The Role of Conversational Interaction in Learning English as a Foreign Language in a Computer Mediated

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The Role of Conversational Interaction in Learning

English as a Foreign Language in a Computer Mediated

Classroom: The Case of 4

th

Year Students at Batna

University

In Partial Requirement for the Degree of Doctorat És-Science in Applied Linguistics

Presented By:

Guerza Radia

Supervisor:

Pr. Mohamed Salah Nedjaï

Co-Supervisor:

Dr. Maggie Kubanyiova (University of Birmingham, United Kingdom)

Members of the Jury:

President: Pr. Ghouar Amor, Batna - 2 University

Supervisor: Pr. Mohamed Salah Nedjaï, Batna -2 University

Co-Supervisor: Dr. Maggie Kubanyiova, Birmingham University (United Kingdom) Examiner: Pr. Keskes Saïd, Mohamed Lamine Debaghine Sétif-2 University Examiner: Pr. Saâdi Hacene, Frères Mentouri Constantine University

Examiner: Pr. Bahloul Amel, Batna -2 University

Invited: Pr. Aboubou Hachemi, Batna - 2 University

2017

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research Faculty of Letters and Foreign Languages

University of Batna-2

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Dedication

Every Challenging work needs self-efforts, commitment, dedication as well as guidance from

different sources of inspiration wisdom and love especially those who are very close to our heart.

My humble effort is dedicated to the light of our eyes to our soul to our beloved Almighty

Allah and to the teacher of all teachers our beloved prophet Mohamed –Peace Be Upon

Him-

To my sweet tender and loving source of light that guided my way and starred my horizons

Mother Aziza and Father Ahmed

Whose affection, love, encouragement and prays day and night make me able to get such success

and honor

To my sisters, brothers and family members

All along with all dearest hard working and respected professors and teachers

To my dearest students

To all those who loved me

To the charming gardeners who made my soul blossom and who brought the peace of today and

created the vision of tomorrow to the ones who told me all the things I need to hear before I knew

I needed to hear them

I could not have done this without you all thank you for your support all along the way

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Declaration

I Radia Guerza, a PhD candidate at the faculty of Letters and Foreign Languages, hereby declare that the work entitled ―The Role of Conversational Interaction in Learning English as a Foreign Language in a Computer Mediated Classroom: The Case of 4th Year Students at Batna University‖ is my original work. I have not copied from any other students‘ work or from any other sources except where due reference or acknowledgement is made explicitly in the text, nor has any part been written from me by another person. Nonetheless, some features of my published papers that do have a relation to this project appear in this work.

Papers‘ titles appearing in this work are:

 Exploring the Value of ICT Pedagogies for Second Language Learning in Algeria: Opportunities for Students to ‗Speak as Themselves‘ (2015), Birmingham University

 ICT in the Algerian EFL Classrooms: An Innovative Means to Enhance Learners‘ Autonomy, International Journal for Infonomics (IJI), Volume 8, Issues 1/2, March/June 2015

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Abstract

The role of conversational interaction in learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) has been widely discussed in the literature, and the value it plays in enhancing EFL communicative competence has been an issue of constant debate and controversy especially if this latter is enhanced by Information Communication Technology (ICT). It has been documented for over than two decades that conversational interaction mediated with computer-based techniques provides learners with a wide array of authentic and pedagogical opportunities that foster their learning processes (Chapelle, 2001; Warschauer, 1996). Nonetheless, there is virtually no research which would document the language learning benefits in this specific setting empirically. In fact, multimedia praxises offer a rich linguistic and non-linguistic environment to learners giving them the freedom to choose the content and the used techniques (Benson, 2001). Within this respect, and starting from the premise that learning depends on the activity and the initiative of the learner (Van Lier, 2008), the context for the study is a specific one-semester course which utilized a number of novel pedagogical approaches. This research adopts exploratory mixed methods whereby data were obtained from classroom observation, teachers‘ and students‘ questionnaires and focus group interviews. EFL undergraduate learners‘ views and perceptions are considered in shaping the educational agenda in Algeria. This study has been undertaken to solve problems within our EFL setting, a context where most of our EFL classrooms are teacher-led. The teacher is clearly in control of the content and the skills to be learned. He is in charge of the pace and amount of interaction that occurs throughout the lesson. In this study, detailed empirical evidence of students‘ meaningful engagement in classroom discourse and, by extension, of their language learning are provided. The powerful potential of the Content Process Product (CPP) program, a newly devised pedagogy for the teaching of English, in creating interactional spaces in which students are allowed to invest their own identities and ―speak as themselves‖ is highlighted. Also, interactional data analysis from the sociocultural perspective is presented to demonstrate instances of learners‘ agency applying Walsh‘s (2011) Self Evaluation of Teacher Talk (SETT) Framework and Van Lier‘s (2008) Interactional Analysis Scheme. The schemes‘ categorization demonstrates how initiative and transportable identities are demonstrated and enacted in classroom interaction. The results indicate that principles of conversational interaction supported by transportable identities and ICT transcend specific materials or technologies, and can inform the development of productive EFL pedagogies across educational contexts. The findings obtained allude to the fact that the innovative approach devised to meet both the hurdles and the learners‘ expectations is significantly contributing in promoting EFL learning. The results confirm that the CPP program not only helps learners to express themselves in English, but also it helped them to expose their personal identities whereby their fluency has been promoted. The collected data suggests that EFL teachers should consider creating an appropriate healthy environment that encourages autonomy, engagement and agent acts. This research endeavors to come up with proposals for enhancing the quality of EFL instruction in Algeria.

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Acknowledgements

My sincere and deepest gratitude goes first to Almighty Allah without whom this work would not be realized and accomplished. I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my supervisor Professor Mohamed Salah Nedjaï, who expertly guided me through my post graduate studies and who shared the excitement of eight years of discovery. His unwavering enthusiasm, encouragement, guidance and support gave me the golden opportunity to realize this wonderful project on the role of conversational interaction in a computer mediate context. His dedication kept me constantly engaged with my research, and his personal generosity helped make my research work an enjoyable journey. I wish to thank him for his kindness and for his trust in my capacities. I would like to thank him for standing by my side with his praiseworthy comments that helped me in accomplishing a defendable research project. He pushed me to the limits to discover many new things.

Secondly, I have a debt of gratitude to Doctor Maggie Kubanyiova my co-supervisor at the University of Birmingham (United Kingdom) for the vision and foresight which inspired me to conceive this project. Doctor Maggie‘s mentoring and encouragement have been especially valuable, and her insights launched the greater part of this dissertation. I owe her a deep sense of gratitude for keen interest in my work at every stage of my research. Her prompt inspirations, timely suggestions with kindness, enthusiasm and dynamism have enabled me to complete my thesis.

It is, also, a privilege to extend my sense of gratitude to His Excellency Mr. President Abdelaziz Bouteflika, the head of the Algerian Government, to the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research who praised my research process with a scholarship grant to the United Kingdom to undertake my doctoral research.

It is, also, my duty to record my thankfulness to Professor Ghouar, Dr; Kaouli, Mr. Bentayeb, the head of the English Department, from whom I had been inspiring, and helping me in undertaking this project. Thanks, also, goes to the scientific committee of the department and the faculty of letters and foreign languages. A special thank is attributed to my colleagues who participated in this study and contributed with their invaluable insights. My appreciation, also, goes to my dearest students (2008-2013), especially the CPP Program students, whose views and insights were a great source of inspiration and the corner stone of this dissertation.

I thank profusely all the staffs of Batna University and Birmingham University (United Kingdom) for their kind help and co-operation through my research study period.

Above ground, I am particularly indebted to my parents whose value to me only grows with age. I wish to thank them for inspiring me to this work. I would like, also, to thank my family, my sisters Zoubida, Sakina, and Hafsia especially my eldest sister Mebarka and her husband who constantly supported me during my stay in the United Kingdom. I acknowledge my sister Hadda who is my champion who enlivened my research process with positive hopes and good humor. I, also, acknowledge my brothers Lombarek, Belgacem and Amar for their support, care and help. I am extremely thankful to all those who helped me a lot in finalizing this research work.

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B.ІІІ.4.2. Developing Good Rapport With Learners ………..373 B.ІІІ.4.3. Creating Interesting Tasks that Meet the Learners‘ Needs………...384 B.ІІІ.4.4. Familiarizing Learners With Authentic Target Language Culture ………392 B.ІІІ.4.5. Promoting Learner Autonomy ………400 I. ІV. Students‘ and Teachers‘ Perceptions of Opportunities and Challenges……….…..……...409

B.ІV.1. Students‘ Perceptions towards EFL

Learning………...………410 B.ІV.1.1. The Analysis of Students Questionnaire ………410

B.ІV.1.1.1. Goals and Motives for Studying English………..……….411 B.ІV.1.1.2. Opportunities for Speaking and Understanding Native Speakers……….419 B.ІV.1.1.3. The Distribution of the Amount of Talk among Teachers and Learners in the Oral Expression Course……….………...422 B.ІV.1.1.4. Opportunities and Challenges in the EFL Classroom……….……….424 B.ІV.1.1.5. The Viability of Conversational Interaction in the EFL Classroom ……….444 B.ІV.1.1.6. Frequency of Interactive Opportunities in the EFL Classroom………..457 B.ІV.1.1.7. Assessing the Skills Mastered ..……….472 B.ІV.1.1.8. Error Treatment in the EFL Classroom and its Impact on EFL Oral Performance ...………..473 B.ІV.1.1.9. Sources of Inhibition in the EFL Classroom ..…...475 B.ІV.1.1.10. Attitudes towards EFL Oral Expression: Opportunities and Challenges .………..478 B.ІV.1.1.11. ICT Tools in the EFL Classroom: Attitudes and Facts………...482 B.ІV.1.2. The Analysis of Students‘ Interviews ……….485

B.ІV.1.2.1. Obstacles Hindering EFL Proficiency Achievement………...…...486 B.ІV.1.2.2. Causes Leading to the Current Level in English………..……….489 B.ІV.1.2.3. Expectations in the CPP Program Classroom………...………...490 B.ІV.1.2.4. The Viability of ICT in Promoting Communicative Abilities...491

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B.ІV.1.2.5. Frequency of Target Language Usage……….492 B.ІV.1.2.6. The Viability of Conversational Interaction………..………494 B.ІV.1.2.7. The Significance of Conversational Interaction and Related Concepts ...………...495 B.ІV.1.2.8. The Viability of the CPP Program...………...496 B.ІV.1.2.9. Characteristics of the Ideal Teacher …..…………497 B.ІV.1.2.10. Features of the Ideal Teaching Environment……500 B.ІV.1.2.11. Future Expectations for Promoting EFL Proficiency……….…501 B.ІV.2. Teachers‘ Perceptions towards EFL Learning ………...502 B.ІV.2.1. The Analysis of Teachers Questionnaire ………502 B.ІV.2.1.1. Types of Problems Observed among Learners …..502 B.ІV.2.1.2. Teaching through the use of Multilingualism ...….503 B.ІV.2.1.3. The Quest for Teaching Strategies ..………..508 B.ІV.2.1.4. Attitudes towards Learners ………..509 B.ІV.2.1.5. The Quest for Innovative Teaching Procedures ....516 B.ІV.2.2. The Analysis of Teachers‘ Interviews ………518 B.ІV.2.2.1. Teachers‘ Perceptions towards Learners‘ EFL Communicative Ability ………...519 B.ІV.2.2.2. Teachers‘ Evaluation of the Communicative Tasks Implemented………..520 B.ІV.2.2.3. Types of Communicative Tasks Implemented ..…521 B.ІV.2.2.4. Types of Teaching Strategies Implemented ..……522 B.ІV.2.2.5. Teachers‘ Strategies and Attitudes towards Learners……….523 B.ІV.2.2.6. Teaching Approaches Adopted in the EFL Classroom to Enhance Learners‘ EFL Communicative Ability ………….524 B.ІV.2.2.7. Causes Leading to the Students‘ Current Level ....525 B.ІV.2.2.8. Teaching Techniques to Accommodate Learners‘ Proficiency Level ……….526 B.ІV.2.2.9. The Use of Authentic Language and Materials ….528 B.ІV.2.2.10. Significance and Role of Meaning Negotiation ...528 B.ІV.2.2.11. The Viability of Conversational Interaction in the EFL Classroom ……….532 B.ІV.2.2.12. Perceptions towards Teachers‘ Instructional Experience……….533 B.ІV.2.2.13. Qualities of the Ideal Teacher …...………...533 B.ІV.2.2.14. The Qualities of the Effective Teaching Approach………...534 B.ІV.2.2.15. Techniques to Maximize Learners‘ Potential and Autonomy ……….535

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B.ІV.2.2.16. The Viability of ICT tools in the EFL

Classroom………..537

B.ІV.2.2.17. Future Expectations ……..………...539

B.ІV.3. Students‘ Scores and Performance Tests‘ Results ……….540

Discussion ………545

B.1. Understanding the Algerian EFL Macro-Context ………545

Conclusion ………...549

B.1. Summary of the Results ………549

B.2. Pedagogical Implications ………..550

B.3. Strengths and Limitations of the Study ………553

B.4. Suggestions for Further Research ……….554

B.5. Final Conclusion …….………..554

References ………... 557

Part C: ……….609

Appendices ………..609

C.1. Appendix A: Informed Consent Form/ Consent to Participate in Research....609

C.2. Appendix B: Participant Consent Form ………..………611

C.3. Appendix C: Learners‘ Perceptions Questionnaire .………...……….612

C.4. Appendix D: Teachers‘ Perceptions Questionnaire …..………..620

C.5. Appendix E: Lessons‘ Data Transcription ……..………625

C.6. Appendix F : Students‘ Interviews Questions ...……...………..881

C.7. Appendix G : Focus Group Interview Sessions Transcripts ………...882

C.8. Appendix H: Teachers‘ Interviews Questions ...………...………..924

C.9. Appendix I: Teachers‘ Interviews Transcripts …………...……….926

C.10. Appendix J: CPP Program Lessons ………1010

Part D: ……….1053

D.1. Communications and Published Papers …...1053

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List of Tables Page

1. The CPP Framework (The Exploratory Phase) ………158

2. Teachers‘ Teaching Experience ………172

3. Variables‘ Classification ………...174

4. Strategies Used to Promote Qualitative Research Validity ………..211

5. Properties of the Present Investigation ……….227

6. L2 Classroom Modes ………255

7. Questionnaire Items ………..289

8. Classroom Interactional Modes Quantitative Representation ………..298

9. Reasons for Studying English ………...411

10. Challenges in the EFL Classroom ………426

11. Students‘ Explanations with Respect to the Teaching Approach ……….434

12. Students‘ Assertions with respect to Conversational Interaction ……….448

13. Reasons behind Interacting or Non-interacting outside the Classroom ……...459

14. Sources of Inhibition in the EFL Classroom ………476

15. Students‘ Perceptions: Teaching/Learning Opportunities ………479

16. Students‘ Perceptions towards ICT ………..483

17. Reasons for Using Different Languages in the Classroom ………...504

18. Teaching Strategies ………...508

19. Attitudes towards Learners ………...510

20. Reasons for Teachers‘ Attitudes ………...510

21. Innovative Teaching Procedures ………..516

List of Figures 1. The Communicative Process ………..45

2. The Communicative Pattern ………...46

3. The Nature of Communication with a Focus on the Speaker ……….48

4. Speaking Proficiency and the Components of Communicative Competence …60 5. Four Interrelated Aspects of Students‘ Engagement during a Learning Activity………86

6. The CPP Model ………125

7. Students‘ Gender Distribution ………..170

8. Students‘ Age Distribution ………...170

9. Teachers‘ Gender Distribution ……….171

10. Teachers‘ Teaching Experience ………171

11. Factors Affecting English Learning ……….176

12. Possible Sources of Errors in the Process of Investigation ………..194

13. Learners‘ Attitudes towards the CPP Model ………289

14. Distribution of Classroom Talk ………295

15. Learners‘ Perceptions towards Error Correction ………..312

16. Teachers‘ Perceptions towards Repair ……….312

17. Reasons Behind Studying English ………..402

18. Goals for studying English ………...402

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20. Understanding Native Speakers ………419

21. Opportunities for Speaking with Native Speakers ………...420

22. The Level of Difficulties Encountered ……….421

23. Type of Difficulty ……….422

24. The Distribution of the Amount of Classroom Talk ……….423

25. Challenges Faced in the EFL Classroom ………..424

26. Types of Challenges Encountered ………425

27. Attitudes towards the Teaching Approach ………..433

28. The Role of Conversational Interaction ………444

29. The Viability of Conversational Interaction ……….447

30. Interactive Opportunities ………..457

31. Interactive Opportunities outside the Classroom ………..458

32. Opportunities for Peer Interaction ………458

33. The Drive to Interact ………471

34. Skills Mastered ……….472

35. Error Treatment ………473

36. Perceptions towards Error Correction ………..474

37. Sources of Inhibition ………475

38. Other Sources of Inhibition ………..477

39. Students‘ Perceptions: Teaching/Learning Opportunities ………479

40. Attitudes towards ICT Tools ………...482

41. Students‘ Interviews Themes ………486

42. Problems Noticed among students ………...502

43. The Use of Other Languages ………503

44. Reasons for Using Different Languages in the Classroom ………...504

45. Teaching Strategies ………...508

46. Attitudes towards Students ………...509

47. Reasons for Teachers‘ Attitudes ………...510

48. Item 12 ………..514

49. Item 13 ………..514

50. Item 14 ………..515

51. Innovative Teaching Procedures ………..516

52. Teachers‘ Interviews Themes ………..518

53. Pre-Tests‘ Results ……….………541

54. Post-Test‘s Results 1 ………541

57. Delayed Post Test ……….542

58. Students‘ Performance Evaluation ………...543

List of Charts 1. The Importance of Conversational Interaction ……….445

2. The Importance of Practical Conversation ………...445

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Glossary

 Accuracy:

It is the capacity of mastering grammar rules that involves explicit knowledge of grammatical concepts, categories, and rules. It is this ability to master linguistic competence. Accuracy ―concerns the extent to which the language produced conforms to target language norms‖ (Skehan, 1996, p. 22).

 Acquisition:

Krashen (1981) uses the term ―acquisition‖ to refer to the spontaneous and incidental process of rule internalization that result from natural language use, where the learners‘ attention is focused on meaning rather than form. It contrasts with ―learning‖; however, in this study both terms have been used interchangeably.

 Agency:

Gao (2010) defined agency as ―an individual‘s will and capacity to act‖.  Autonomy:

Autonomy refers to a capacity that learners possess and display to various degrees in different contexts. It is the capacity to take control over one‘s own learning. It is primarily an attribute of learners, although its development and display will be affected by factors in learning situations (Benson, 2011).

 Behaviorist Learning Theory:

―Behaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning. That is, it applies to all kinds of learning. It views learning as the formation of habits. These are formed when the learner is confronted with specific stimuli which lead to responses, which are, in turn, reinforced by rewards, or are corrected. Behaviorist learning theory emphasizes environmental factors as opposed to internal, mental factors‖ (Ellis, 2008, p.955).

 Central Tendency (Measure of):

A statistical term applied to the central value in a frequency distribution, a commonly referred to as the average. Depending on the level of measurement of the variable (nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio), and the shape of the distribution (normal or otherwise), various measures of central tendency may be calculated. The mean is the most well-known, and is obtained by adding together all the individual values in a set of measurements, then dividing the sum by the total number of cases in the set to give the average age, height, income, or whatever. However, if a particular distribution is highly skewed (that is, if there are several numbers of extreme value at one or other end of the series), then it may make more sense to calculate the median. The median literally is the middle value in a series of numbers, and may be used in place of the mean when, for example, average income is calculated since the distribution of income is highly skewed. The third measure of central tendency is the mode. It is used to describe the most frequently occurring category of a non-numeric variable (for example, voting intention). This latter is less frequently employed than the mean and the median‖ (Rose and Sullivan, 1996, p. 232).

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 Coding:

―The assignment of responses to survey questions (or other data) into predetermined categories of a variable. For example, when a person answers a question on how they will vote in a general election by saying ‗conservative‘, we assign a numeral to this type of answer which distinguishes it from other types of answer, such as labor or democrat, which could be identified by other numerals. Hence each type of answer is given a separate numeric code, usually for entry into a computer data file for subsequent analysis‖ (Rose and Sullivan, 1996, p. 232).

 Collaborative Dialogue:

Swain (2000) defined collaborative dialogue as ―dialogue in which speakers are engaged in problem solving and knowledge building‖ (p. 102). ―It is the joint construction of language –or knowledge about language– by two or more individuals; it‘s what allows performance to outstrip competence; it‘s where language use and language learning can co-occur.‖(Swain, 1997, p. 115).

 Communication Strategy:

Communication strategies are employed when learners are faced with a task of communicating meanings for which they lack the requisite linguistic knowledge; for example, when they have to refer to some object without knowing the L2 word. ―communication strategies are potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual presents itself as a problem in reaching a particular communicative goal‖ (Færch & Kasper, 1983, p. 36). These are strategies used to communicate when the learner lacks the necessary knowledge, for example, mime or paraphrase.

 Communicative Language Ability:

It is this knowledge of language form and the ability to put that knowledge to use in communication.

 Communicative Competence:

―It is the knowledge of language rules, and of how these rules are used to understand and produce appropriate language in a variety of sociocultural settings. Communicative competence consists of the knowledge that users of a language have internalized to enable them to understand and produce messages in the language. Various models of communicative competence have been proposed, but most of them recognize that it entails both linguistic competence (for example, knowledge of grammar rules) and pragmatic competence (for example, knowledge of what constitutes appropriate linguistic behavior in a particular situation)‖ (Ellis, 2008, p. 956).

 Competence:

―The term refers to a language user‘s underlying knowledge of language, which is drawn on in actual performance. Researchers distinguished between various types of competencies such as linguistic, discourse, strategic, and socio-linguistic. Linguistic competence refers to acquisition of sufficient knowledge of the norms and conventions of language elements such as syntax, spelling, pronunciation and so on. This type of competence ensures accuracy in terms of language use and usage. Discourse

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competence refers to skill in manipulating both spoken and written language in stretches of discourse, thus resulting in fluent use of language. Strategic competence refers to skill in employing strategies which a language user can resort to when communication breaks down; hence ensuring communication is not hindered. And, socio-linguistic competence refers to adequate knowledge of the target culture, which normally yields in appropriate use of language‖ (Al Alami, 2014, p. 1245).

 Comprehensible Input:

―Input‖ refers to language that learners are exposed to. Input that can be understood by a learner has been referred to as ―Comprehensible Input‖ (Krashen, 1981). Input can be made comprehensible by various ways: through simplification, with the help of the context, or by negotiating non-understanding and misunderstanding. Some researchers like Krashen (1981) consider comprehensible input as necessary for L2 acquisition (Ellis, 2008, p. 257).

 Comprehensible Output Hypothesis:

―Output‖ is language produced by the learner. It can be comprehensible or incomprehensible to an interlocutor. Swain (1985) has proposed that when learners have to make efforts to ensure that their output is comprehensible, that is, produce ―pushed output‖, acquisition may be fostered (Ellis, 2008, 257).

 Confirmation Check:

An utterance immediately following the previous speaker‘s utterance intended to confirm that the utterance was understood.

 Conversation:

Talking is something most of us are rather good at and enjoy. We can almost all speak, so we take the skill too much for granted. That is why, as Bygate (1987, p.7) says, teaching speaking skills is in many ways undervalued. He argued that speaking is ―a skill which deserves attention every bit as much as literary skills, in both first, and second languages‖ (ibid.). However, we have noted that second language learners of English who are equipped with a good knowledge of syntax, phonology, a large vocabulary often fail as ―conversationalists‖ though they ―speak‖ reasonably correct and even fluent English. Why is that so? What is involved in producing fluent, appropriate and intelligible conversation? It seems that conversation involves something beyond the manipulation of the language itself. In this vein, some people make a distinction between speaking skills and conversation skills (Nolasco and Arthur, 1987). What then is ―conversation‖? In the literature the term ―conversation‖ is widely used that somewhat ambiguously and in a non-technical sense. Sometimes it refers to any spoken encounter or oral interaction and sometimes it is understood in a more restricted way. For example, Goffman (1976) quoted in Richards and Schmidt (1983, p. 118) defines conversation as: ― Talk occurring when a small number of participants come together and settle into what they perceive to be a few moments cut off from (or carried on to the side of) instrumental tasks; a period of idling felt to be an end in itself, during which everyone is accorded the right to talk as well as to listen and without reference to

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a fixed schedule, everyone is accorded the status of someone whose overall evaluation of the subject matter at hand […] is to be encouraged and treated with respect, and no final agreement or synthesis is demanded, differences of opinion to be treated as unprejudicial to the continuing relationship of the parties.‖ (p.264). One common observation is that a conversation has according to Richards and Schmidt (1983) ―No specified setting, no time or place (except for the absence of other speech activity, in which case it is heard as an interruption), no required roles other than ‗persons‘ (though some external roles such as professor/student may not be shed), no pre-specified agenda, and a quorum of simply two or more.‖ (p.133).

 Conversation Analysis:

Known in the United Kingdom as ―Spoken Discourse Analysis‖, is the study of talk in interaction. Its aim is to see how people bring off the daily work of their lives, whether institutional (in the school, doctor‘s surgery, government office or any other place of work) or casual. Inspired by ethnomethodology, it was developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s principally by the sociologist Harvey Sacks and among others, his close associates Emanuel Schegloff and Gail Jefferson. Sacks died early in his career, but his work was championed by others in his field, and conversation analysis has now become an established force in sociology, linguistics, and psychology. It is particularly influential in interactional sociolinguistics, discourse analysis and discursive psychology as well as being a coherent discipline in its own rights.

 Conversational Competence:

It refers to ―the speaker‘s knowledge of how speech acts are used in social situations.‖ (Richards and Sukwiwat, 1983, p. 113). Conversational competence involves appropriate use of speech styles ―according to whom the speaker is addressing and the circumstances under which the act of communication is taking place.‖ (ibid., p. 117)

 Conversational Proficiency:

Given the definition of conversation, conversational proficiency is defined with reference to the ability of engaging in a dynamic process of on-going, interactive and mental satisfying communication, rather than to the ability of native control of a language in terms of phonology, syntax and vocabulary, that is, linguistic competence. It has been argued that linguistic competence is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for communicative ability, and now it is generally accepted that the achievement of communicative competence involves not only grammatical, but sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competence as well (Canale and Swain, 1980; Canale, 1983). It seems that the notion of communicative competence has been honed to its perfection in Bachman‘s (1990) framework of communicative language ability, which encompasses all components in communicative language use. According to Bachman‘s model (1990), conversational proficiency is pertinent to strategic competence, that is, a set of general abilities that utilize all of the elements of language competence in the process of negotiating meaning. In short, it is clear that developing students‘ conversational proficiency involves several dimensions which make up the construct of communicative competence. Hence, in teaching conversation a healthier balance between the

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development of competence in the language system and competence in its use is called for.

 Conversational Routines:

In everyday conversation, similar speech situations like greetings and leave-takings recur and speakers make use of similar and sometimes identical expressions, which have been proved to be functionally appropriate. Most of them are fixed and highly conversationalized, and are accessed and used as wholes. Such expressions can be referred to as conversational routines (Coulmas, 1981; Aijmer, 1996; Ellis, 2000). Similarly, Stubbs (1983) points out that: ―A significant percentage of conversational language is highly routinized into pre-fabricated utterances.‖ (p.154). Pawley and Syder (1983) maintained that native speakers have a repertoire of thousands of memorized routines and their use in appropriate situations contributions to the sense of naturalness and native-ness about a person‘s speech. In addition, the use of routines leads to an impression of oral fluency, and this is why many language teachers have particular interests in teaching them (Richards and Sukwiwat, 1983, p. 114; Bygate, 1987, p. 17). It seems that the most useful and comprehensive account of routines is provided by Wray (2000). She adopts the term formulaic sequence which encompasses the wide range of idiomatic forms of expression including routines, and identifies turn-holders, turn-claimers, discourse markers, hedges, fillers and other conversationalized conversational exchanges, that is, almost all relevant aspects of conversational discourse, as types of formulaic sequences. According to her, formulaic sequences perform socio-interactional functions in everyday spoken interaction and, at the same time, reduce speakers‘ and listeners‘ processing effort. In similar vein, Widdowson (1985, p.15), also, claims that a great part of communicative competence is merely a matter of knowing how to use such conversationalized expressions. Following their arguments, it is suggested that acquiring conversational routines or formulized expressions can be a shortcut to the development of conversational proficiency. Therefore, it is most likely to be beneficial to learners.

 Context:

―The ―context‖ of an utterance can mean two different things: first, the situation in which an utterance is produced, which refers to the situational context; second, the linguistic environment, the surrounding language, which refers to the linguistic context. Both types of context influence the choice of language forms and therefore have an effect on output‖ (Ellis, 2008, p. 258).

 Corrective Feedback:

―In language acquisition, the term ―feedback‖ refers to information given to learners which they can use to revise their interlanguage. A distinction is often made between ―positive‖ and ―negative‖ feedback, sometimes referred to as ―negative evidence‖. Negative feedback refers to information that indicates a hypothesis is incorrect. The term ―corrective feedback‖ is increasingly used in preference to negative feedback. Corrective feedback can be implicit or explicit. It can also be input-providing or output-promoting‖ (Ellis, 2008, p. 258).

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 Data:

―Data are plural of datum, a fact or statistic. Hence, data are records of observations. These might take a number of forms; for example, scores in IQ tests, interview records, fieldwork diaries or taped interviews. All these provide data, that is, observations from which inferences may be drawn via analysis‖ (Rose and Sullivan, 1996, p. 235).

 Data Analysis:

―Whereas statistics refer to formal mathematical procedures as they are applied to data, data analysis refers to the practical application of such procedures to the analysis of social science data. That is, data analysis is concerned with sensitizing social researchers to the use, interpretation and evaluation of relevant data rather than with the more formal understanding of statistics. It involves the understanding of certain statistical techniques in terms of knowing which ones apply to which sort of data or which can best deal with certain kinds of problems in analysis; but this understanding takes the form of appreciation and awareness rather than any particular mathematical facility. The more familiar we become with techniques of data analysis, the better we can think about data in general. This is because a proper understanding of data analysis improves the way in which we think about, interpret, evaluate and plan empirical research. Data analysis is, thus, concerned with explaining variance, with explaining why there is variability in some particular characteristic in a population or sample which is of theoretical importance to social researchers‖ (Rose and Sullivan, 1996, pp.235-236).

 Deductive:

―It refers to this process whereby conclusions are reached by reasoning. It is, also, this reasoning from general principles to a particular case (Wikipedia, 2015). It refers to the use of logical rules to arrive at a set of premises from which certain conclusions must follow. Deduction begins with theory, moves to hypothesis derived from the theory, and then tests hypothesis via prediction and observations. This approach to testing and theory is often referred to as the hypothetico-deductive method, and since it emphasizes hypotheses, prediction, and testing, is sometimes held to be the method of par excellence of science‖ (Rose and Sullivan, 1996, p.236).

 Deductive Instruction:

―Deductive instruction involves providing learners with an explicit rule which they then practice in one way or another‖ (Ellis, 2008, p.259).

 Dependent Variable:

―Within a particular study, analysis or model, a dependent variable is the social element whose characteristics or variations are to be explained by reference to the influence of other, prior so-called independent variables. For example, a person‘s income (dependent variable) may vary according to age and social class (independent variables). The value of dependent can often be predicted using some form of causal modeling. Whether a variable is treated as dependent or independent is determined by the theoretical framework and focus of study‖ (Rose and Sullivan, 1996, p.236).

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 Discourse:

Cook (1989) defines discourse as ―Stretches of language perceived to be meaningful, unified, and purposive.‖ (p.156). Starting out from a narrow definition of discourse, one could describe this discipline as Scollon and Scollon (1995) have done: ―Study of grammatical and other relationships between sentences.‖ (p.95). Discourse is defined by Crystal (1992) as ―a continuous stretch of especially spoken language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit, such as a sermon, argument, joke or narrative.‖ (p.25).

 Discourse Analysis:

Discourse is the examination of language use by members of a speech community. It involves looking at both language form and function, and includes the study of both spoken interaction and written texts. It identifies linguistic features that characterize different genres as well as social and cultural factors that aid in our interpretation and understanding of different texts and types of talk. A discourse analysis of written texts might include a study of topic development and cohesion across the sentences, while an analysis of spoken language might focus on these aspects plus turn-taking practices, opening and closing sequences of social encounters, or narrative structure.

 Discourse Competence:

It refers to the ability to understand and produce contextualized stretches of language in spoken and written texts. It refers to the process whereby the learner has to make utterances fit the context in which they occur. This requires a sort of balance of linguistic and contextual information.

 Distribution (Statistical Frequency):

―It refers to a series of figures presenting all observed values (as a raw numbers or proportion of cases) for a variable in a quantitative data set enabling a quick visual appreciation of the distribution of the data. The frequency distribution may be further illustrated by use of graphics such as a bar chart or histogram. Frequency distributions from a survey data set are usually the first output from the clean and edited data set, showing the response totals of each possible reply to each question in the questionnaire‖ (Rose and Sullivan, 1996, p. 237).

 Emic:

It refers to a kind of field research done and viewpoints obtained from within the social group (from the perspective of the subject, from the inside) (an insider‘s perspective). ―The emic approach investigates how local people think‖ (Kottak, 2006), how they perceive and categorize the world, their rules for behavior, what has meaning for them, and how they imagine and explain things.Emic knowledge and interpretations are those existing within a culture, that are ―determined by local custom, meaning, and belief‖ (Ager and Loughry, 2004) and best described by a ―native‖ of the culture (Wikipedia, 2015).

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―According to Corder (1967), an ―error‖ is a deviation in learner language which results from lack of knowledge of the correct rule. It contrasts with a mistake. An error can be overt (the deviation is apparent in the surface form of the utterance), or covert (the deviation is only evident when the learner‘s meaning intention is taken into account). Various frameworks for describing errors have been developed, including descriptive taxonomies, which focus on the observable surface features of errors, and surface strategy taxonomies, which reflect the way in which the target language surface structure is altered by learners‖ (Ellis, 2008, p.961).

 Ethnomethodology:

Ethnomethodology is a perspective within sociology which focuses on the way people make sense of their everyday world. People are seen as rational actors, but employ practical reasoning rather than formal logic to make sense of and function in society. The theory argues that human society is entirely dependent on these methods of achieving and displaying understanding. The approach was developed by Harold Garfinkel (1986), based on Alfred Schütz's (1970) phenomenological reconstruction of Max Weber's Verstehen sociology. Like Durkheim (1895, 1982), the fundamental sociological phenomenon for ethnomethodologists is the social fact. But, unlike Durkheim, the social fact is not external of the individual. The social fact is the product of the social member's methodological activities; it is their understanding of their everyday world. Members, here, are understood not simply as individuals but any social entity (i.e., individuals and organizations) that can produce a social fact. In short, members of society (individuals and organizations) make sense of and function in society by creating social facts or understandings of how society works. In this sense, ethnomethodology is at the same time both macro and micro oriented in that members can produce social facts at either level, for either the personal structure (the individual's level of everyday meaning) or the organizational/institutional structure (the organization's level of everyday meaning). The Greek roots of Ethnomethodology literally mean the methods people use.

 Etic:

It refers to a kind of field research done and viewpoints obtained from within the social group (from the perspective of the observer) (an outsider‘s perspective). ―The etic (scientist-oriented) approach shifts the focus from local observations, categories, explanations, and interpretations to those of the anthropologist. The etic approach realizes that members of a culture often are too involved in what they are doing to interpret their cultures impartially. When using the etic approach, the ethnographer emphasizes what he or she considers important‖ (Wikipedia, 2015). Etic knowledge refers to ―generalizations about human behavior that are considered universally true, and commonly links cultural practices to factors of interest to the researcher, such as economic or ecological conditions, that cultural insiders may not consider very relevant‖ (Morris et al., 1999).

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―It is the knowledge of rules and items that exist in analyzed form so that learners are able to report what they know. It is closely linked to metalingual knowledge. It contrasts with implicit knowledge‖ (Ellis, 2008, p. 962).

 Fluency:

Skehan (1996) defines it as concerning ―the learner‘s capacity to produce language in real time without undue pausing or hesitation‖ (p.22). Segalowitz (2003, 2007) operationalized it in terms of ―access fluidity‖ and ―attention control‖.

 Focus-on Form:

―Focus-on Form‖ is a type of form focused instruction. It ―overtly draws students‘ attention to linguistic elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or communication‖ (Long, 1991, pp. 45-6). It is distinct from both focus-on forms and focus-on meaning instruction.

 Focus-on Forms:

――Focus-on Forms‖ is evident in the traditional approach to grammar teaching based on a structural syllabus. The underlying assumption is that language learning is a process of accumulating distinct entities‖ (Ellis, 2008, p.962).

 Foreign Language Acquisition:

A number of researchers distinguish between ―Foreign Language Acquisition‖ (FLA) (for example, the learning of French in schools in the United States), and ―Second Language Acquisition‖ (SLA) (for example, the learning of English by speakers of other languages in the United States). Second language acquisition or SLA is the process of learning other languages in addition to the native language. For instance, a child who speaks Hindi as the mother tongue starts learning English when he starts going to school. English is learned by the process of second language acquisition. In this study, SLA and FLA are used interchangeably.

 Form-focused Instruction:

―Form-focused instruction involves some attempt to focus learners‘ attention on specific properties of the L2 so that they will learn them. Different types of form-focus instruction can be distinguished, including explicit instruction and implicit instruction‖ (Ellis, 2008, p.963).

 Formulaic Speech:

Formulaic speech consists of ―expressions which are learned as unanalyzable wholes and employed on particular occasions by native speakers‖ (Lyons, 1968, p.177). Examples given by Lyons are ―How do you do?‖ and proverbs such as ―Easy come and easy go.‖( Ellis, 1983, p.2).

 Histogram:

―Histogram is a diagram which represents a frequency distribution of data, where the data are measured at least at interval level. Blocks proportional in width to the size of the interval or categories are raised along the horizontal axis. The height of each block

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is then adjusted so that its area is proportional to the relative frequency of its category. The diagram, thus, appears as a series of bars of varying height‖ (Rose and Sullivan, 1996, p. 239).

 Hypothesis/Hypothesis Testing:

―A hypothesis is an untested statement about the relationship (usually of association or causation) between concepts within a given theory. Hypothesis testing involves the testing of a hypothesis in a scientific manner, and hence requires a precise statement of the supposed relationship between the concepts under investigation, and the data which would need to be collected for the testing to take place. It is normal in social science to assume the null hypothesis and to use statistical methods in the testing process‖ (Rose and Sullivan, 1996, p. 239).

 Implicit Instruction:

―Implicit instruction is directed at enabling learners to infer rules without awareness. It contrasts with explicit instruction, in that there is an absence of externally-prompted awareness of what is being learned‖ (Ellis, 2008, p. 965).

 Implicit L2 Knowledge:

―Implicit L2 knowledge of a language is knowledge that is intuitive and tacit. It cannot be directly reported. The knowledge that most speakers have of their L1 is implicit. The study of linguistic competence is the study of a speaker-hearer‘s implicit knowledge‖ (Ellis, 2008, p.965).

 Independent Variable:

―Within a particular study, analysis, or model, the independent variable or explanatory variable is the social element whose characteristics or variation shape and determine the dependent variable. For example, the age of marriage can help explain the likelihood of divorce. In an experimental situation, independent variable can be systematically manipulated, so that the effect on the dependent variable can be observed. Whether a variable is treated as dependent or independent is determined by the theoretical framework and focus of a study, but independent variables must precede the dependent variable, and should have causal power‖ (Rose and Sullivan, 1996, p. 239).

 Induction/Inductive:

―The inverse of deduction, induction begins from particular observations from which empirical generalizations are made. These generalizations, then, form the basis of theory building. So-called analytic induction is common in qualitative studies with sociology. This method requires that every case examined in a piece of research substantiates a hypothesis. The researcher formulates a general hypothesis from observation of initial cases, investigates subsequent cases in the search for a negative instance and reformulates the hypothesis to cope with those confounding cases that are encountered. The process is deemed to be exhausted when new discrepant cases can be found, a necessarily rather subjective judgment, and the (now revised) generalization is allowed to stand‖ (Rose and Sullivan, 1996, p. 239-40).

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 Inductive Instruction:

―Inductive instruction is a form of explicit instruction that involves requiring learners to induce rules from examples given to them, or simply from the opportunity to practice the rules‖ (Ellis, 2008, p. 966).

 Inferential Statistics:

―Inferential statistics refers to statistics which permit the researcher to demonstrate the probability that the results deriving from a sample are likely to be found in the population from which the sample has been drawn. They, therefore, allow sociologists to generalize from representative samples, by applying ―tests of significance‖ to patterns found in these samples in order to determine whether these hold for populations as a whole. The other type of statistics in which sociologists are interested are descriptive statistics, which summarize the patterns in the responses within a data set, and provide information about averages, correlations, and so forth‖ (Rose and Sullivan, 1996, p. 240).

 Initiation-Respond-Follow up (IRF) Exchange:

―The IRF exchange was identified by Sinclair and Coulthard (1975) as a familiar pattern in classroom talk. It consists of the teacher initiating the exchange, places the student in a responding role, and allows the teacher the right to follow up on the student‘s response‖ (Ellis, 2008, p. 966).

 Input:

It is the language, either written or spoken, which a learner is exposed to in the environment (Online COBUILD Advance English Dictionary, 2015).

 Input Hypothesis:

The Input Hypothesis is advanced by (Krashen, 1982) to explain how ―acquisition‖ takes place. It states that ―we acquire […] only when we understand language that contains a structure that is ―a little beyond where we are now‖ (p. 21). Elsewhere Krashen has referred to the idea of input that is ―a little bit beyond‖ as ―i+I‖.

 Instructed Language Acquisition:

―This term refers to language acquisition that takes place as a result of attempts to teach the L2, either directly through formal instruction or indirectly by setting up the conditions that promote natural acquisition in the classroom‖ (Ellis, 2008, p. 966).

 Intake:

―Intake is that portion of the input that learners notice, and, therefore, take into temporary memory. Intake may subsequently be accommodated in the learner‘s interlanguage system (that is, becomes part of long-term memory). However, not all intake is so accommodated‖ (Ellis, 2008, p. 967).

 Interaction:

Interaction is defined literally by the Cambridge English Dictionary (2015) as ―the reciprocal or mutual action or influence‖. ―Interaction is the process referring to

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―face-to-face‖ action. It can be either verbal channeled through written or spoken words, or non-verbal, channeled through tough, proximity, eye-contact, facial expressions, gesturing, etc.‖ (Robinson, 1994, p.7) . According to Ellis (1990) interaction refers ―not only to those exchanges involving authentic communication, but to every oral exchange that occurs in the classroom, including those that arise in the course of formal drilling.‖ (p.12).

 Interaction Analysis:

―Interaction analysis is a research procedure used to carry out classroom observation. It involves the use of a system of categories to record and analyze the different ways in which teachers and students use language. Various types of system exist, for example, a category system for coding specific events every time they occur, a sign system for coding the events that occur within a predetermined period, and a rating system for estimating the frequency of specific events‖ (Ellis, 2008, p. 967).

 Interaction Hypothesis:

Long (1983) claimed that the interactional modifications that arise during the negotiation of meaning provide learners with comprehensible input, and, thereby, assist acquisition. In a later version of this hypothesis, Long broadened the scope of the hypothesis by claiming that ―negotiation for meaning, and especially negotiation work that triggers interactional adjustments by the Native Speaker or more competent interlocutor, facilitates acquisition because it connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in productive ways‖ (pp. 451-2).

 Interactional Modification:

―Interactional modifications occur when some kind of communication problem arises and the participants engage in interactional work to overcome it. They take the form of discourse functions such as comprehension checks, requests for clarification, and requests for confirmation‖ (Ellis, 2008, p.967).

 Interactionist Theories of Language Learning:

―Interactionist learning theory emphasizes the joint contributions of the linguistic environment and the learner‘s internal mechanisms in explaining language acquisition. Learning results from an interaction between the learner‘s mental abilities and the linguistic input. The term ―interactionist‖ can, also, be applied to theories that explain L2 acquisition in terms of social interaction, how communication between the learner and other speakers leads to L2 acquisition‖ (Ellis, 2008, p. 967).

 Interlanguage:

Selinker (1972) coined the term ―interlanguage‖ to refer to the systematic knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both these learner‘s L1 and the target language. The term has come to be used with different but related meanings: first, to refer to the series of interlocking systems which characterize acquisition, second, to refer to the system that is observed at a single stage of development (an ―interlanguage‖), and, third, to refer to a particular L1/L2 combinations (for example, L1 French/L2 English versus L1

The Role of Conversational Interaction in Learning English as a Foreign Language in a Computer Mediated