run-on effects • Synthesis and future direction. Timothy R. Green USDA, Agricultural Research Service Fort Collins, Colorado, USA Kyoto, Japan. 4-6 April 2006. Photograph taken from http://downunderchase.com/stormchasing/ with permission.. Input Soil Hydraulic Parameters. Highlights of some work in Australia. [Broadbridge and White, 1988]. (with Bryson Bates, Steven Charles, Mick Fleming) • Used simulated cross-correlated climate variables from current and double-CO2 scenarios derived from the CSIRO9 GCM.. Ψ (Θ) = No.. • Deep soil drainage (i.e., “recharge”) simulated with the WAVES model, including dynamic growth and senescence of plants with CO2-altered stomatal conductance. • Subtropical and Mediterranean climate zones simulated; only subtropical Queensland scenario shown here for illustration.. Simulated Recharge. (Θ − 1) 1 ⎧ C − Θ ⎫ − ln ⎨ ⎬ Θ C ⎩Θ(C − 1)⎭ ,. Soil Type. 1. Medium Sand. 2 3 4. Θ=. θ − θo θ s −θ o. Ks. θs. θo. λc. C. (m/d m/d). (-). (-). (m). (-). 10.00 0.35. 0.05 0.025. 1.02. Fine Sand. 1.00 0.35. 0.08 0.05. 1.02. Sandy Loam. 0.20 0.40. 0.07 0.10. 1.15. Clay Loam. 0.10 0.50. 0.20 0.30. 1.40. Ratios of Mean Recharge Rates ` Tree 1 Tree 2. Vegetation Type. Grass 1 Grass 2 Med. Fine Sand Clay Sand Sand Loam Loam. 23. 1.

(26) SingleSingle-Site (Subtropical) Results. Spatial Scaling of Field Measurements in Colorado, USA. • Vegetation type affected the transpiration and resulting recharge more than soil type, but both played a significant role. • Simulated net recharge consistently increased by absolute amounts approaching or exceeding the change in total rainfall. • Recharge could more than double (1.74 to 5.09) under simulated climate change (37 percent increase in mean annual rainfall). • Temporal persistence in annual recharge may decrease by a factor between 2 and 5. • The above were indicated by the simulations under these conditions, but are not considered robust predictions.. • Spatial grain yield measurements on rainrainfed fields • HighHigh-resolution DEM and computed terrain attributes in undulating topography • Synoptic surface soil water content (top 30 cm) measured with mobile TDR • Computed fractal geometries and spatial persistence. Wheat Grain Yield Data. Computing the Hurst Coefficient, H. (a) Omni-Directional. b. 1.0. 0.5. a = 0.337 b = 0.271. 0.0 0. 100. 200. 300. Semi-Variance. Semi-Variance. 1.5. 1.5. 1.0. 0.5. a = 0.666 b = 0.158. 0.0 0. 400. Lag Distance (m). = σ 2h 2 H. (d) 100 degrees 2.0. Semi-Variance. Spatial Persistence. H > 0.5 ⇒ persistent H < 0.5 ⇒ antipersistent. 1.5. 1.0. 0.5. a = 0.229 b = 0.321. 0.0 0. 200. 300. 1.0. 0.5. a = 0.552 b = 0.207. 0.0. 400. 0. 100. 100. 200. 300. 300. 400. Lag Distance (m). (e) 145 degrees. (f) Model Variograms (log-log scale). 1.0. 0.5. a = 0.151 b = 0.402. 0.0. 400. 200. Lag Distance (m). 1.5. 0. Lag Distance (m). Surface water contents (30 cm) with TDR. 100. 1.5. 2.0. Semi-Variance. = ah. Semi-Variance. 2γ ( h ) = E [Y ( x + h ) − Y ( x )]. 2. (c) 55 degrees 2.0. 2.0. 100. 200. 300. 400. Lag Distance (m). Semi-Variance. Power-Law Variogram Model. (b) 10 degrees. 2.0. 1. Omni 10 55 100 145. 0.5. 10. 50. 100. 500. Lag Distance (m). TDR Soil Moisture Measurement Locations Legend TDR sample locations 1361-1363m 1363-1366m 1366-1368m 1368-1370m 1370-1372m 1372-1375m 1375-1378m 1378-1382m. N F 0. 24. 75. 150. 300. 450 Meters. 2.

(27) SoilSoil-Water Content. Hurst Coefficient (and Anisotropy). Experimental Variogram Fits (a) 24 June 1999. (b) 30 June 1999. (c) 15 July 1999 8. 6 4. a = 1.45 b = 0.244. 2. 6 4. a = 1.75 b = 0.24. 2. 0 100. 200. 300. 100. 200. 300. 400. 0. 100. 200. 300. 400. Lag Distance (m). (d) 04 August 1999. (e) 24 September 1999. (f) Model Variograms. 10. 4. a = 2.91 b = 0.135. 2 0 100. 200. 300. Lag Distance (m). 400. Semi-Variance. Semi-Variance. 6. 10. 8 6 4. a = 1.83 b = 0.137. 2 0 0. 100. 200. 300. Lag Distance (m). 400. Field. 1997. 1999. Index. North. 0.28 (1.3). 0.34* (1.3). 0.16 (1.7). South. 0.20 (1.2). 0.20 (1.1). 0.21 (1.1). West. 0.19 (1.5). 0.20 (1.4). 0.09 (1.4). a = 7.65 b = 0.039. Lag Distance (m). 8. Topo.. 4. Lag Distance (m). 10. 0. 6. 0 0. 400. Crop Yield. 2. 0 0. Semi-Variance. Semi-Variance. 10. 8. Semi-Variance. 10. 8. Semi-Variance. 10. 5 Jun 24 Jun 30 Jul 15 Aug 04 Sep 24. 1 5. 10. 50 100. *Foxtail Millet from bale data. 500. Lag Distance (m). Infiltration Measurements Study Location. • Tilled, bare soil (silty loams) • 3030-cm diameter rings • Sorptivity on initially dry soils (not reported here) • PrePre-wetted and drained overnight • Ponded, Ponded, constantconstant-head infiltration to steady state • 150 clustered or “nested” nested” spatial measurements from two years (2003(2003-04). Field Instruments. Existing Spatial Measurements • • • • • • •. Meteorology, plus rainfall at 5 sites Temperature above canopy and in soil (20 sites) Spatial crop yield (GPS yield monitor) Plant development, biomass, leaf area Soil bulk electrical conductivity (Veris) Soil texture (200+ to 1 meter) Soil moisture (hourly at 18 sites) plus synoptic 0-30 cm mobile TDR • Infiltration (150 “nested” locations) • Runoff at edge of field • Remote Sensing (aerial photos, satellite). Meteorological Station. SoilSoil-water probes Runoff Flume. Rain Gauges. 500 m. 25. GPSR. 3.

(28) PLANT SAMPLING. Infiltration Measurement Sites. 30m x 30m Sites 3 Random 10m x 10m Plots per Site 3 Random 10m Rows per Plot Each Row Sampled at 0.5 m Intervals. 1500. 1400. 10 m. 10 m J. F. " " ". ". E. ". I. D. INFILTRATION. E. 30m x 30m Sites 3 Random 10m x 10m Plots per Site 5 Random Points per Plot. D. H I. H G F. J. " ". C. C. B. ". A. B. 250. 1100. 1000. 900. 800. High : 1588 Low : 1559. " 125. 1200. Elev (m). A 0. Northing (m). " G. ". 1300. Sample Sites. 700. 4. 500 Meters. 300. 1.2 1 0.8 0.6. y = 27.129x + 0.0226. 0.4. 2. R = 0.9897. 0.2. Cumulative Infiltration (cm). Cumulative Infiltration (cm). 1.4. 2. Cell A1 (linear portion). 1.8 1.6 1.4. 0:00:00. 0:30:00. 1:00:00. 1:30:00. Cumulative Time (hh:mm:ss). 800. 900. 1000. 1100. 160. y = 19.722x + 0.4365 2 R = 0.9987. 1.2 1 0.8. y = 22.456x + 0.3086 2 R = 0.9448. 0.6 0.4 0.2 0. 0. 700. 180. Steady Infiltration Rate (cm/d). Cell B8 (“representative”). 600. Steady Infiltration Data. Mean value of R2 = 0.9942. 1.6. 500. Easting (m). Examples of Infiltration Data 1.8. 400. 0:00:00. 0:30:00. 1:00:00. 140. 120. 100. 80. 60. 40. 1:30:00. Cumulative Time (hh:mm:ss). 20. 0 700. 800. 900. 1000. 1100. 1200. 1300. 1400. 1500. Northing (m). Change of Variance with Scale. Experimental Variogram Fits 0. Semi-Variance 1000 3000. Semi-Variance 4000 8000 14000. 150. 0. 100. 200. 300. 400. 500. 600. 0. 700. 5. 10. 100. 0. 15. 20. 25. 30. Semi-Variance 1000 3000 0. 0. 50. Semi-Variance 4000 8000 14000. Lag Distance(m). 0. 200. 400. 0. 600. 5. 10. 15. 20. 25. Lag Distance (m). a = 158.016 , b = 0.505. Plot (10m x 10m). Site (30m x 30m). 0. Scale of Averaging. Semi-Variance 500 1000. Ring (0.3 m diameter). H = 0.143. 200. 400 Lag Distance (m). 26. H = 0.252. 0. Semi-Variance 0 500 1500. a = 222.458 , b = 0.287. 0. Infiltration Rate (cm/day). Site D. All Data. 600. 0. 5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. Lag Distance (m). 4.

(29) Apparent Hurst Coefficient versus Maximum Lag Distance. Hurst Coefficients by Site 0.8. Hurst Coefficient. 0.2. D. 0.6. G. 0.14. F. 0.16. 0.2. A. Mean H (10 sites) = 0.4. 0.4 0.3. Mean H (lag > 600 m) =. C 0.1. Hurst Coefficient. Mean (all sites) = 0.163 Mean (H > 0) = 0.272. B. E. I. J. 2. 4. 6. 8. 0.0. 0.0. H. 10. 0. Site number. 200. 400. 600. 800. 1000. Maximum Lag (m). Multifractal Realizations of Ks. Theoretical Investigation of Fractal Behavior (with Meng & Salas, Colorado State University). ¾Generate spatial rainfall and soils using a Universal Multifractal (UM) model. ¾Simulate runoff and infiltration with interactions downslope between pixels. ¾Explore factors controlling multifractal behavior of infiltration and runoff ¾Visualize space-time processes. from Meng et al. (J. Hydrology, accepted). Power Spectra of Infiltration, Rain, & Ks. SpaceSpace-Time Progression of Infiltration. 3.5. Rain and Infiltration Rates 2 min 10 min. 2 min. GPSR. t=2 min t=20 min t=200 min. 2.5. 10 min. t=5 min t=50 min rain. t=10 min t=100 min Ks. β R = -1.02. log10(E(k)). 1.5. 50 min. 90 min. Ks. 0.5 -0.5 β Ks = 1.32 2. RKs = 0.97. -1.5 -2.5 -1.5. -1.3. -1.1. -0.9. -0.7 log 10(k). -0.5. -0.3. -0.1. 0.1. Meng et al. (J. Hydrology, 2006). GPSR. 27. 5.

(30) Synthesis and Future Direction • Steady infiltration displayed fractal behavior, but not as nicely as shown previously for grain yield and soil water. • Apparent Hurst coefficients varied with the domain size, but agreed between site and field scales. • Scaled Ks can be used in mechanistic models to infer cumulative infiltration. • Plan to test scaling behavior with landscape position and terrain attributes.. 28. 6.

(31) Declining low flows, retention dams, and offshore groundwater resources: three key examples of changes in groundwater discharge, recharge and storage Henk Kooi (Vrije Universiteit, The Netherlands). This contribution discusses three key groundwater issues that emphasize the discharge, recharge and storage of the groundwater balance, respectively, in the context of increasing demands for groundwater and environmental change. The examples highlight human and natural controls of groundwater changes operating over a range of time scales. The first issue deals with the increasingly serious problem of declining streamflows in many parts of the tropics during the dry season. Decreasing base flows of streams and rivers can be considered a groundwater discharge issue. However, it is obviously also intimately linked to declining recharge and storage of groundwater. The relative importance of changes in land use and climate in controlling this phenomenon still needs to be unravelled. In certain areas (e.g.parts of South Asia, Indonesia and Central America) the regional climate seems to be drying whereas in other areas (e.g. East Africa, Amazonia) extremes appear to become more pronounced, possibly reflecting climate change. At the same time, soil degradation and urbanisation following forest conversion have markedly changed recharge conditions in many areas, thereby complicating the identification of the key controls of declining baseflows. It has been estimated that up to 45% of Asia’s soils are degraded to some extent, of which 15-20% so seriously that not only plant productivity is impaired but also hillslope hydrological behaviour is seriously affected. In Africa, the extent of soil degradation is even more advanced. The situation is complicated further by the fact that in many river basins several land-use changes have occurred in concert. A major research effort is required to unravel the causes of declining low flows in which groundwater and surface water specialists need to cooperate closely. Natural and anthropogenic tracers in the groundwater archive may hold a key to improved understanding of the controls of changes in groundwater recharge and the ensuing low flows. In East Africa, a recent adaptation strategy to cope with dry season water shortages is the building of retention dams in the river bed to enhance sedimentation and infiltration, thereby creating (or enlarging existing) aquifers in the river valleys. These aquifers retain part of the stream flow during the wet season and have the added advantage over more conventional reservoirs of having smaller evaporation losses. Such retention dams are likely to become used on a grand scale but the factors controlling their efficiency are only beginning to be understood. In some river valleys in Kenia, more than 500 of such dams currently exist and their overall impact on the water balance of the river basin is largely unknown. A similar situation exists in India where baseflows have declined by over-pumping of the aquifers and the traditional retention ‘tanks’ are being reinstated in many areas without knowledge of the overall effect on river basin functioning. Thirdly, with demands for freshwater resources in densely populated coastal areas increasing worldwide, interest in exploitation of the enormous quantities of fresh and brackish groundwater that exist in some sub-seafloor aquifers up to 150 km offshore is rapidly increasing. These groundwater bodies are thought to represent relicts of now extinct flow systems that were active during periods of lower sealevels. This demonstrates that realistic and effective groundwater resources assessment also requires attention for environmental change processes operating on time scale of many millenia.. 29.

(32) Declining low flows, sand dams and offshore groundwater resources: three key examples of changes in discharge, recharge and storage. 1. Groundwater discharge issue. 2. 1. Henk Kooi1 Koos Groen1,2 Sampurno Bruijnzeel1 Department of Hydrology & Geo-Environmental Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam *Acacia Institute, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam. Declining low flows form a threat. Slow deterioration of streamflow regime. Amazonia drought 2005 Burkina Faso water supply. Rainy season flows up. Rainfall. Flows. Dry season flows down. Mahaweli River, Sri Lanka. ...are closely linked to groundwater discharge ...and need to be better understood. Impact of land/soil degradation?. Role of deforestation?. • Strong increases in areas with settlements, agriculture and secondary forest (mosaics).. Fire-climax grassland, Fiji. As populations and demands for food (land), timber and housing increase, ‘pristine’ forest increasingly found in remote (upland) areas…. Central Cebu. 30. • Almost 50% of Asia affected by human-induced soil degradation; on 10-15% severe impact on soil productivity and hydrology…. Preanger, Java. Cebu. 1.

(33) Tropical forests and low flows: different scenarios. Tropical deforestation and low flows: Treading softly on the soils pays off… Mbeya, Tanzania. Post-forest land cover varies widely in quality and thus in vegetation water use and runoff response to rainfall…. No soil degradation: Deforestation leads to increases in dry season flows due to lower water use of crops.... Tropical deforestation and low flows: The price of advanced soil degradation…. Need for more comparative studies.... East Java, Indonesia. ... and incorporation of information from the groundwater record!!. Significant degradation: Deforestation reduces dry season flows due to increased water losses as wet season runoff…. Notably high-resolution age dating to document recharge change Degraded pasture, Costa Rica. Adaptation to declining low flows: CONSTRUCTION “SAND DAMS” • Barrier across an ephemeral river capturing both water and sediment • Creation of a new ‘aquifer’ • Low-cost and community participation. 2. Groundwater recharge issue. 31. 2.

(34) Eastern Kenya: almost 500 sand dams; more than 500 new ones planned. Enhanced recharge successful, but what about hydrologic and environmental impact downstream?. Who would want this as an outcome?. 3. Groundwater storage issue. Suriname groundwater resources Ideas around 1960 0. Atlantic Ocean. 5. 10 Km. Atlantic Ocean. Savanna Recharge Paramaribo. 0. 6. -1 -4. -5 -6 10. 3. 5 1. 0. 4. 11 13. 50. 2. Elevation in meters. -3. 1 2. 14. 15. +1. Heads in the Burnside aquifer in 1990 (in m with respect to sea level). 2. Groundwater pumping stations (Table 3.2). Paramaribo 200 - 300 mg/l Cl. < 10 mg/l Cl. 7. 9. -2. Coastal plain. South. 8. 1000. Crystalline basement. Q. Pl stagnant groundwater250 M. North. 8000. O. 200. 1000. 0. Chloride concentration in mg/l. E+P. 20 km. Limit Burnside aquifer. Ideas around 1960. 32. 3.

(35) Enormous groundwater resources Ideas around 2000: fresh/brackish water up to 90 km offshore Coastal plain. Savanna. 30 mg/l Cl. a. During Wisconsin regression 200 - 300 mg/l Cl. 50. 250. 50. Pl e. Hol. 0. P. stagnant. 1000. Elevation in meters. 250 M Crystalline basement. 8000. O. groundwater. 1000 E+P (paleogroundwater). 400. 1000. 0. Chloride concentration in mg/l. 8000. b. After Holocene transgression. LGM sea level. Atlantic Ocean. 5 mg/l Cl. depth below sea level (m). Recharge. 200. -under pressure of present sea level condition -existing thanks to past climate/sea level change. Atlantic ocean. average Wisconsin sea level. 100. diffusion and free convection in permeable strata. gravity driven flow. 200 compaction and density driven flow. 300. 400. Cret. 20 km 12000. 600. Ideas at 20000. saline > 19,000 mg/l. diffusion. brackish 8,000-19,000 mg/l. gravity flow. brackish 25-8,000 mg/l. density or compaction flow. fresh < 25 mg/l. free convective density flow. cristalline basement Quaternary clays. Expected to be exploited in the future. 3 key GRAPHIC topics Total costs in US $/m3. Declining low flows (Sand) retention dams Offshore groundwater. 1.20 1.00. seawater. 0.80 0.60. Offshore brackish groundwater`. Æ Æ Æ. groundwater archive hydrologic impact occurrence, formation, use. 0.40. Onshore brackish water 0.20 0.00 10,000. 20,000. 30,000. 40,000. 50,000. 60,000. 70,000. Capacity (m3/day). Cost calculations of recovery, transport and treatment indicate that exploitation of offshore paleowater up to 15 km offshore, is competitive to desalinated seawater as a source of drinking water.. 33. 4.

(36) U.S. Geological Survey’s Research Activities in a Highly Stressed Regional Aquifer, the High Plains Aquifer, USA Bret Bruce (USGS, U.S.A). The High Plains Aquifer located in the central United States is one of the world’s largest freshwater aquifers (about 450,700 km2) supporting about 27% of United States agricultural production and yielding about 30% of all the ground water pumped for crop irrigation in the United States. The sustainability of the High Plains Aquifer is in question given the continued water-table declines and deteriorating water quality. Human development of the aquifer since the 1950s has caused ground-water withdrawals to greatly exceed recharge in many areas. Aquifer depletions are affecting well production rates, surface streamflow, and ecosystem health in addition to increasing costs associated with agricultural production. Head reversals at the base of the aquifer and the application of agricultural chemicals and irrigation water at the land surface have lead to impaired ground-water quality. Variations in climate that affect precipitation, aquifer recharge, chemical transport, and soil retention also have important implications for future aquifer sustainability. The U.S. Geological Survey has a substantial research effort in the High Plains Aquifer that strongly supports the goals of the GRAPHIC Project. This presentation will review the physical and cultural characteristics of the High Plains Aquifer; describe the design and implementation of research activities under the U.S. Geological Survey’s High Plains Regional Ground-Water Study (including ground-water-quality assessments, recharge measurements, chemical and water fluxes in the unsaturated zone, and effects of declining ground-water storage); and discuss recent findings on the effects of human development on water quality and its availability. The High Plains Regional Ground-Water Study provides an example of an integrated an aquifer with multiple stressors that could provide a template for other large-scale regional aquifer assessments.. 34.

(37) High Plains NAWQA--TX Tech GWQ Meeting--Dec. 10, 2003. U.S. Geological Survey Research Activities: the High Plains Aquifer, USA. Presentation Outline. International Symposium on GRAPHIC April 4, 2006 Kyoto, Japan Bret Bruce, Jason Gurdak, Peter McMahon, and Kevin Dennehy U.S. Geological Survey Denver, Colorado. The Big Picture:. z. Provide an overview of the environmental setting of the High Plains Aquifer.. z. Discuss the design of the USGS High Plains Regional GroundGround-Water Study.. z. Present findings on some of the observed human impacts to the aquifer.. z. Discuss the evolution of our conceptual model.. z. Talk about lessons learned and future research directions for USGS in the High Plains study area.. High Plains Aquifer 450,000 km2 and Quaternary sands, gravels, silts and clays of fluvial and aeolian origin Elevation: 2400m – 355m Few streams = greater reliance on ground water 30% of all ground water pumped for irrigation in the United States . Tertiary. Regional Climatic Gradients Average Rainfall. Agricultural Land Use – 27% of US Ag. Lands. Average Temperature. Rangeland = 56%. NonNon-irrigated Agriculture= 29%. Irrigated Agriculture = 12% (13.1 million acres) 86 cm/yr 30 cm/yr. 35. 1.

(38) High Plains NAWQA--TX Tech GWQ Meeting--Dec. 10, 2003. Variability in Thickness of Saturated and Unsaturated Zones Leads to Large Age Differences and Temporal Stratification. Design of the High Plains Regional Groundwater Study. Saturated Thickness. Spatial Variability. Simple Groundwater Conceptual Model. Large areal extent creates several regional gradients providing opportunity for analysis on multiple scales.. Temporal Variability Ground-water ages: less than 10 to more than 10,000 years old! Potentially long transit times through unsaturated overburden.. Vertically Nested Studies. Aerially Nested Studies. Research Sites and Studies of the HPGW. What Are Some of the Human Impacts?. z. Nested studies applied consistently in phased approach z Mixture if different well types z Unsaturated Zone Installations z Flowpaths evaluating water evolution. 36. 2.

(39) High Plains NAWQA--TX Tech GWQ Meeting--Dec. 10, 2003. Water Level Monitoring. Water Level Change. 128,720 Registered Irrigation Wells (0.3 well/km2). Temporal Variability – NO3 Concentration in Recharge. Location of Large Feedyards in United States. High Plains (1997): 15 million cattle, 4.25 million swine, 2.3 million people. Chemical Impacts Near Top of Water Table. Undisturbed vs disturbed SCREEN DEPTH BELOW WATER TABLE, IN FEET. Depth below water table (m). More Than 10 High-Capacity Wells in 3-Mile Radius. Fewer Than 3 High-Capacity Wells in 3-Mile Radius. 0. 50 Drinking-water standard. 100. 150. Lowess. 200. 0. A.. 200. 300. Recharge Rate = 0.02 ft/yr. 400. 500. Recharge rate = 0.05 ft/yr 600 0. 3,000. 6,000. 9,000. 12,000. 15,000. APPARENT GROUND-WATER AGE, IN YEARS. 250 0. B.. 100. 7.0 10.0 500. 14.0 1,000. 28.0 1,500. Cimarron (CHP) Lincoln Co. #4 (NHP) Exponential Age Distribution Base of Aquifer. 2,000. Nitrate concentration (mg/L) Nitrate concentration (µmol/L). 37. 0. 3,000. 6,000. 9,000. 12,000. 15,000. APPARENT GROUND-WATER AGE, IN YEARS. Castro (SHP) Hugoton (CHP) Base of Aquifer. 3.

(40) High Plains NAWQA--TX Tech GWQ Meeting--Dec. 10, 2003. Aquifer Depletion Related to Water Quality. Effect of Pumping on Produced Water Quality. Hale County, Texas Elevation of water surface (ft). 200. OF. Water table at time of drilling. 300. Base of aquifer. 400. 500 30. 60. 90. High Plains aquifer 2,980. 2,975. 120 0. NATURAL GAMMA LOG, IN COUNTS PER SECOND. 50. 100 150 200. RESISTIVITY LOG, IN OHM-METERS. manual measurement. Dockum Group 2,970 5/1/2004. Well screen. Specific conductance, in o microsiemens per centimeter at 25 C. Depth below land surface (ft). 100. Hale County, Texas. 2,985. 0. 1,300. 6/1/2004. 7/1/2004. 8/1/2004. 9/1/2004 10/1/2004 11/1/2004. Deeper Dockum, 12,000 µS/cm. 1,200. Dockum Group. 1,100 1,000 900 800 High Plains aquifer. 700 600 5/1/2004. 6/1/2004. 7/1/2004. 8/1/2004. 9/1/2004 10/1/2004 11/1/2004. Date. Different Conceptual Model. What Have We Learned: z. Integration of nested studies to allow upscaling from local to regional understanding.. z. Vertical component equally important as the areal one.. z. Need for longlong-term monitoring.. z. Water quantity and water quality are closely linked.. z. The value of a realistic conceptual model.. http://co.water.usgs.gov/nawqa/hpgw/HPGW_home.html. Future Research Directions z. What climatic conditions lead to groundwater recharge.. z. Upgrade the existing groundwater numerical flow model.. z. Link together climate, groundwater, and economic models.. z. Integrate field data with remote sensing (GRACE). High Plains Regional Ground-Water Study Web Site. 38. 4.

(41) Understanding groundwater response to human- and climate-induced stresses: High Plains Aquifer, United States Jason Gurdak (USGS, U.S.A). The High Plains (or “Ogallala”) aquifer underlies about 450,700 km2 in the semi-arid west-central United States (US). The aquifer has profound importance for US agriculture, providing water for 27 percent of the irrigated land in the US, and supplying about 30 percent of the groundwater used for irrigation in the US. Human-induced stresses on groundwater, in the form of withdrawals of water from the aquifer for irrigation and agrichemical use, have resulted in water-table declines greater than 30 meters in some areas and widespread elevated nitrate and pesticide concentrations in groundwater. This has raised questions about resource sustainability and health concerns for nearly 2 million people who rely on the aquifer as a source of drinking water. Research is beginning to focus on interannual to interdecadal natural climatic variability that can augment or diminish human-induced stresses on groundwater availability and quality. The interaction between these climate cycles produces a cumulative climate variability that, for example, affects the distribution of precipitation and, in turn, affects water needs for irrigation, recharge, and agrichemical flux to groundwater. Groundwater can respond dramatically when climate variability from different cycles lie coincident in a positive (wet) or negative (dry) phase of variability. This presentation provides results from field and modeling studies by the U.S. Geological Survey that build a conceptual understanding of water quantity and quality responses in the unsaturated zone and groundwater to spatial and temporal variability of human- and natural climate-induced stresses. Focus is placed on changes in recharge rates, water levels, chemical fluxes, and groundwater vulnerability in response to historical and present-day stresses from human activity and natural climate variability. Process-based understanding of the complex relation between human-induced stresses and natural-climate variability and groundwater system response is challenging, but is a necessary step toward better simulating groundwater system response under future global-climate-change scenarios.. 39.

(42) Recharge. Understanding groundwater response to humanhuman- and climateclimate-induced stresses: High Plains Aquifer, United States. Water and Chemical Flux to Water Table. Jason Gurdak Bret Bruce, Kevin Dennehy, Dennehy, and Peter McMahon U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO. A fundamental challenge is understanding the spatial and temporal variability of human and climate stresses affecting water and chemical flux in the unsaturated (vadose (vadose)) zone. GRAPHIC Symposium, Kyoto Japan, April 44-6, 2006. Unsaturated Zone Monitoring Site Installation. Unsaturated Zone Monitoring Network. Gas sampling port Suction lysimeter Heat dissipation probe. Unsaturated Zone Water Movement – Influenced by Human Activity and Climate. Monitoring well. Size of Subsoil NO3 Reservoirs Influenced by Human Activity (Land Use) and Climate.. NHP irrigated corn. NHP rangeland. 10. 20. 20. 30. 30. 40. 40 0 25 SHP rangeland. 0. 0 10. 20. 20. 30. 30 November 10, 2003 April 10, 2004. 50 -600. -25. 0. 25. 102-111 mm/yr. 20 40. early 1970's. 2002. (2.4 mg-N/L). 2002. 50. (8.4 mg-N/L) 0. 5. 10. 15. 20. 0. 5,400 kg/ha. 20. 15. 20. 50. 40. 2000 2000. 50 0. (1.2 mg-N/L) 5 10 15 20 150300. Sediment cuttings. Total water potential (m). 40. 1,080 kg/ha. early 1960's. 30. Nitrate concentration (µg-N/g). 25. 10. 10. 60. 0. 5. CHP irrigated corn. 0. 0 25 50 SHP irrigated cotton. 17-32 mm/yr. 50 50 -25. 1,515 kg/ha. early 1970's. 30. CHP rangeland. 40. Total water potential (m). 10. 60. 50 50 -25. 10. 40. 41 kg/ha. Depth below land surface (m). 10. 50 -25. 0. NHP irrigated corn 0. Depth below land surface (m). 0.2 mm/yr. Depth below land surface (m). 70 mm/yr. Depth below land surface (m). NHP rangeland 0. (23 mg-N/L) 0. 5. 10. 15. 20. Nitrate concentration (µg-N/g) Monitoring well. Water table. 1.

(43) ClimateClimate-Induced Episodic Deep Percolation SHP Rangeland Site. ClimateClimate-Induced Mobilization of Chemical Profiles. SHP Irrigated Agricultural Site. Depth below land surface (m). CHP Rangeland Site. Chloride Concentration (µ (µg/g). Focused Recharge. Nitrate Concentration (mg/g). Focused Recharge – Enhanced Water and Chemical Migration. Collection of surface water in topographic depressions. Fast Path = 7 to <50 years Naturally occurring: Playas, dry streambeds, etc.. Slow Path = decades to centuries. Tracer Concentration (g/m3). Human Human-induced: Ponds from leaking irrigations wells.. Water Potential (m). Radial distance of ponding (m). Interannual to Interdecadal Climate Variability. 10. 20. 30. Fast Path. 40. 50. 10. 60. 10. Slow Path. 20. 30. Fast Path. 40. 50. 60. Slow Path. 20. 20. ( ). Depth below land surface (m). 10. 30. 30 40. Sandy loam at t = 50 yr w.t. = 50 m ψ1-m within 1 m of well for 25% of the year = 0.1 m time for solute to reach w.t. = 45.5 yr enhancement factor = 14. 40. 50. 50. 60. 60. Sandy loam at t = 50 yr w.t. = 50 m ψ1-m within 1 m of well for 25% of the year = 0.1 m time for solute to reach w.t. = 45.5 yr enhancement factor = 14. Natural Climate Variability SingularSingular-Spectrum Analysis (SSA) TimeTime-series frequency analysis to detect periodic signals in noisy time time--series – compared to known indices of climate variability (PDO, NAM, ENSO). ENSO).. Pa Os cific D ci 10 llation ecad a to 25 (PD l yea O) rs. Synthetic TimeTime-Series Record of Daily Precipitation. rn El Nino/Southe SO) Oscillation (EN 2 to 6 years. ) an AMS ric me m (N A rth ste ars No n Sy 0 ye o so to 1 n 6 Mo. 41. 2.

(44) Natural Climate Variability. Groundwater Level Response to Climate Variability Correlation of Groundwater level change to Climate Indices.. Climate variability can augment or diminish humanhuman-induced stresses on groundwater.. ENSO (2(2-6 year). NAMS (6(6-10 year). PDO (10(10-25 year). Synthetic TimeTime-Series Record of Climate Components Relatively Wet Relatively Dry. Modified from Hanson et al., 2004. Conceptual Model – Subsurface Nitrate Transport. Climate Variability in Precipitation – SHP Variance PDO & NAMS = 84% ENSO & ANN = 16%. Conclusions • Recharge is highly variable spatially and temporally (Fast and slow path, and episodic response) • Local recharge affected by global climate cycles • Local recharge affected by human activity • In terms of recharge and chemical transport, extremes of natural climate cycles more important than averages – What are implications under global climate change scenarios? • More work to be done… done… …please visit us at our poster.. GRAPHIC Symposium, Kyoto Japan, April 44-6, 2006. 42. 3.

(45) Temporal change of groundwater and subsurface environment at Tokyo Metropolitan area for recent sixty-years and its relation to human activities Tomochika Tokunaga (University of Tokyo, Japan). Tokyo, the capital of Japan, is situated in the southwestern part of the Kanto plain, the largest flat plain in Japan. The underground environments at the Tokyo Metropolitan Area have been changing dramatically in accordance with the change of groundwater condition and with the continuous increase and heavy usage of underground space. Because of the complex interaction between the change of groundwater environments and human activities for the underground usage, we have experienced a variety of human-induced “natural hazards”. In this presentation, we first describe the present situation of groundwater environment in the Kanto plain based on hydraulic potential distribution, oxygen and hydrogen isotope distribution, chloride concentration, groundwater “age” from carbon-14 measurements, and three-dimensional distribution of aquifer/aquitard system. Then, the temporal change of groundwater environments and associated hazards at the Tokyo Metropolitan Area are described. Here, it is possible to divide the change into three stages, i.e., deterioration of underground and surface environments due to over exploitation of groundwater until early 1970s (first stage), regulation of groundwater extraction to the absolute minimum and the recovery of groundwater potentials between late 1960s to early 1980s (second stage), and damaging underground infrastructures by buoyant force and increase of groundwater seepage due to the recovery of groundwater potentials from 1990s (third stage). Recent activities to use “surplus” water to improve the urban environments and to reduce the damage to underground infrastructures are shown. These activities should be expanded to achieve the sustainable development of the urban cities.. 43.