ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE
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ENGLISH ONLY UPDATE OF ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PAPERSRELATING TO THE CONTROL OF MOSQUITOS BY THE USE OF FISH FOR THE YEARS 1965-1981
by
John B. Gerberichl• 2
An annotated bibliography of papers relating to the control of mosquitos by the use of fish was published as a WHO mimeographed document in 1966 and by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, in 1968 (Gerberich & Laird, 1966, 1968). This is an update covering the years 1965-1981.
The first purposeful use of larvivorous fish was against container-breeding mosquitos, Aedes aegypti, for the control of yellow fever in Havana, Cuba, at the turn of the century.
The first long-distance transportation of the mosquito fish, Gambusia affinis (Baird &
Girard), from its native southern United States, Texas, to Hawaii, was in 1905. In 1921, G. affinis was successfully introduced into Spain from the United States, then in the early 1920s to Italy where it became established and propagated. The resultant Italian stock was then transplanted to Yugoslavian islands in the Adriatic in 1924. Later still, Gambusia has been transferred to some 60 countries. For more detailed historical records, one is referred to Gerberich & Laird (1966, 1968).
Some of the acclimatizations were well conceived against a background of sound ecological information, others were not. Examples of G. affinis simply being placed in mosquito larval habitats without any prior reference to the ecological parameters
(Hubbs, 1972) of the species produced partial or complete failure. Some of the failures were due to the lack of available experimental information on the ecological parameters of the fish.
Many annotated references have been collected3 pertaining to research on fish ecology, behaviour and biology.
Annual fish may be used in restricted habitats which dry out seasonally. Also, a species may function as coexisting or anti-existing in a common habitat. Finding the limiting ecological factor for the species' existence and propagation is of vital importance. For example, Poecilia reticulata cannot tolerate as low a temperature as G. affinis, although it can withstand a greater degree of pollution.
Research in the last 10 to 15 years has introduced many studies dealing with the /
economics and methods of mass rearing of fish, mass transportation of fish, fish release strategies and studies related to the maintenance of effective densities of larvivorous fish.
1 Department of Biology, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, Wisconsin 54701, United States of America.
2 The author is indebted to the library staff at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire for their unlimited help.
3 Biological Abstracts, Review of Applied Entomology, Series B, Mosquito News, Journal of Parasitology and many other journals as cited.
The issue of this document does not constitute formal publication. lt should not be reviewed, abstracted, quoted or translated without the agreement of the World Health Organization.
Authors alone are responsible for views expressed in signed articles.
Ce document ne constitue pas une publication.
11 ne doit faire l'objet d'aucun compte rendu ou resume ni d'aucune citation ou traduction sans l'autorisation de !'Organisation mondiale de la Sante. Les opinions exprimees dans les articles signes n'engagent que leurs auteurs.
~IO/VBC/85.917
page 2
Another ecological factor should be included in the study of mass handling of fish.
This is the parasites of fish, especially those fish which are or have been used for mosquito control. This parameter should include studies of propagation stocks, effects of exotic stocks, maintenance of indigenous colonies, effect of the distribution of pathogens via fish on the indigenous food chain and possibility of dispersal of potential human parasites.
Many references have been cited pertaining to the integrated use of fish with chemicals and biological insecticides. This has opened a new era of mosquito control.
All materials cited in the bibliography are cross-referenced by category in the Appendix.
Request for notification of omissions and corrections:
The author concedes that many pertinent references are likely to have been overlooked, especially where information on larvivorous fish has been included in the body of a paper primarily devoted to a broader topic. Notification of such omissions would be greatly appreciated, as would corrections to incomplete or otherwise imperfect literature citations.
Such information could be mailed to the author.
001 Abdil'Daev, M. A. (1976) Med. Parazitol. i Parazit. Bolezni, ~ (1): 97-100 [Rus.] The catching and
transportation of species of fish suitable for control of blood-sucking Diptera.
Catches of Pseudorasbora parva and Aplocheilus latipes were transported successfully by car and plane.
002 Abdil'Daev, M. A.,; Zolotukhin, S. M. (1975)
Med. Parazitol. i Parazit. Bolezni, 44 (6): 677-681 [Rus.] The laboratory rearing of Aplocheilus latipes (Temminck & Schlegel). Three-year study on the rearing of Aplocheilus latipes in both laboratory and field conditions for control of anopheline larvae.
003 Abdulazizov, A. I. (1976)
Materialy II Vsesoyuznogo Syezda Protozoologov Chast'2. Med. Protozoologiya, 8-9 [Rus.]. The successful use of Gambusia in rice cultivation in Dagestan, USSR.
004 Ahmed, W.; Washino, R. K.; Gieke, P. A. (1970)
Calif. Mosquito Control Assoc. Proc., 38: 95-97. Further biological and chemical studies on Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard) in California. Feeding pattern of G. affinis in rice fields found the chief food to be Crustacea and chironomid larvae. Exposure of Gambusia to 6 p.p.m. methylparathion for 72 hours caused no mortality. Exposure of 0.05 p.p.m. parathion for 24 hours caused no mortality, whereas exposure to 0.3 p.p.m. for 24 hours caused complete mortality.
005 Alls, R. T. (1969)
M.S. Thesis University of Delaware 73 pp. Killifish (Fundulus diaphanus) predation of mosquitos in low level impounded Delaware salt marshes.
006 Armstrong, R. C.
Calif. Mosquito Control Assoc. Proc., 43: 47-48. Economic analysis of a mosquito-fish programme.
(1975)
007 Armstrong, R.C. (1975)
Calif. Vector Views, 22 (5): 40-42. An annotated bibliography of disease problems affecting piscine mosquito larvivores in aquaculture operations.
008 Armstrong, R. C. (1977a)
Calif. Mosquito and Vector Contr. Assoc. Proc., 45: 103-104. Dispersal rates of mosquito fish through cattails in drainage ditches. G. affinis was well able to penetrate dense growths of Typha spp., Scirpus spp. and Polygonum sp., moving at speeds of up to 350 ft/hr. Whole fish populations did not move at the same rate.
Concluded that the governing factor was water depth rather than current speed or vegetation density.
009 Armstrong, R. C. (1977b)
Calif. Mosquito and Vector Contr. Assoc. Proc., ~: 99-100. The effects of
different control methodologies on mosquito production in water seepage areas in the Sutter-Yuba Mosquito Abatement District. Biological control, stocking rate of Gambusia affinis in excess of 0.6 lb fish/acre, required less frequent checking, nearly identical cost, and was less dependent on the configuration of the ground than was source reduction by draining.
010 Armstrong, R. C. (1979)
Sutter-Yuba Mosquito Abatement District, Yuba City, California 95991, United States of America. The cost of biocontrol versus chemical in selected mosquito habitats.
Biological control costs more initially than a single chemical application but any chemical treatment that has to be repeated on the same site costs more than
biological control by means of G. affinis.
011 Armstrong, P. B.;
Biol. Bull., 128:
heteroclitus.---
Child, J. S. (1965)
143-168. Stages in the normal development of Fundulus
WHO/VBC/85.917 page 4
012 Ataur-Rahim, M.
Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 75 (3): 359-362.
Aphanius dispar (Ruppell, 1928), a mosquito larvivorous fish in Saudi Arabia. Cyprinodontid fish Aphanius dispar is indigenous Riyadh and proved a successful larvivore.
(1981) Observations on Riyadh,
with few predators in 013 Avault, J. W., Jr.; Smitherman, R. 0.; Shell, E. W. (1968)
FAO Fisheries Reports, 44: 109-122. Evaluation of eight species of fish for aquatic weed control. The authors evaluated eight species of fish for effectiveness in conjunction with or as a larvivorous fish. The fish studied were: Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cyprinus carpio, Tilapia melanopleura, T. nilotica, T. mossambica,
T. heudeloti, Carassius auratus and Ictalurus punctatus.
014 Bailey, R. G. (1973)
Afr. J. Trop. Hydrobiol. Fish.,
!
(2): 33-43. Observations on the Biology of Nothobranchius guentheri. Cyprinodontidae an annual fish from the coastal region of East Africa.015 Balaraman, K.; Hoti, S. L.; Manonmani, L. M. (1981)
Current Science, 50 (4): 199-200, India. An indigenous virulent strain of Bacillus thuringiensis (VCRC B-17) highly pathogenic and specific to mosquitos. In tests of the pathogen against non-target organisms, a dose 10 times that required to kill mosquito larvae, effective larvicide treatment was 16 x 10S viable spores/litre, caused no mortality of larvivorous fish.
016 Balling, S. S.; Stoehr, T.; Resh, V. H. (1979)
Calif. Mosquito and Vector Control Assoc. Proc., ~: 88-89. Species composition and abundance of fishes in ditched and unditched areas of a San Francisco Bay salt
marsh. Ditched areas contained a wider variety of fish species, greater density and higher proportion of immature individuals. Ditches improve conditions for the fish through temperature moderation and increased accessibility.
017 Balling, S. S.; Stoehr, T.; Resh, V. H. (1980)
Calif. Fish and Game, 66 (1): 25-34. The effects of mosquito control recirculation ditches on the fish com;unity of a San Francisco Bay salt marsh. Recirculation ditches drain depressed areas in marsh surfaces, doubles the number of fish species and fish density and increases the number of immature Gambusia.
018 Bang, Y. H.; Msangi, H. S.; Wright, J. W. (1973)
World Health Organization, WHO/VBC/73.438. Mosquito Control Service in Tanzania, Part I. Historical Review. Fish were placed in tanks ("birikas") along coastal towns several centuries ago by the Arabs to control Aedes aegypti and Culex
quinquefasciatus. After the second World War Lebistes were used in the same type of breeding places.
019 Bay, E. c~ (1965)
Calif. Mosquito Control Assoc. Proc.,
]l:
29-30. Preliminary findings concerning the adaptability of Annual fishes to California mosquito habitats. Cynolebias bellotti can survive periods of intense heat and drought as eggs. Under suitable conditions, the fish grows rapidly, attains sexual maturity within 6-8 weeks and feeds voraciously on mosquito larvae. The eggs withstand storage and handling.020 Bay, E. C. (1966)
Copeia, ~: 839-846. Adaptation studies with the Argentine pearl fish, Cynolebias bellotti for its introduction into California. Popular account of an initial
investigation of the potentialities of the South American Cynolebias bellotti against rice-field mosquitos in California.
021 Bay, E.
c.
(1967a)Calif. Mosquito Control Assoc. Proc., ]1: 34-37. Potential for Naturalistic Control of Mosquitos. The discovery of species of fish with desiccation-resistant eggs
("Annual fishes"), in Africa and South America, has opened a new field for use of fish as mosquito control agents.
022 Bay, E. C. (1967b) World Health Organization WHO Chron., ~ (10): 415-423, Geneva. Mosquito control by fish: a present day appraisal. The origins of Gambusia, according to available information, were the southern and eastern waters of North America, Mexico, Texas and Cuba. From there to Spain, eastern European countries, Italy and North Africa as a measure of malaria control.
023 Bay, E. C. (1972)
World Health Organization, WHO/VBC/72.403, Geneva. A Preliminary Assessment of the Potentialities of Larvivorous Fishes for Anopheles Control in West Africa.
Preliminary study of Cichlidae-Hemichromis bimaculatus, H. fasciatus and Tilapia zillii; Cyprinidae-Barbus (Enteromius) ablabes, B. macrops, B. leonensis, and B. spurrilli; Cyprinodontidae-Aphyosemion calliureum. Ahl variety, A. normani, and Epiplatys bifasciatus were studied as possible control agents for Anophelines in Acru I, Kaduna, Nigeria.
024 Bay, E. C. (1973)
World Health Organization, WHO/VBC/73.445, Geneva. Exotic fish introduction for mosquito control: possible and purported consequences. A good review of the use of Gambusia, with discussion with participants, on the safety of Biological Agents for Arthropod Control.
025 Bay, E. C.; Self, L. S. (1972)
World Health Organization Bulletin, 46 (3): 407-416; WHO/VBC/70.234, Geneva.
Observations of the guppy, Poecilia reticulata Peters, in Culex pipiens fatigans Wied breeding sites in Bangkok, Rangoon and Taipei. The findings confirm the value of guppies in mosquito control but emphasize the very limited range of habitats in which guppies can be used.
026 Beesley, C~ (1972)
Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Riverside, Calif., United States of America.
Investigations of the life history and predatory capacity of Anax junius Drury (Odonata: Aeshnidae). Stomach analysis showed no intensive foraging on benthic odonatam naiads by Cyprinodon macularius or Gambusia affinis.
027 Beesley, C. (1981)
Calif. Mosq. and Vector Control Assoc. 49th Proc.: 26-29. A laboratory system for small scale mass production of Gambusia affinis.
028 Boisson, P. (1967)
Entente Interdepartementale pour la Demoustication du littoral Mediterranum, Montpellier, France. Mosquito control on the Mediterranean coast, Montpellier, France. The predatory fish Gambusia affinis was successfully introduced into suitable permanent waters.
029 Breder, C. M. J.; Coates, C. W. (1982)
Copeia,
l:
147-155. A preliminary study of population stability and sex ratio of Lebistes.030 Brown, C. J. D.
Copeia (3): 614-616.
States of America).
(1966) Mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, in a Montana pond (United
031 Burananrerk, A.; Camarillo, F. 0. (1968)
Araneta J. Agr., } l (1): 36-60. The comparative efficiency of 4 fishes, predatory on mosquito larvae in Araneta University Foundation compound, Philippines. Tilapia, Molliensia, swordtail, goldfish.
032 Byrne, D. M. (1978)
Estuaries, 1 (4): 211-227. Life History of the Spotfin Killifish, Fundulus luciae (Pisces: Cyprinodontidae) in Fox Creek Marsh, Virginia, United States of America.
WHO/VBC/85.917 page 6
033 Casterlin, M. E.; Reynolds, W. W. (1977)
Hydrobiologia, SS (2): 125-127. Aspects of Habitat Selection in the mosquitofish Gambusia affinis. Laboratory experiments, to determine behavioral preference of Gambusia affinis for habitat variables in partitioned aquaria, showed fish prefer calm water, dark-coloured substrates and subsurface vegetation providing lateral
concealment. Obstructive floating cover was avoided. Visual, not chemical, cues seem involved.
034 Caton, J. R.; Sjogren, R. D. (1969)
Calif. Vector Views, 16 (7): 69-70. A Modified Box Trap for the Capture of Gambusia affinis.
035 Cech, J. J., Jr.; Massingill, M. J.; Wragg, T. E. (1980) Calif. Mosquito and Vector Contr. Assoc. Proc., 48: 45-47. The food demands of mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis. Using respiratory metabolic measurements, the oxidative food demands (calories/day) for Gambusia affinis was determined under resting conditions of 6 temperatures and 3 concentrations of dissolved oxygen. Food demands of fish were mathematically converted into numbers of mosquito larvae consumed daily.
036 Cech, J. J.; Wurtsbaugh, W. A.; Vondracek, B. C.
Calif. Mosquito and Vector Contr. Assoc. Proc., ~:
ration size on the food consumption and growth rates
(1981) 26-29. Effect of temperature and of mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis.
037 Chakravertty, R. K.; Sen, T.; Dutta, A.; Nair, M. R. V.; Rao, C. K. (1976) Journal of Communicable Diseases, 8 (1): 84-85. Note on screening of some indigenous fishes on predatory activity against Culex pipiens fatigans larvae. Studies of six indigenous Indian species of fish and Gambusia affinis preying on third- and
fourth-instar larvae of Culex p. fatigans Wied showed three were biologically unsuited by size but Esomus danricus outperformed even Gambusia in larvae consumed.
038 Challet, G. L.; Reynolds, G. T.; Rohe, D. L. (1974)
Calif. Mosquito Contr. Assoc. Proc., ~: SS-58. A pilot programme for the intensive culture of Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard) and Tilapia zillii (Gervais). Part II:
initial operation and production efficiencies. In Orange County, California, two ponds (80 x 4 x 2 ft deep) were used for intensive culture of Gambusia affinis and Tilapia zillii for mosquito control. Includes methodology, capital and operating costs, fish production, suggestions for production efficiency.
039 Challet, G. L.; Rohe, D. L. (1974)
Society of Vector Ecologists, 1: 38-40. A pilot programme for the intensive culture of Gambusia affinis and Tilapia zillii Part I - Description of facilities. The study includes description of equipment, environmental-maintenance systems (temperature, turbidity, waste disposal, photo-period) and data collection.
040 Chapman, H. C.; Petersen, J. J.; Fukuda, T. (1972)
Amer. Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg., 21 (5): 777-781. Predators and pathogens for mosquito control. Few biological control agents can be produced in quantity sufficient to control mosquitos. Greater research effort is needed for predators (mosquitofish, guppy, annual fish, larvae of the culicid Toxorhynchites); parasites (nematode); and pathogens (Protozoans Nosema stegomyiae and Plistophora culicis). Promising pathogens are fungus Coelomomyces, a bicrystalliferous species of Bacillus and several viruses.
041 Chen, P. S.; Lin, Y. N.; Chung, C. L. (1971)
J. Formosan Medical Assoc., 70 (1): 28-35. Laboratory studies on the susceptibility of mosquito-eating fish, LebiStes reticulatus and the larvae of Culex pipiens fatigans to insecticides. Seeking suitable insecticides or an integrated control, DDT and lindane were toxic to larvae and fish. Propoxur and carbaryl were less toxic to fish but too costly as a larvicide. Diazinon, malathion and fenitrothion had low
toxicities for L. reticulatus and high levels for C. p. fatigans.
042 Cheyne, S. (1981) Calif. Mosq. and Vector Control Assoc., 49: 35-36. Geothermal aquaculture: a pilot project for intensive culture of the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis~ Yearly
reproduction of fish, equivalent of 2500 lbs per acre, with minimum of management.
043 Cilek, J. (1980)
Mosquito News, 40 (4): 628-629. A method for holding small populations of Gambusia affinis holbrooki Girard. The use of bath tubs (1.5 x 0.6 m w./0.3m3 water) as holding tanks for Gambusia affinis for two to three months in readiness for field planting. Aquatic weeds plus aquarium pumps used in conjunction with containers.
044 Coates, D.; Redding-Coates, T. A. (1981)
International Jour. Envir. Studies, 16 (3/4): 207-212. Ecological problems associated with canals in the Sudan with particular reference to ~he spread of bilharziasis, malaria and aquatic weeds and the ameliorative role of fishes. Review includes notes on importance of fish as natural controls of mosquito larvae and need to monitor effects of introduced phytophagous fishes.
045 Colwell, A. E.; Schaffer,
c.
H. (1981)Canadian entomologist, 113 (3): 185-191. Effects of the insect growth regulator Bay 8514 on pest Diptera and nontarget aquatic organisms. Bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) and mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) accumulated maximum concentrations
(400 p.p.b.) of SIR-8514 by two days after treatment. No residues or mortalities in fish detected 28 days after treatment.
046 Costa, H. H.; Fernando, F. C. M. (1967)
Ceylon, J. Se., I: 74-90. The food and feeding relationship of the common micro- and macrofauna in the Maha, Oya, a small mountain stream at Peradeniya, Ceylon.
Aplocheilus dayi (Steindachner), Oryzias melastigma (McClelland), and Rasbora daniconius (Hamilton-Buchanan) are all surface feeders, small and agile.
047 Costa, H. H.; Fernando, E. F. W. (1977)
World Health Organization, WHO/VBC/77.665. Evaluation of three indigenous species of fish as mosquito larvivores in Sri Lanka. Laboratory and field experiments proved Aplocheilus dayi more effective than Rasbora daniconius or Oryzias melastigma as indigenous mosquito larvivores.
048 Cousserans, J.; Gabinaud, A.; Guille, G.; Rouzaud, C.; Sinegre, G. (1973) Cahiers Orstom. Serie Entomologie Medicale et Parasitologie, 11 (4): 233-236. [On a method of controlling larvae of the genus Coquillettidia] On the Mediterranean coast
of France the genus Coquillettidia is a pest species.
c.
richiardii (Fie.) and C. buxtoni (Edw.) at larval stage, attached to roots and submerged stems of water plants. Insecticides and fish are ineffective controls, but sub-surface cutting of vegetation is perfectly adequate.049 Coykendall, R. L. (1977)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc. Proc., ~: 80-82. Aquaculture studies of
mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, in earthern impoundments; stocking rate optimization for yield, protection of overwintering fish stocks. Rearing and stocking of Gambusia affinis in earthern artificial ponds indicates SO lb fish/acre produced highest mean yield and efficient use of food and fertilizer. Ponds protected by fencing and netting provided spring survival rate of 25.2% as compared to those with lesser coverings.
050 Coykendall, R. L. (Editor) (1980)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc. Press. 90 pp. Fishes in California Mosquito Control, Sacramenta, United States of America. This biological control publication gives technical information on selection, use and rearing of fish, principally Gambusia affinis.
WHO/VBC/85.917 page 8
051 Coykendall, R. L. (1981)
Calif. Mosq. and Vector Control Assoc., 49: 39-44. Distribution and migratory movements of mosquitofish in a Sacramento Valley rice field. Emigration, downstream movements and distribution were all found to be positively correlated with water temperature, but not possible to determine whether emigration affected efficiency of G. affinis.
052 Cox, J. T. (1972)
J. Ariz. Acad. Sci.,
L:
25-27. The food habits of the desert pupfish (Cyprinodon macularius) in Quitobaquito Springs, Organ Pipe National Monument, Arizona, United States of America. Studies indicated that the same foraging food selection behaviour might be true for both Gambusia affinis and C. macularius.053 Crandall, T. A.; Bowser, P. R. (1980)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc. Proc., 48: 60-61. The biology of a parasite found in the mosquitofish Gambusia affinis. Microsporidian disease, acquired by ingestion of spores, affected G. affinis in stock ponds, causing deformity, diverted nutrients, reduced fecundity and death.
054 Craven, B. R.; Steelman,
c.
D. (1968)J. Econ. Ent., 61 (5): 1333-6. Studies on a biological and chemical method of controlling the<fark rice-field mosquito in Louisiana. The larvae of Psorophora confinnis (Lynch Arrib) are well controlled by stocking flooded rice plots with Gambusia affinis 0.5 fish/ft2 water surface. Effectiveness was increased by using specific herbicides two to three days before rice planting.
055 Dahlgren, B. T. (1979)
J. Fish Biol., 16: 83-87, 1980. The effects of three different dietary protein levels on the fecundity in the guppy Poecilia reticulata (Peters). Significant correlations were found between gonad weight and total body weight of females.
056 Darwazeh, H. A.; Mulla, M.
s.
(1974)Mosquito News, 34 (2): 214-217. Toxicity of Herbicides and Mosquito Larvicides to the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis. No acute mortality of mosquitofish, G. affinis (Baird Girard) was observed within five days with 5 lb Abate in field.
057 Davey, R. B.; Meisch, M. V. (1977a)
Mosquito News, ] l (4): 777-778. Dispersal of Mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, in Arkansas Rice Fields. Released at water sources as the fields were being flooded, they moved as rapidly as the water, even crossing levee gates and, therefore, were present when mosquito eggs hatched.
058 Davey, R. B.; Meisch, M. V. (1977b)
Mosquito News, ] l (2): 258-262. Control of dark rice-field mosquito larvae, Psorophora columbiae by mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis and green sunfish, Lepomis cyanellus, in Arkansas rice fields. Stocking rates of 2000 mosquitofish/acre produced 90% reduction; green sunfish at 480/acre caused 85% reduction. When stocked with 500 mosquitofish and 120 green sunfish/acre, reduction was 96.7%, showing additive effect.
059 Davey, R. B.; Meisch, M. V. (1977c)
Mosquito News, ] l (4): 760-762. Low maintenance production studies of mosquitofish Gambusia affinis in Arkansas. Stocking rates, pond size, production time with minimum management and good yields of fish.
060 Davey, R. B.; Meisch, M. V.; Gray, D. L.; Martin, J. M.;
Sneed, K. E.; William, F. J. (1974)
Environ. Entomol.,
l
(5): 823-826. Various fish species as Biological Control Agents for the dark rice-field mosquito in Arkansas rice fields. Ten fish species were evaluated as predators against larvae of Psorophora confinnis (Lynch-Arrib). Lepomis cyanellus reduced by 89.7% in 36 hours. Adult fish at 0.06 fish/ft 2 , G. affinis, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cyprinus carpio, Carassius auratus were more effective' than Ictiobus cyprinellus, I. niger, or juvenile G. affinis.l
061 Dixit, R. S.; Sachdeva, N. L.; Varma, B. D. (1981) Indian Journal of Medical Research, 73 (suppl.): 155-159. Larvivorous efficiency of Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard).
G:
affinis controlled all larvae of Anopheles stephensi List, Aedes albopictus (Skuse), A. vittatus (Big.) and Culexquinquefasciatus Say (fatigans Wied.) under simulated field conditions, tanks, ponds and wells. Sunny conditions enhanced fish activity.
062 Doll, J. M.; Bast, T. F. (1969)
Mosquito News, 2·9 (3): 365-367. Three Estuarine Killifish as Fresh Water Mosquito Larvivores. Fundulus confluentus, F. heteroclitus, Cyprinodon variegatus were colonized to study laying behaviour, viability and acclimitization into fresh water habitats. Includes study of ability of these fish eggs to stand overwintering, desiccation, storage, transportation and mechanical dispersion.
063 Dubitskij, A. M.; Abdil'Daev, M. A. (1975)
Med. Parazit. i Parazit. Bolezni, 44 (6): 675-677. Laboratory and field trials of a new larviphage in control of malaria mosquito larvae. Aplocheilus latipes, foreign to USSR, characterized by small size, flattened head, dorsally-directed mouth and great mobility penetrates water with dense weeds impenetrable to other kinds of fish. Fish eradicated Anopheles maculipennis from an area of over 800 m2 in 8-10 days.
064 Dubitskij, A. M.; Deshenykh, N. D. (1970)
Minist. Health SSSR Rept. Work Sci. Cent. Sci. Res. Gush. Dezinfek., pp. 120-121. Use of the Gray Loach, Nemacheilus dorsalis in control of mosquito larvae in the desert zone of Kazakhstan.
065 Dubitskij, A. M.; Rusinov, V. I. (1971)
Vopr. Ikhtiol.,
1l
(1): 174-177. The deployment of fish in the control of mosquitos in south-eastern Kazakhstan.066 Dukhanina, N. N.; Quadeer, A. (1974)
World Health Organization, WHO/MAL/74.827; WHO/VBC/74.486, Geneva. Epidemiological justification for supplementary antimalaria means in the malaria eradication programme in north-eastern Afghanistan. Gambusia was added to improve the control of malaria vectors, Anopheles hyrcanus, A. pulcherrimus.
067 Ehrhardt, D. A.; Scholdt, L. L. (1972)
Mosquito News, 32 (1): 115-117. A portable box trap for the collection of Gambusia affinis.
068 Elkin, L. (1979)
St. Paul (Minnesota, United States of America) Sunday Pioneer Press, 19 August, pp. 3 & 4. Little fish gobbles up bothersome mosquitos. Mosquitofish, Gambusia, dumped/discovered in a hot spring near Missoula, Montana, in 1959 became the initial stock for hatchery propagation for 23 of the 56 counties by 1976. Cost of control moved down from $8-$50/acre for insecticides to $1/acre for fish.
069 Farley, D. G. (1980)
Calif. Mosquito and Vector Cont. Assoc., 48: Sl-55. Prey selection by the
mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, in Fresno county rice fields. G. affinis were found to live, not only on mosquito larvae, but also on Diptera (June and August) and Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Odonata, Crustacea predominated in August. Prey size related closely to fish size, but mosquito larvae were not a significant part of rice field aquatic fauna.
070 Farley, D. G.; Reed, D. E. (1979)
Fresno Westside Mosquito Abatement District, Firebaugh, California, United States of America, pp. 14-15. Comparison of chemical and biological methods to control
rice-field mosquitos in Fresno County, Calif. Survey results indicate 17-28% of Gambusia affinis infested rice-field sites required lesser concentration of aerial spraying compared to 36-54% of sites with no fish. Problems of effectiveness as larval controls and maintenance of fish stock during drainage periods are offset by advantages of biological versus chemical methods.
WHO/VBC/85.917 page 10
071 Farley, D. G.; Younce, L. C. (1977a)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc. Proc., ~: 87-94. Effects of Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard) on selected non-target organisms in Fresno county rice fields.
Introduction of G. affinis at 0.25 lb/fish/acre showed significant reduction in notonectids and odonatan nymphs, some reduction of hydrophilid adults, corixids and Ephemeroptera and little effect on hydrophilid larvae, belostomids and dytiscid larvae and adults.
072 Farley, D. G.; Younce, L. C. (1977b)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc. Proc., 45: 83-86. Stocking date versus efficacy of Gambusia affinis in Fresno county rice fields. Field age, or number of days after the rice was sown, was a more important consideration than calendar date in effective fish stocking.
073 Farley, D. G.; Younce, L. C. (1978a)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc. Proc., ~: 99-102. Effects of stocking methods on the distribution of Gambusia affinis in Fresno county rice fields. Studies of optimum methods of stocking for even distribution of fish in rice fields indicated that release in three places or in alternate fields produced better control than stocking at only one spot.
074 Farley, D. G.; Younce, L. C. (1978b)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc. Proc., ~: 94-98. Diel and seasonal variations in the movements of Gambusia affinis in Fresno county rice fields. Out-flow traps checked daily (May-September 1977) showed 90% of fish were taken during daylight, peaking at noon. Seasonal migrations of juvenile fish began 6-7 weeks after stocking, lasting 4-5 weeks. Implications of results are discussed.
075 Farley, D. G.; Younce, L. C. (1980b)
Fresno Westside Mosquito Abatement District, Firebaugh, California, United States of America. pp. 71-78. Dynamics of Gambusia affinis in Fresno county rice fields.
Continuing studies showed better distribution resulted from "3 spot" stocking since fish do not move far from original dispersal except in migratory periods beginning 40-45 days after stocking. Activity lasted 25-35 days.
076 Farley, D. G.; Younce, L. C. (1980b)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc., 48: 58-59. An improved method for harvesting mosquitofish from rice fields. Details are given of using traps of netting with drawstrings with successful retrieval of ~G~a~m~b~u~s~i~a_a~ff~in~i~s~ for transporting to overwintering ponds.
077 Fisher, H. J~; Smith, L. W. Jr.; Enns, W. R. (1970) Mosquito News, 30 (4): 523-527. The fate of fish introduced as predators on insects in Missouri oxidation lagoons. Observations of oxidation lagoons (1964-1966) showed that goldfish and golden shiners survived fairly well, mosquitofish thrived in summer only and bantam Sunfish, bluegills, redear sunfish, black bullheads were affected by snow-covered ice. Chironomid larvae were of little use as food.
078 Fisher, J. L.; Washino, R. K.; Fowler, J. (1972)
Calif. Mosquito Cont. Assoc. Proc., 40: 120-121. Populations of Gambusia affinis in a cline of oxidation ponds. Studies show that sewage-oxidation ponds of lessened organic load may be capable of use as overwintering or breeding sites for Gambusia affinis.
079 Fowler, J.
Calif. Mosq. Control Assoc. Proc., 32:
control of rice-field mosquitos.
(1964) 54-55. The use of Gambusia fish in the
080 Fritz, E. S.; Garside, E. T. (1974)
Can. J. Zool., 52: 997-1003. Salinity preferences of Fundulus heteroclitus and F. diaphanus (Pisces: Cyprinodontidae): their role in geographic distribution.
l
081 Gajanana, A.; Kazme, S. J.; Bheema Rao, U. S.; Suguna, S. G.;
Chandrahas, R. K. (1978)
Indian J. Med. Res., 68: 242-247. Studies on a nematode parasite (Romanomermis sp:
Mermithidae) of mosquito larvae isolated in Pondicherry. Fishes (Gambusia sp.) were exposed to a heavy dose of the nematode parasites for several days and remained unaffected.
082 Gerberich, J. B. (1971)
World Health Organization, WHO/VBC/71.319, 16 pp. Control of mosquitos by the use of fish. Annotated bibliography key-word index (KWIC-storage and retrieval) 1901-1968.
083 Gerberich, J. B.; Laird, M.
World Health Organization, WHO/EBL. 66.71, WHO/MAL/66.562.
bibliography of papers relating to the control of mosquitos (revised and enlarged to 1965).
(1966) 107 pp. An annotated by the use of fish
084 Gerberich, J. B.; Laird, M. (1968)
Food and Agriculture Organization, U.N. Tech. Pap. 75: 1-58, Rome. Bibliography of papers relating to the control of mosquitos by the use of fish. An annotated
bibliography for the years 1901-1966.
085 Giles, N. (1979)
J. Fish Biol., 16: 441-444. 1980. A stomach sampler for use on live fish.
086 Giedzhabodze, Sh~ I.; Streltsov, V. P. (1970)
Med. Parazit. i Parazit. Bolezni, ~ (3): 360-361. A mode of transportation of Gambusia. [In Russian]
087 Gooley, B. R.; Lesser, F. H. (1977)
New Jersey Mosquito Cont. Assoc. Proc., 64: 154-159. The history of the use of Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard) in New Jersey. Deals with problems of stocking programme: drying of temporary pools; pollution; overwintering; extreme temperatures; drought; predation and food competition.
088 Haas, R. (1965a)
J. R. Army Med. Corps, ] l (1): 44-63. Prophylaxis of malaria in Dar-es-Salaam.
Nothobranchius guentheri found in the brackish water of Gerrassani Creek, vicinity of Dar-es-Salaam.
089 Haas, R. (1965b)
World Health Organization, WHO/EBL/39.65, 9 pp. Preliminary report on experimental introductions of Nothobranchius guentheri (Pfeffer), an annual cyprinodont fish, as a potential mosquito larvivore. Results of attempt to establish laboratory culture of N. guentheri in India, and outdoor stocking in Guadalcanal, for assessing use of the fish against malaria vectors.
090 Haas, R. (1966)
World Health Organization, WHO/EBL/66.48, 7 pp. Laboratory Maintenance of Nothobranchius guentheri (Pfeffer). Biology and life cycle is discussed.
091 Hadjinicolaou, J.; Betzios, B. (1973)
World Health Organization, WHO/VBC/73.463, WHO/MAL/73.818, Geneva. Gambusia fish as a means of biological control of Anopheles sacharovi in Greece. Experimentally proved efficacy of the fish against mosquito larvae in relation to distribution and predation.
092 Hall, D. J.; Cooper, W. E.; Werner, E. E. (1970)
Limnol. Oceanogr., 15: 839-928. Dynamics and structure of aquatic communities.
Cyprinodon macularius and Gambusia affinis exerted greater environmental impact on total zooplankton on biomass and community diversity in ponds compared to the impact of the bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque.
WHO/VBC/85.917 page 12
093 Hanna, G. D. (1980)
Graduate Group in Ecology, Calif. Univ., Davis. 138 pp. Gray Lodge Wildlife Area (Calif.) - continuing studies of mosquito production and control. In areas of sparse field vegetation, control by means of Gambusia affinis at a stocking rate of 1 lb/acre of pond surface area was equal to chemical treatment with 2% granules of chlorpyrifos at 2 lb/acre and reduced mosquito population by 75%.
094 Hattingh, J.;
J. Fish Biol.,
Fourie, F. LeRoux;
7: 477-499, 1975.
van Vuren, J. H. G. (1974)
The transport of freshwater fish.
095 Hauser, W. J. (1975)
Calif. Mosquito Control Assoc. Proc., ~: 51-53. Tilapia as biological control agent for aquatic weeds and noxious aquatic insects in California. Tilapia zillii and T• mossambica are potentially useful in the control of water weeds, but their effect on mosquito and midge as control agent is merely incidental.
096 Heng, H. H. (1972)
Master's thesis in biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland. Laboratory and field studies of the Selectivity and Growth of Imported Mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis in Newfoundland.
097 Hirose, Y. (1976)
Jap. J. Sanit. Zool., 27 (3): 311-312. Observations on the oven1intering Gambusia affinis (the mosquitofish) in Tokushima City.
098 Hirose, Y.; Okubo, S.; Sato, H. (1977)
Jap.
s.
Sanit. Zool., ~ (3): 337-338. The spread of Gambusia affinis distributed from Tokushima City to the western part of Japan.099 Hirose, Y.; Okubo, S.; Yasuno, M. (1978)
Jap. J. Sanit. Zool., ~ (2): 163-168. [The effect of mosquito control using the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis in urban area, Tokishima, Japan] G. affinis,
introduced for control of mosquito larvae in marsh and drains of Tokushima, spread rapidly throughout other areas in the spring and summer months. Within seven years the fish were dispersed to 70% of waters and C. p. pallus had limited distribution.
100 Hirose, Y.; Kasuga, S.; Okubo, S. (1980)
Jap. J. Sanit. Zool.,
2!
(1): 41-48. Ecological studies of the mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) in Tokushima City, Japan.101 Hiscox, K. J. (1980)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc., 48: 55-57. An evaluation of the guppy (Poecilia reticulata Peters) for mosquito control. The use of the guppy (Poecilia reticulata) is considered for sewage treatment ponds and polluted waters where Gambusia will not survive. The guppy propagates readily throughout the year in warm water.
102 Hiscox, K. J.; Kingsford, E. J.; Hazeltine,
w.
E. (1974) Calif. Mosquito Cont. Assoc. Proc., 42: 53-54. Annual fish of the genus Cynolebias for mosquito control. The fish Cynolebias whitei and C. nigripinnis showed promise for mosquito control despite its incompatability with Gambusia affinis. They can survive in a temperature range of 40°F-90°F, lie dormant in egg stage during drought and survive in peat for five months.103 Hoy, J.B.; O'Berg, A. G.; Kauffman, E. E. (1971)
Mosquito News, ~ (2): 146-152. The Mosquitofish as a biological control agent against Culex tarsalis and Anopheles freeborn! in Sacramento Valley rice fields.
Concludes that reasonable mosquito control in rice fields can be achieved by early season stocking of approximately 300 mature Gambusia affinis per acre.
104 Hoy, J. B.; O'Grady, J. J. (1971)
Calif. Mosq~ Control Conf. Proc., ~: 107. Populations of Mosquitofish in rice fields. Population of mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, in one rice field 10 weeks after stocking at 100 fish/acre was estimated to be 5900 fish/acre.
105 Boy, J. B.; Reed, D. (1970) Mosquito News, 30 (1): 222-230. Biological control of Culex tarsalis in a California rice field. Stocking with 200 fish/acre produced 95% mosquito larval reduction;
stocking with 1000 fish/acre produced 99% reduction. Stocks of Gambusia should be prepared for early distribution for increased efficiency.
106 Boy, J. B.; Kauffman, E. E.; O'Berg, A. G. (1972)
Mosquito News, ~ (2): 161-171. A large-scale field test of Gambusia affinis and chlorpyrifos for mosquito control. Anopheles freeborni Aitken and Culex tarsalis Coq.
were subjected to helicopter/ground stocking of Gambusia and aerial spraying of chlorpyrifos in rice fields in the Sacramento Valley, California. Insecticide and fish probably disturbed invertebrate predators of the larvae, giving uneven results in larval counts.
107 Hubbs, C. (1972)
Tropical Fish Hobbyist, 22-28. The impact of fish introductions on aquatic communities.
108 Ignoffo, C. M.; Riever, K. D.; Johnson, W. W.; Sanders, H. 0.;
Chapman, H. C~; Petersen, J. J.; Woodard, D. B. (1973) Mosquito News,
12
(4): 599-602. Susceptibility of aquatic vertebrates andinvertebrates to the infective stage of the mosquito nematode, Reesimermis nielseni.
R. nielseni, a nematode under investigation for the control of mosquito larvae, were incapable of infecting the eggs and fry of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), rainbow-trout (Salmo gairdneri), large mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas).
109 Jackson, L. E. (1972)
New Jersey Mosquito Exterm. Assoc. Proc. 14th Ann. Mtg. Memorandum on trails with Gambusia in Hudson County. Gambusia patruelis and G. affinis, identically, destroy mosquito larvae, thrive in salt, fresh and somewhat polluted waters containing some vegetation. They prefer 73°F and shallow ends of ditches where they breed readily but may not survive winter.
110 Jacob, S. S. (1981)
Ph. D. thesis, University of Kerala. Certain aspects of ecology of the larvivorous fish Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv. & Val.) and Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. & Val.).
111 Jacob, S. S.; Nair, N. B. (1981)
Indian Academy of Sciences Animal Sciences Proc. Satiation time and maximum food intake of the larvicidal fishes Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv. & Val.) and Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. & Val.). A. lineatus and M. cupanus compared very favourably with other predators of mosquito larvae.
112 James, H. G. (1965)
Can. J. Zool., 43: 155-159. Predators of Aedes atropalpus (Coq;) and other mosquitos breeding in rockpools in Ontario. Rhinichthys atratulus, blacknosed dace, is an efficient predator on A. atropalpus (Coq.).
113 Jhingran, V. S. (197 5)
Hindustan Publishing Corporation (India) Delhi, 954 pp. Fish and Fisheries of India.
Aplocheilus panchax in the north and A. lineatus, indigenous to south India, were found to be good larvivores.
114 Johi, G. C.; Wattal, B. L.; Bhatnagar, V. N. (1978)
J. Commun. Dis., 10 (4): 238-243. Efficacy of larvivorous fish Poecilia reticulatus (Peters) for the control of Culex pipiens fatigans Wied, in a rural area of Delhi.
115 Johnson, C. R. (1976)
Calif. Mosquito Cont. Assoc. Proc., !:!!_: 48-51. Observations on growth, breeding, and fry survival of Gambusia affinis affinis (Pisces: Poeciliidae) under artificial rearing conditions. Experiments show rapid growth, sexual maturity by both
males/females, subject to temperature fluctuations; brood size ranged from 13-64, and survival rates were higher in 16 mm fry.
I! I
WHO/VBC/85.917 page 14
116 Johnson, C. R. (1976)
Calif. Mosquito Cont. Assoc. Proc., 44: 52. Investigations into the culture and winter maintenance of Gambusia affinis affinis (Pisces: Poeciliidae). Data given on culture of G. affinis, optimum breeding and maintenance of the stock through winter in preparation for spring field distribution.
117 Johnson, C. R. (1977)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc. Proc., 45: 66-68. The effects of copper sulfate exposure on thermal tolerance, orientation and survival in adult mosquitofish,
Gambusia affinis and juvenile threespined sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus.
Male/female Gambusia and juvenile sticklebacks were exposed for 24 hours to copper sulfate. Thermal tolerance was lowered for Gambusia at 5 p.p.m. and male mortality occurred at 8-10 p.p.m. Similar results appeared for Gasterosteus at 4 p.p.m. with 63.8% mortality at 10 p.p.m. Disorientation occurred for both at S-6 p.p.m.
118 Johnson, C. R.; Gieke, P. A. (1977a)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc. Proc., ~: 59-60. The effects of the herbicide diquat on Gambusia affinis and some associated fauna in freshwater ponds. Gambusia males were susceptible but mortality of both sexes was low. Diquat used at 0.5 p.p.m.
is seemingly safe for use in Gambusia habitats.
119 Johnson, C. R.; Gieke, P. A. (1977b)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc. Proc., ~: 73-75. A heat exchange system for use in warm water aquaculture. Descriptions are given of methods of providing warm water, through heat exchangers, for continuous production of Gambusia affinis, Tilapia zillii and T. mossambica. Systems involve commercial pool heaters, conduits, pumps and
industrial hot water waste.
120 Johnson, C. R.; Gieke, P. A. (1977c)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc. Proc., ~: 71-72. Suggested pond design for overwintering populations of Gambusia affinis. Designs/illustrations of artificial ponds with shallow seining channels and central 12-20 ft depths provide insight into fluctuating and stable temperatures, environmental needs for rearing G. affinis year round.
121 Johnson, C. R.; Voigt, W. G.; Gieke, P. A. (1977)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc. Proc., ~: 61-65. Food and feeding of bullfrogs, Rana catesbeiana, within Gambusia affinis culture ponds. Bullfrogs reared in ponds with crayfish do no appreciable damage to G. affinis population count even at 66-90 mm
lengths.
122 Jubb, R. A. (1972)
J. Amer. Killifish Assoc., 8: 12-19. A new Nothobranchius (Pisces: Cyprinodontidae) from south-eastern Rhodesia~ N. furzeri (~.) and N. kuhntae were listed.
123 Kabra, N. L.; Wattae, B. L.; Raghavan, N. G.
s.
(1967) Bull. India Soc. Malar. Commun., 4 (3): 253-254. Occurrence of larvivorous fish Lebistes reticulatus (Peters) breeding in sullage water at Nagur, India. Wasintroduced into India in 1910, and rec0vered in 1948, stocked and distributed proving an effective larvivore of Culex pipiens fatigans Wied.
124
125
Kanayama, R. K.
Proc. 47th Ann. Conf. Western Assoc., State Game Fish comm., July 1967:
Hawaii's aquatic animal introductions. Gambusia affinis and Mollienesia LeSueur flourished throughout the islands after 1905 introduction.
(1967) 123-133.
latipinna
Katayama, S.; coauthors
Jap. J. Sanit. Zool., 23 (3): 169-179.
(Peters) in Yoshikawa River, Chiba city.
(1978) Studies on the guppy, Lebistes reticu1atus
126 Kneib, R. T. (1978)
Copeia,
l=
164-168. Habitat, diet, reproduction and growth of the spot fin ki11ifish, Fundulus luciae, from North Carolina salt marsh.J
127 Kovchazov, G.; Kalarov, K. (1966) World Health Organization, WHO/EBL/66.67, Geneva. Laboratory and field studies of exotic larvivorous annual fish at Varna, Bulgaria. Efforts to establish laboratory colonies of four annual fishes (Cynolebias bellottii, C. elongatus, Nothobranchius palmquisti and N. guentheri) failed. Gambusia affinis remains successful.
128 Kuhlhorn, F. (1965)
World Health Organization, WHO/EBL/37.65 Geneva. An investigation of the natural enemies of Anopheles larvae (Diptera: Culicidae) in different areas at varying altitudes in West Germany. Gasterosteus aculeatus L., Phoxinus laevis L. and Rhodeus amarus (Block) feed well on mosquito larvae. Cyprinus carpio L. may eat mosquito larvae.
129 Kulanin, V. L. (1975)
Med. Parazit. i Parazit, Bolezni, 44 (2): 235. [The effectiveness of Gambusia in controlling larvae of culicine mosquitoes] During four-year field study in Uzbekistan (Soviet Union)~ covering 200 different spots stocked with Gambusia at about
0.5-0.7 fish/m , not a single culicine larvae was observed.
130 Kurihara, T. (1973)
Jap. J. Sanit. Zool., ~ (1): 73-77. Studies on the effectiveness of the guppy Poecilia reticulata in controlling Culex pipiens. Part I. Laboratory experiments on predation behaviour. When prey density was constant, larvae eaten per fish was lower than when fish density was high.
131 Kurihara, T.; Sasa, M. (1973)
Jap. J. Sanit. Zool., 24 (1): 79-82. Studies on the effectiveness of the guppy Poecilia reticulata in controlling Culex pipiens. Part II. Efficiency of predation in breeding habitats. When larvae of mixed ages were supplied, some older ones were eaten but the proportion of younger ones taken was greater. Fish nibbled on egg rafts; some larvae hatched; none survived the eighth day.
132 Kurihara, T.; Sasa, M.; Miyamoto, J.; Sato, H. (1973) Jap. J. Sanit. Zool., ~ (2): 165-174. Studies on the tolerance of the guppy, Poecilia reticulata (Peters), a natural enemy of mosquito larvae to the septic pollution of water. Hydrogen sulphide in distilled water was toxic to fish at
concentrations above 1 p.p.m. and ammonia at concentrations above 11 p.p.m. Toxicity to the fish can be minimized by providing aeration.
133 Larget, I.; Barjac, H. de (1981)
Bull, de la Soci€te de Pathologie Exotigue,
1i
(2): 216-227. [Specificity and active principle of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis. No effect was observed on Musca domestica L., Culicoides sp., goldfish or the snail, and Chironomus plumosus (L.) was susceptible only to doses much higher than those used against mosquito larvae.134 Lefevre-Witier, P. (1969)
Bull. Soc. Path. exot., ~ (4): 596-605. [On malaria in Tassili n'Ajjer (Central Sahara), Algeria.] The only measures undertaken to control malaria since 1946 have been drugs and the introduction of Gambusia holbrooki into bodies of water.
135 Legner, E. F. (1978)
Entomophaga, ~ (1): 51-56. Mass culture of Tilapia zillii (Cichlidae) in pond ecosystems. T. zillii used successfully since 1971 for control of mosquitos, chironomids, weeds, and as a game fish were unable to survive temperatures below l0°C. Details are given for optimum culture conditions in outdoor pools where T. zillii could be mass-produced.
136 Legner, E. F.; Medved, R. A. (1973)
Calif. Mosquito Vector Cont. Assoc. Proc., 41: 119-121. Predation of mosquitos and chironomid midges in ponds by Tilapia zillii (Gervais) and T: mossambica (Peters)
(Teleostei: Cichlidae). From April to August, fourth-instar mosquito larvae of Culex peus Speiser and C. tarsalis Cog. were reduced by 82.24% in ponds stocked with --- T. zillii and by 74.6% in ponds stocked with T. mossambica~ Both fish are prolific breeders in water above 22°C but declined rapidly below 12 C (T. mossambica) or 7°C (T. zillii).
WHO/VBC/85.917 page 16
137 Legner, E. F., Medved, R. A. (1974)
Calif. Mosquito Cont. Assoc. Proc., 42: 58-59. The native desert pupfish, Cyprinodon macularius Baird and Girard, a substitute for Gambusia in mosquito control.
C. macularius which feeds on both mosquito larvae and chironomid midges, are found in desert pools with temperature range 8 to 44°C.
138 Lewis, W. M~, Jr. (1970)
Copeia 1970, (2): 319-326. Morphological adaptations of cyprinodontoids for
inhabiting oxygen-deficient waters. Representative cyprinodontoids (Fundulus notatus, Gambusia affinis and Poecilia reticulata) exhibited maximum adaptation to permit use of oxygen-rich layer of water at the atmosphere-water interface.
139 Liu, R. K.; Walford, R. I. (1966)
World Health Organization, WHO/EBL/66.70, Geneva. Increased growth and lifespan with lowered ambient temperature in the annual fish, Cynolebias adloffi.
140 Lomax, J. L~ (1970)
New Jersey Mosq. Exter. Assoc. Proc., 57: 185-190. Native Fish for mosquito control - a reassessment. Indigenous fish for New Jersey mosquito control
programmes: Lepomis gibbosus suited for freshwater ponds and lakes; Rhinichthys atratulus for streams; Umbra pygmaea sluggish streams and swamps; Fundulus diaphanus, Gasterosteus aculeatus, Pungitius pungitius for freshwater habitats generally; Gambusia affinis and Heterandria formosa, not indigenous, for freshwater habitats; Fundulus heteroclitus and G. affinis, for brackish water; Cyprinodon variegatus for brackish to salt water.
141 Lotrich, V. A. (1975)
Ecology, 56: 191-198. Summer home range and movements of Fundulus heteroclitus (Pisces: ICyprinodontidae) in a tidal creek.
142 Nair, N. B~; Sobhana, B. (1980)
Proc. Indian natn. Sci. Acad. B.,~ (1): 33-40. Food and feeding habits of Puntius sarana subnasutus (Val.).
143 Malek, Emile A. (1980)
C.R.C. Press, Inc. Roca Ratan, Florida, United States of America. Snail-transmitted Parasitic Diseases, Vol. 2. Some of the fish which are or have been used as
larvivores or for weed control (for example Pseudorasbora parva, Zacco platypus, Rhodeus ocellatus, Carassius auratus, Tilapia mossambica, Cyprinus carpio and Ctenopharyngodon idella) have been found to be carriers of the metacercaria of the human liver fluke, Clonorchis sinensis. There is evidence that human heterophyidiasis
(small spine flukes deep in intestinal mucosa) is of extensive world distribution where fish are eaten raw or inadequately prepared.
144 Mallars, J. L.; Fowler, J. R. (1970)
Calif. Mosquito Cont. Assoc., Inc. Visatia, Calif. Mosquito eating fishes in
California~ Gambusia affinis was first introduced in California in 1922, from Austin, Texas to Sacramenta. In 1923, 25 hatcheries were established and fish were
distributed in 24 counties.
145 Markofsky, J.; Matias, J. R. (1977)
J. exp. Zool~, 202: 49-56. The effect of temperature and season of collection on the onset and duration of diapause in embryos of the annual fish, Nothobranchius guentheri.
146 Martin, R. G. (1975)
Copeia,
l=
445-454, 1975. Sexual and aggressive behaviour, density and social structure in a natural population of mosquitofish, Gambusia holbrooki. Aggression mild in the field, more intense in the laboratory. Winter grouping behaviour dissolved at springtime, sexual activity peaked in spring, sex ratio of 1 male to 5 females apparently optimal.147 Maruashville, G. M. (1980)
Med. Parazit. i Parazit. Bolezni, 49 (1): 80-82. History of Gambusia fish
importation to the USSR on the occasion of the centenary of N. P. Rukhadze's birthday.
,
,
148 Mathavan, S.; Muthukreshnan, J.;
Hydrobiologia, ~ (3): 255-258.
Macropodus cupanus. Temperature of fish but had little influence
Heleenal, G. A.
Studies on predation on influenced the satiation on the heavier fish.
(1980) mosquito larvae by the fish
time of the lighter classes
149 Mathias, H. L. (1972)
World Health Organization, WHO/VBC/72.401. Culex pipiens fatigans control in Rangoon, Burma, utilizing both fish and insecticide. Successfully combined use of larvivorous fish (Poecilia reticulata) and the larvicide fenthion at 0.01 p.p.m., controlling Cx. p. fatigans developing in a ditch.
150 Matias, J. R.; Markofsky, J. (1978)
J. exp. Zool., 204: 219-227. The survival of embryos of the annual fish,
Nothobranchius guentheri, exposed to temperature extremes and the subsequent effects on embryonic diapause.
151 Maw, M. G. (1968)
Mosquito News, ~ (1): 120. The mudminnow Umbra limi (Kirt): a possible mosquito control agent in semi-permanent pools. Mudminnows of North America can survive low temperatures, seasonal drought and readily eat mosquito larvae and pupae.
152 Meisch, M. V.; Coombes, L. E. (1974)
Ark. Farm Res., 23: 3, United States of America. Mosquitofish as predators of rice-field mosquito larvae. Preliminary observations under applied field conditions.
Stocking rates of 5000 and 2000 mosquitofish/acre produced 94.0 and 87.0% larval reduction respectively after 48 hours, while 400 mosquitofish/acre produced only 52.0%
reduction.
153 Menon, A. G~ K. (1977)
Science and Culture, 43 (3): 110-114. Fish and malaria control. Keys are provided to Indian families of-cyprinodontoid fishes preying on mosquito larvae. Notes are given on the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of four indigenous species:
Aplocheilus panchax, A. blockii, A. lineatus and Oryzias melastigma. Observation on the introduction of G. affinis, which destroyed the established carp.
154 Menon, P. K. B.; Rajagopalan, P. K. (1977)
Indian Journal of Medical Research, 66 (5): 765-771. Mosquito control potential of some species of indigenous fishes inJPondicherry. Gambusia affinis and Tilapia mossambica, exotic in origin, are well established in many parts of India. Poecilia reticulata effective in sewage drains and polluted waters. Aplocheilus blockii, Oryzias melastigma more efficient than G. affinis.
155 Menon, P. K. B.; Rajagopalan, P. K. (1978)
Indian Journal of Medical Research, 68: 927-933. Control of mosquito breeding in wells by using Gambusia affinis and Aplocheilus blockii in Pondicherry town. In wells where G. affinis could not survive, A. blockii was introduced, the latter having a higher tolerance of salinity and pH.
156 Miura, T.; Takahashi, R. M. (1973)
J. Econ. Entomol~, 66: 917-922. Insect developmental inhibitors. 3. Effects on non-target aquatic organisms. Gambusia survived concentrations greater than 80 p.p.m.
of Methoprene.
157 Miura, T.; Takahashi, R. M.; Mulligan, F. S. (1981)
Calif. Mosq. Vector Control Assoc., ~: 45-48. Impact of the use of candidate bacterial mosquito larvicides on some selected aquatic organisms. Bacterial insecticides (Bacillus sphaericus and B. thuringiensis var~ israelensis serotype H-14), at recommended application rates for mosquito control, showed no adverse effect on Gambusia affinis.
158 Miura, T.; Takahashi, R. M.; Stewart, R. J. (1979)
Proc. Calif. Mosg. and Vector Control Assoc., 47: 46-50. Habitat and food selection by the mosquitofish, _G~a~m~b~u~s~i~a_a~f~f~i~n~i~s~. Cladocera accounted for 82% of the gut
content. Diets of G. affinis are shown including changes as the fish increased in size.
WHO/VBC/85.917 page 18
159 Motabar, M.
World Health Organization, WHO/VBC/78.703.
Review.
(1978) Larvivorous Fish, Gambusia affinis - A
160 Mulla, M. S. (1974)
Dept. Ent., Calif. Univ. Riverside, United States of America~ Laboratory and field evaluation of insect growth regulators against mosquitos. Weekly applications for six weeks of Ro-20-3600 at 0.5 and 1.0 lb/acre, Altosid at 0.25 and 0.5 lb/acre, TH-6040 at 0.1 and 0.5 lb/acre and R-20458 at 0.5 and 1.0 lb/acre to ponds stocked with Gambusia affinis had no deleterious effects on the fish.
161 Mulla, M. S.; Tasai, S. C. (1978)
Mosg. News, 38 (1): 43-47. Fish fry kill by hydra and planaria. The killing of fry of the fish Tilapia zillii by two invertebrate mosquito biological control agents was studied in and out of the laboratory. Hydra americana readily killed fry under all test conditions. The planarian Dugesia dorotocephala was less lethal at stocking rates for mosquito control.
162 Myers, G. S. (1965)
Trop. Fish Hobbyist 1965 (Jan.): 31-32, 53-54. Gambusia, the fish destroyer.
Cannibalistic nature is well documented, and they unfortunately consume their own young as well as the young of the native larvivores and game fishes.
163 Nakagawa, P. Y.; Ikeda, J. (1969)
World Health Organization, WHO/VBC/69.173. Biological control of mosquitos with larvivorous fish in Hawaii. The most effective species of the 17 established (1969) exotic larvivores appear to be: (1) Gambusia affinis, (2) Lebistes reticulatus (Peters), (3) Limia vittata (Guichenot) and (4) Tilapia mossambica (Peters)
(principally as a biosynergist) mainly against Culex quinquefasciatus Say and Aedes vexans nocturnus.
164 Newton, S. H.; Merkowsky, A. J.; Handock, A. J.; Meisch, M. V; (1977) Mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard) production in extensive polyculture systems.
165 Niazi, A. D.; Hat Hat, Y. A. K. (1973)
Bull. Endemic Diseases, 14 (1/4): 61-71. Anti-larval activities in Iraq. Gambusia were used in some places-,-but their effectiveness is very limited on Anopheles
stephensi~
166 Norland, R. L.; Bowman, J. R. (1976)
Proc. Calif. Mosq. Control Assoc., 44: 53-56. Population studies of Gambusia affinis in rice-field sampling. The studies were designed to devise an accurate and effective technique for sampling the fish and to elucidate their movements, distribution, growth patterns and stocking rates in rice fields.
167 Ogden, L. J. (1974)
Proc. 27th Annual Meet. Utah Mosq. Abatement Assoc., pp. 17-20. Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America. Vector control activities in the West Central Region of the American Mosquito Control Association. City of Colorado Springs, Colorado, bases much of its mosquito control programme on the use of Gambusia affinis.
168 O'Grady, J. J., Jr.; Hoy, J. B. (1972)
J. Med. Entomology, ~ (6): 571-574. Rhodamine B. and other stains as markers for the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis.
169 Otto, R. G. (1972)
J. Fish Biol., 5: 575-585, 1973. Temperature tolerance of the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard). Genetic differences in adaptive capacity were apparent.
170 Pandian, T. J~; Reddy, S. R. (1971)
World Health Organization, WHO/VBC/71.282. Experimental studies on feeding habits of the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis. Predation by the fish Gambusia affinis: (1) properties of the predator, (2) properties of the prey, (3) properties of the
environmental situation. Effects of hunger on the predatory drive and food preference of the fish.
