Table of contents
Acknowledgments xvii
List of abbreviations xxi
Chapter I. Introduction 1
1 Research topic ... 1
2 Goals ... 3
3 Contextualisation ... 5
4 Overview of the thesis ... 6
Chapter II. Theoretical framework 9
1 Cognitive Linguistics ... 10
1.1 General description ... 10
1.2 Basic theoretical and methodological principles ... 11
1.3 Cognitive Semantics ... 16
2 Historical, Spatial and Functional Semantics ... 17
2.1 Historical Semantics ... 17
2.2 Spatial Semantics ... 20
2.3 Functional Semantics ... 22
3 Grammaticalisation theory ... 24
3.1 Introduction ... 24
3.2 Definition and origins ... 25
3.3 Main concepts ... 27
3.4 Grammaticalisation clines ... 29
4 Corpus Linguistics ... 30
4.1 Short history and characterisation ... 30
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4.3 On the representativeness of corpora ... 34
4.4 Qualitative and quantitative analyses ... 35
4.5 The use of corpora: advantages and disadvantages ... 36
4.6 French and Italian corpora ... 38
5 Cross-linguistic perspective ... 39
5.1 (Historical) Comparative Linguistics ... 39
5.2 Contrastive Linguistics ... 40
5.3 Typological comparison ... 42
Chapter III. Research topic 45
1. Complex spatial phrases ... 45
1.1 Introduction ... 45
1.2 Diachronic evolution of (complex) prepositions ... 46
1.2.1 The history of prepositions: from Indo-European to modern languages ... 46
1.2.1.1 French ... 48
1.2.1.2 Italian ... 48
1.2.2 Prepositions and grammaticalisation studies ... 49
1.2.3 Semantic evolution ... 50
2. The scope of our study ... 52
2.1 Languages ... 52
2.2 Periods under study ... 53
3. Secondary sources and previous studies ... 54
3.1 French ... 55
3.1.1 Previous studies ... 55
3.1.2 À travers and au travers (de) ... 56
3.1.3 En travers (de) ... 58
3.1.4 De travers (à) ... 59
3.2 Italian ... 59
3.2.1 Previous studies ... 59
3.2.2 A traverso/at(t)raverso (a, di, per) ... 60
3.2.3 Al traverso (di) ... 61
3.2.4 In traverso (di) ... 62
3.2.5 Di traverso (a) ... 62
3.2.6 Traverso (a) ... 63
3.3 Etymology ... 63
3.4 Research on similar spatial expressions in other languages ... 64
Chapter IV. Methodology and terminology 67
1. On the use of corpora ... 67
1.1 Descriptions of the databases used ... 67
1.1.1 French: the FRANTEXT database ... 67
1.1.1.1 Origins ... 67
1.1.1.2 Characteristics ... 68
1.1.1.3 Choice of FRANTEXT ... 68
1.1.2 Italian: the LIZ database ... 69
1.1.2.1 Origins ... 69
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1.1.2.3 Choice of the LIZ ... 71
1.2 Data retrieval and selection of random samples ... 71
1.2.1 French data ... 71
1.2.2 Italian data ... 73
2. On qualitative and quantitative methods, and a cross-linguistic perspective ... 75
2.1 Qualitative methods... 75
2.2 Quantitative methods ... 76
2.3 A cross-linguistic perspective ... 77
3. Interpretative framework ... 77
3.1 Grammatical information ... 78
3.1.1 Distinction between prepositional/adverbial/adjectival expressions ... 78
3.1.2 Grammaticalisation level ... 79
3.1.3 Further distinctions between adverbial expressions... 82
3.2 Referential information ... 84
3.2.1 Entities distinguished ... 85
3.2.2 Nature of the Figure-Ground relation ... 90
3.2.2.1 Static vs. dynamic uses ... 91
3.2.2.2 Concrete vs. Fictive Motion ... 91
3.2.3 Types of dynamic uses ... 93
3.2.4 Trajectory vs. sweeping uses ... 95
3.2.5 Internal or external trajectory/position ... 96
3.3 Level of abstraction ... 98
3.3.1 Concrete and Abstract configurations ... 98
3.3.2 Literal vs. Figurative interpretation ... 98
3.4 Functional parameters ... 99
3.4.1 Functional character of the Ground ... 99
3.4.2 Functional notions ... 101
3.4.2.1 Guidance ... 101
3.4.2.1.1 The notion of an Obstacle ... 102
3.4.2.1.2 Force dynamics ... 102
3.4.2.1.3 The different features of the notion of Guidance ... 104
3.4.2.2 Contrast ... 110
3.4.2.3 Deviation ... 112
4. On the tests adopted... 113
4.1 Delimitation ... 113
4.2 Grammatical information ... 114
4.2.1 Distinction between prepositional/adverbial/adjectival expressions ... 114
4.2.2 Grammaticalisation level ... 115
4.2.3 Distinguishing between adverbial expressions ... 115
4.3 Referential information ... 115
4.3.1 Entities distinguished ... 115
4.3.2 Nature of the Figure-Ground relation ... 115
4.3.2.1 Static vs. dynamic uses ... 115
4.3.2.2 Concrete vs. Fictive Motion ... 116
4.3.3 Types of dynamic uses ... 117
4.3.4 Trajectory uses vs. sweeping uses ... 118
4.3.5 Internal or external trajectory/position ... 119
4.4 Level of abstraction ... 119
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4.4.2 Literal vs. Figurative interpretation ... 120
4.5 Functional parameters ... 120
4.5.1 Functional character of the Ground ... 120
4.5.2 Functional notions ... 120
Chapter V. French analysis 121
A. À travers (de) 123
1 Characterisation ... 123
2 Number of tokens ... 123
3 Figure-entities ... 125
3.1 Varieties of Objects playing the role of the Figure ... 127
3.2 Varieties of Substances (masses) playing the role of the Figure ... 128
3.3 Configurations of entities forming a Figure ... 129
4 Ground-entities ... 130
4.1 Varieties of Objects playing the role of the Ground ... 133
4.2 Varieties of Locations playing the role of the Ground ... 135
4.3 Configurations of entities forming a Ground ... 137
5 Dynamic vs. static uses ... 138
5.1 Verbs expressing motion ... 139
5.2 Trajectory vs. sweeping uses ... 143
6 Concrete vs. Fictive motion ... 145
7 Internal vs. external motion/position of the Ground ... 147
8 Concrete vs. Abstract configuration, Literal vs. Figurative interpretation ... 149
9 Functional character of the Ground ... 150
10 Functional notion – Functional features ... 152
11 Adverbial expressions ... 156
12 Prepositional à travers vs. à travers de ... 157
13 Concluding remarks ... 159
B. Au travers (de) 161
1 Characterisation ... 161
2 Number of tokens ... 161
3 Figure-entities ... 163
3.1 Varieties of Objects playing the role of the Figure ... 165
3.2 Configurations of entities forming a Figure ... 166
4 Ground-entities ... 167
4.1 Varieties of Objects playing the role of the Ground ... 170
4.2 Configurations of entities forming a Ground ... 172
5 Dynamic vs. static uses ... 173
5.1 Verbs expressing motion ... 175
5.2 Trajectory vs. sweeping uses ... 179
6 Concrete vs. Fictive Motion ... 180
7 Internal vs. external motion/position of the Ground ... 182
8 Concrete vs. Abstract configuration, Literal vs. Figurative interpretation ... 183
9 Functional character of the Ground ... 185
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11 Adverbial expressions ... 192
12 Prepositional au travers vs. au travers de ... 193
13 Concluding remarks ... 195
C. À travers (de) vs. au travers (de) 197
1 Introduction ... 197
2 Hypothesis 1: Competition with par ... 198
2.1 Sub-Hypothesis 1.1: type of Ground... 199
2.1.1 Testing Sub-Hypothesis 1.1 ... 199
2.2 Sub-Hypothesis 1.2: Type of motion complexes ... 204
2.2.1 Testing Sub-Hypothesis 1.2 ... 204
2.3 Re-evaluation of the data ... 210
3 Hypothesis 2: Competition with au travers (de) ... 212
4 Concluding remarks ... 215
D. En travers (de) 217
1 Characterisation ... 217
2 Number of tokens ... 218
3 Figure-entities ... 219
3.1 Varieties of Objects playing the role of the Figure/modified noun ... 221
3.2 Configurations of entities forming a Figure ... 223
4 Ground-entities ... 224
4.1 Varieties of the Object-types playing the role of the Ground ... 227
4.2 Configurations of entities forming a Ground ... 228
5 Dynamic vs. static uses ... 229
5.1 Verbs expressing a position ... 231
5.2 Verbs expressing motion ... 233
6 Concrete vs. Fictive Motion ... 235
7 Internal vs. external motion/position of the Ground ... 237
8 Concrete vs. Abstract configuration, Literal vs. Figurative interpretation ... 239
9 Functional character of the Ground ... 240
10 Functional notion – Functional features ... 242
11 Adverbial expressions ... 244
12 En travers à ... 245
13 Prepositional en travers de, à ... 246
14 Concluding remarks ... 247
E. De travers 251
1 Characterisation ... 251
2 Number of tokens ... 251
3 Figure-entities ... 253
3.1 Varieties of Objects playing the role of the Figure ... 256
3.2 Varieties of Mental concepts playing the role of the Figure ... 257
3.3 Varieties of Ungraspable entities playing the role of the Figure ... 259
3.4 Configurations of entities forming a Figure/modified noun ... 260
4 Ground-entities ... 261
5 Dynamic vs. static uses ... 263
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5.2 Verbs expressing motion ... 264
5.3 Trajectory vs. sweeping uses ... 266
6 Concrete vs. Fictive Motion ... 266
7 Internal vs. external motion/position of the Ground ... 268
8 Concrete vs. Abstract configuration, Literal vs. Figurative interpretation ... 270
9 Functional character of the Ground ... 271
10 Functional notion – Functional features ... 272
11 Adverbial expressions ... 273 12 De travers à ... 274 13 Concluding remarks ... 275 F. General discussion 277 1. Introductory remarks ... 277 2. Functional notions ... 277 2.1 Guidance ... 277 2.1.1 Dynamicity ... 279 2.1.2 Internality ... 280
2.1.3 Unity of the Ground ... 280
2.1.4 Opposition to motion ... 281
2.1.5 Lateral orientation ... 281
2.1.6 Focalisation on the trajectory in the Ground (CoP-Motion) ... 282
2.1.7 Spatial continuity ... 283
2.1.8 Minimal trajectory ... 283
2.2 Contrast ... 284
2.2.1 Resistance to the usual use of the Ground ... 287
2.2.2 Resistance to a (meta-)physical force ... 287
2.2.3 Dynamicity ... 288
2.2.4 Internality ... 289
2.3 Deviation ... 290
2.3.1 Dynamicity ... 292
3. Grammaticalisation mechanisms ... 293
3.1 From Concrete to Abstract ... 293
3.1.1 Figurative interpretation ... 293 3.1.2 Abstract configurations ... 294 3.1.3 Fictive Motion ... 295 3.2 Coexistence or layering ... 296 3.3 Extension ... 297 3.4 Semantic bleaching ... 297 3.4.1 Type of notion ... 297 3.4.2 Type of motion ... 299
3.5 Erosion or phonological attrition ... 301
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Chapter VI. Italian analysis 309
A. A traverso/at(t)raverso (a, di, per) 311
1 Characterisation ... 311
2 Number of tokens ... 311
3 Figure-entities ... 314
3.1 Varieties of Objects playing the role of the Figure ... 315
3.2 Configurations of entities forming a Figure ... 316
4 Ground-entities ... 317
4.1 Varieties of Objects playing the role of the Ground ... 320
4.2 Varieties of Locations playing the role of the Ground ... 320
4.3 Configurations of entities forming a Ground ... 320
5 Dynamic vs. static uses ... 321
5.1 Verbs expressing motion ... 323
5.2 Trajectory vs. sweeping uses ... 323
6 Concrete vs. Fictive Motion ... 324
7 Internal vs. external motion/position of the Ground ... 326
8 Concrete vs. Abstract configuration, Literal vs. Figurative interpretation ... 328
9 Functional character of the Ground ... 329
10 Functional notion – Functional features ... 331
11 Adverbial expressions ... 336
12 Prepositional a traverso/at(t)raverso vs. a traverso/at(t)raverso a, di, per ... 337
13 Concluding remarks ... 338
B. Al traverso (di) 339
1 Characterisation ... 339
2 Number of tokens ... 339
3 Figure-entities ... 341
3.1 Varieties of Objects playing the role of the Figure/modified noun ... 342
3.2 Configurations of entities forming a Figure ... 342
4 Ground-entities ... 343
4.1 Configurations of entities forming a Ground ... 344
5 Dynamic vs. static uses ... 345
5.1 Verbs expressing a position ... 346
5.2 Verbs expressing motion ... 346
5.3 Trajectory vs. sweeping uses ... 346
6 Concrete vs. Fictive Motion ... 347
7 Internal vs. external motion/position of the Ground ... 347
8 Concrete vs. Abstract configuration, Literal vs. Figurative interpretation ... 348
9 Functional character of the Ground ... 349
10 Functional notion – Functional features ... 350
11 Adverbial expressions ... 352
12 Prepositional al traverso vs. al travers di ... 352
13 Concluding remarks ... 353
C. In traverso (di) 355
1 Characterisation ... 355
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3 Figure-entities ... 357
3.1 Varieties of Objects playing the role of the Figure/modified noun ... 357
3.2 Configurations of entities forming a Figure ... 358
4 Ground-entities ... 358
4.1 Configurations of entities forming a Ground ... 359
5 Dynamic vs. static uses ... 360
5.1 Trajectory vs. sweeping uses ... 361
6 Concrete vs. Fictive Motion ... 361
7 Internal vs. external motion/position of the Ground ... 361
8 Concrete vs. Abstract configuration, Literal vs. Figurative interpretation ... 362
9 Functional character of the Ground ... 362
10 Functional notion – Functional features ... 363
11 Adverbial expressions ... 364 12 Prepositional in traverso di ... 364 13 Concluding remarks ... 364 D. Di traverso (a) 365 1 Characterisation ... 365 2 Number of tokens ... 365 3 Figure-entities ... 367
3.1 Varieties of Objects playing the role of the Figure ... 369
3.2 Configurations of entities forming a Figure ... 369
4 Ground-entities ... 370
4.1 Configurations of entities forming a Ground ... 372
5 Dynamic vs. static uses ... 373
5.1 Verbs expressing a position ... 374
5.2 Verbs expressing motion ... 375
5.3 Trajectory vs. sweeping uses ... 375
6 Concrete vs. Fictive Motion ... 375
7 Internal vs. external motion/position of the Ground ... 377
8 Concrete vs. Abstract configuration, Literal vs. Figurative interpretation ... 378
9 Functional character of the Ground ... 379
10 Functional notion – Functional features ... 381
11 Adverbial expressions ... 383 12 Prepositional di traverso a ... 384 13 Concluding remarks ... 384 E. Traverso (a) 387 1 Characterisation ... 387 2 Number of tokens ... 387 3 Figure-entities ... 389
3.1 Varieties of Objects playing the role of the Figure/modified noun ... 390
3.2 Configurations of entities forming a Figure ... 391
4 Ground-entities ... 391
4.1 Configurations of entities forming a Ground ... 393
5 Dynamic vs. static uses ... 394
xiii
5.2 Verbs expressing motion ... 395
5.3 Trajectory vs. sweeping uses ... 396
6 Concrete vs. Fictive Motion ... 396
7 Internal vs. external motion/position of the Ground ... 397
8 Concrete vs. Abstract configuration, Literal vs. Figurative interpretation ... 399
9 Functional character of the Ground ... 400
10 Functional Notion – Functional features ... 402
11 Adverbial expressions ... 404
12 Prepositional traverso vs. traverso a ... 405
13 Concluding remarks ... 405 F. General discussion 407 1. Introductory remarks ... 407 2. Functional notions ... 407 2.1 Guidance ... 407 2.1.1 Dynamicity ... 409 2.1.2 Internality ... 410
2.1.3 Unity of the Ground ... 410
2.1.4 Opposition to motion ... 410
2.1.5 Lateral orientation ... 411
2.1.6 Focalisation on the trajectory in the Ground (CoP-motion) ... 411
2.1.7 Spatial continuity ... 412
2.1.8 Minimal trajectory ... 412
2.2 Contrast ... 413
2.2.1 Resistance to the usual use of the Ground ... 416
2.2.2 Resistance to a (meta-)physical force ... 417
2.2.3 Dynamicity ... 418
2.2.4 Internality ... 418
2.3 Deviation ... 419
2.3.1 Dynamicity ... 422
3. Grammaticalisation mechanisms ... 422
3.1 From Concrete to Abstract ... 423
3.1.1 Figurative interpretation ... 423 3.1.2 Abstract configurations ... 423 3.1.3 Fictive motion ... 424 3.2 Coexistence or layering ... 425 3.3 Extension ... 425 3.4 Semantic bleaching ... 425 3.4.1 Type of notion ... 425 3.4.2 Type of motion ... 427
3.5 Erosion or phonological attrition ... 428
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Chapter VII. Contrastive analysis 433
1. Syntactic roles ... 433
1.1 Prepositions, adverbs and adjectives ... 433
1.2 Adverbs ... 436
2. Semantic features... 436
2.1 Static configurations ... 436
2.2 Type of motion ... 438
2.2.1 Motion WCoP ... 438
2.2.2 Motion implying a CoP ... 438
2.2.3 Motion implying a CoL ... 439
2.3 Type of Grounds ... 441
2.3.1 Entities ... 441
2.3.2 Function ... 441
2.4 Concrete vs. Abstract ... 442
3. Functional notions ... 443
3.1 Unity of the Ground ... 445
3.2 Opposition to motion ... 445
3.3 Lateral orientation ... 446
3.4 Focalisation on the trajectory in the Ground (CoP-Motion) ... 446
3.5 Spatial continuity ... 447
3.6 Minimal trajectory ... 448
3.7 Resistance to the usual use of the Ground vs. Resistance to a (meta-)physical force ... 448
3.8 Internality ... 450
3.8.1 Guidance ... 450
3.8.2 Contrast ... 451
3.9 Dynamic vs. static semantics ... 452
3.9.1 Guidance ... 452
3.9.2 Contrast ... 453
3.9.3 Deviation ... 454
4. Grammaticalisation level ... 455
5. Conclusive remarks ... 456
Chapter VIII. Conclusions and perspectives 459
1. Synopsis of the results ... 459
1.1 Diachronic-semantic description ... 459
1.2 Functional concepts ... 461
1.2.1 French ... 462
1.2.2 Italian ... 463
1.3 Grammaticalisation ... 464
1.3.1 From Concrete to Abstract ... 464
1.3.2 Coexistence or layering ... 465
1.3.3 Extension ... 465
1.3.4 Semantic bleaching ... 465
1.3.5 Erosion or phonological attrition ... 466
1.3.6 Decategorisation ... 466
1.3.7 Divergence ... 466
xv
1.3.9 Unidirectionality ... 466
1.3.10 Grammaticalisation clines ... 467
1.4 Contrastive analysis ... 467
2. Perspectives for future research ... 469
Bibliography 471
