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Numerical simulation of spreading drops
Dominique Legendre, Marco Maglio
To cite this version:
Dominique Legendre, Marco Maglio.
Numerical simulation of spreading drops.
Colloids and
Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, Elsevier, 2013, vol.
432, pp.29-37.
To link to this article
:
DOI
:
10.1016/j.colsurfa.2013.04.046
URL
:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2013.04.046
To cite this version
:
Legendre, Dominique and Maglio, Marco
Numerical simulation of
spreading drops.
(2013) Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical
and Engineering Aspects, vol. 432 . pp. 29-37. ISSN 0927-7757
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Numerical
simulation
of
spreading
drops
Dominique
Legendre
∗,
Marco
Maglio
∗InstitutdeMécaniquedesFluidesdeToulouse(IMFT),UniversitédeToulouse,CNRS-INPT-UPS,France
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r
a
p
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c
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•Numerialsimulationofspreadingdropsonawettablesurface.
•Wediscusstheeffectofthemainparameters(density,viscosity,surfacetension,dropradiusandwettability). •Powerlawevolutionsobservedinexperiments(t1/2,t1/10)arerecoveredanddiscussed.
•Thecombinedeffectofviscosityandwettabilityhasasignificanteffectonthespreading.
Keywords: Dropspreading Numericalsimulation
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Weconsideraliquiddropthatspreadsonawettablesurface.Differenttimeevolutionshavebeen observedforthebaseradiusrdependingoftherelativeroleplayedbyinertia,viscosity,surface ten-sionandthewettingcondition.Numericalsimulationswereperformedtodiscusstherelativeeffectof theseparametersonthespreadingdescribedbytheevolutionofthebaseradiusr(t)andthespreading timetS.Differentpowerlawevolutionsr(t)∝tnhavebeenobservedwhenvaryingtheparameters.Atthe
earlystageofthespreading,thepowerlawt1/2(n=1/2)isobservedaslongascapillarityisbalancedby
inertiaatthecontactline.Whenincreasingtheviscositycontribution,theexponentnisfoundtoincrease despitetheincreaseofthespreadingtime.Theeffectofthesurfacewettabilityisobservedforliquids moreviscousthanwater.Forasmallcontactangle,thepowerlawt1/2isthenfollowedbythefamous
Tannerlawt1/10oncethedropshapehasreachedasphericalcap.
1. Introduction
When a liquid drop contacts a wettable surface, the liquid spreadsoverthesolidtominimizethetotalsurfaceenergy.The firstmomentsofspreadingtendtoberapid(somemilli-seconds for millimetersized waterdrops) whileit takes a muchlonger timeforviscousliquidstocompletelyspread.Fromtheliterature
[22,17,9,1,6,3,2,24,7],itappearsthatseveraltimeevolutionscanbe observedforthebaseradiusdependingifinertia,viscosityand/or
∗ Correspondingauthors.Tel.:+33534322818;fax:+33534322991. E-mailaddress:legendre@imft.fr(D.Legendre).
gravityareinvolved.Inaddition,theeffectofthesubstrate wett-abilityondropspreadingisnotyetclearlyunderstood.
Theevolutionofthewettedsurfaceisreportedusingeitherthe baseradiusr(t)orthewettedsurfaceA(t)=r2(t).The
experimen-talresultsareusuallypresentedinordertoprovideapowerlaw evolutionundertheform:
r(t)∼tn,orA(t)∼t2n, (1) Themostpopularlawfordropspreadingiscertainlytheso-called Tanner law[23,22] withn=1/10. Thisevolution can be simply obtainedbyconsideringthattheshapeofthedropisathin spheri-calcapandthatthecontactanglefollowstheCox-Voinovrelation. Suchevolution hasbeenfoundtobeinagreementwithseveral
experiments(see[3]).TheTannerlawconcernsspreading situa-tionsinwhichsurfacetensionisbalancedbyviscosity.Varyingthe relativedifferentcontributions(inertia,gravity,viscosity,surface tension)differentevolutionshavebeenreported:n=0.1,n=0.14, n=0.16,n=1/8,n=1/7,n=1/2[17,9,3].Thet1/2powerlawresults
fromabalancebetweenthecapillarypressureandtheinertial pres-sure.Such evolution hasbeenobserved in severalexperiments
[1,2,24].LaviandMarmur[15]performedexperimentsfor differ-entliquidsonacoatedsiliconwaferandreportedthefollowing exponentialevolution: A(t) Af =1−exp
−K Af m , (2)whereAfisthefinalvalueofthewettedareaandisthe
dimen-sionlesstime=t/V1/3.LaviandMarmur[15]reportsvaluesfor
mintherangem=0.618−0.964.Theinterestofthisrelationisto proposeapowerlawoftheformtminthelimitoflargefinalwetted
surfaceAf.Asitwillbeshowninthesimulationsreportedinthis
paper,theviscosityhasanimportanteffectonthedrop spread-ing.Forlowviscousliquids(aswater),apowerlawoftheform(1)
canbeobservedduringalmostalltheevolution.Whenincreasing theviscosity,theslopeoftheevolutionchangesovertime, show-inganexponentialdependencyoftheform(2).Thewettabilityhas alsoanimpactonthedropspreading.Thedistinctionbetweenthe differentwettingstatesisusuallymadebyconsideringthe equi-libriumspreadingcoefficientSeq=(cosS−1),whichrepresents
thesurfacefreeenergyrelativetoitsvalueforcompletewetting. Whenadropisdepositedona planesurface,theinitialcontact anglei≈180◦ madebytheinterfacewiththewallislargerthan
equilibriumS.AninitialspreadingcoefficientSi=(cosi−1)can
beintroducedtocharacterizetheinitialenergyofthesystem.The differenceS=Seq−Si=cosS−cosiindicatesthenatureofthe
spreading.SinceS<0,thedropspreadsuntilthecontactangle stabilizesattheequilibrium angleS.Neitherdifferent
theoret-icalmodelsnorexperimentalobservationshave showna direct effectofS=cosS−cosionthedropspreading.Furthermore,the
impactofthesurfacewettabilityonthedropspreadingisstillunder controversy.Bianceetal.[1]observedthescalinglawr(t)∼t1/2in
theirexperimentsofwaterdropsspreadingonacompletely wet-tingsurface.Birdetal.[2]performedexperimentswithdroplets ofdifferentwater-glycerolmixtures(1.0,3.7,and10.7cP)on sili-conwafersurfacesofvariablewettability(fromS=0◦toS=180◦).
Thespreadingradiusisfoundtofollowapower-lawevolutionof theform(1)wheretheexponentndependsontheequilibrium contactangle.Typicallyitvariesfromn=1/2forperfectwetting surfaceston=1/4fornonwettingsurfaces.Chenetal.[7]observed spreadingofwaterdroponhydrophobicglasswithn=0.3.Onthe contrary,therecentexperimentsofWinkelsetal.[24]pointtoward aspreadingregimethatisindependentofwettabilitywithn=1/2. Theexperiments weremade withwater dropsonthree differ-entsubstrateswithdifferentequilibriumcontactanglesS:clean
glass(almostperfectlywetting,S∼0◦),coatedglass(S∼65◦),and
Teflon-coatedglass(S∼115◦).
Theaimofthisworkistodiscusstheeffectofthemain param-eters controllingthe drop spreading:viscosity, density, surface tension,dropvolumeandsurfacewettability.Thetimeevolution r(t)ofthebaseradiusisanalyzedaswellasthetimetSforthe
com-pletespreadingofthedrop.Eachparameterhasbeenvariedina largerangewhilekeepingconstanttheotherparameters.
2. Numericalprocedure
2.1. NavierStokessolver
Thenumericalsimulationsreportedinthisworkareperformed withthevolumeoffluid(VoF)solverdevelopedintheJADIMcode
[4,12].Theone-fluidsystemofequationsisobtainedbyintroducing theone-fluidfunctionCusedtolocalizeoneofthetwophases.In thisstudy,wedefineCasC=1inthedrop(phase1),andC=0inthe surroundingair(phase2).Theone-fluidfunctionCmakespossible thedefinitionoftheonefluidvariablesU=CU1+(1−C)U2forthe
velocity,P=CP1+(1−C)P2 forthepressure,=C1+(1−C)2 for
thedensityand=C1+(1−C)2fortheviscosity.Theposition
oftheinterfaceisthengivenbythetransportequation:
∂
C∂
t +U.∇
C=0 (3)The two fluids areassumed tobe Newtonian and incompress-iblewithnophasechange.Underisothermalconditionandinthe absenceofanysurfactant,thesurfacetensionisconstantand uni-format theinterfacebetweenthetwo fluids.In suchcase,the velocityfieldUandthepressurePsatisfytheclassicalone-fluid formulationoftheNavier–Stokesequations:
∇
.U=0 (4)∂
U∂
t +U.∇
U =−∇
P+∇
.+g+F (5)where istheviscous stresstensor, gis thegravity.F isthe
capillarycontribution:
F=
∇
.nnıI (6)whereisthesurfacetension,ndenotesbyarbitrarychoicethe unitnormaloftheinterfacegoingoutfromthedropandıIisthe
Diracdistributionassociatedtotheinterface.
ThesystemofEqs.(3)–(6)isdiscretizedusingthefinite vol-umemethod.Timeadvancementisachievedthroughathird-order Runge-Kuttamethodfortheviscousstresses.Incompressibilityis satisfiedattheendofeachtimestepthoughaprojectionmethod. Theoverallalgorithmissecond-orderaccurateinbothtimeand space. The volume fraction C and the pressure P are volume-centeredandthevelocitycomponentsareface-centered.Dueto thediscretizationofC,itresultsanumericalthicknessofthe inter-face,thecellscutbytheinterfacecorrespondingto0<C<1.The specificaspectofourapproachcomparedtotheclassicalVoFor LevelSetmethods[19–21]concernsthetechniqueusedtocontrol thestiffnessoftheinterface.Inourapproachnointerface recon-structionorredistancingtechniquesareintroduced.Theinterface locationandstiffnessarebothcontrolledbyanaccuratetransport algorithmbasedonFCT(Flux-Corrected-Transport)schemes[25]. Thismethodleadstoaninterfacethicknessofaboutthreegridcells duetotheimplementationofaspecificprocedureforthevelocity usedtotransportC,inflowregionofstrongstrainandshear[4].The numericaldescriptionofthesurfacetensionisoneofthecrucial pointswhenconsideringsystemswherecapillaryeffectscontrol theinterfaceshape.Thisinterfacialforceissolvedusingtheclassical CSF(continuumsurfaceforce)modeldevelopedby[5].Aclassical problemofthisformulationisthegenerationofspuriouscurrents
[13,18].Inordertodecreasespuriouscurrentsintensity,aclassical methodintroducedby[5]wasemployed,whichconsistsin cal-culatingthesurfacecurvaturefromasmootheddensitygradient, whilethediscretizationofthedeltafunctionusesanun-smoothed density.ThespuriouscurrentsinourcodeJADIMhavebeen char-acterizedby[12].Theirmaximummagnitudeevolvesas0.004/, inagreementwithothercodesusingtheBrackbill’sformulation.
2.2. Numericalmodelingofthecontactangle
Themodeling usedinthis workaims torespectthephysics atthecontactline.Itisbasedontwomainconsiderationsatthe macroscopicscale:
Fig.1.Statementoftheproblem.Initialandfinaldropshapecharacterizedbythe baseradiusr0andrf,respectively.TheradialandverticalsizeareLr=Lz=3R0.his
theinitialdistancebetweenthedropcenterandthewall.
-Thewallconditionseenbythefluidisanonslipcondition. -There is a direct relation between the interfacevelocity and
theshapeoftheinterfacecharacterizedbytheapparentcontact angle.
TheobjectiveistosolvethephysicattheapparentscaleLwhere thecontactangleistheapparentordynamiccontactangle.Atthis scalethefluidobeysanonslipconditionfortheresolutionofthe momentumequation:
UW =0 (7)
HydrodynamicsatasmallerscalethanLhasanimportantrolesince itlinkstheapparentangletothestaticangle.Asub-gridmodeling ofsucheffectneedstobeintroducedinthesimulation.Thisisdone byusingtherelationderivedbyCox[8]inordertolinktheapparent angletothestaticangle:
g(W)=g(S)+CaLn
L
(8)
whereCa=Ucl/isthecontactlinecapillarynumber.Thefirst
Vol-umeofFluidnodebeinglocatedat/2fromthewall,itfollowsthat L=/2.Consideringthevalueoftheobservedsliplength[14],we haveusedafixedvalue=10−9mforthesliplengthin(4)inthe
simulationsreportedinthiswork.Notethatexperimental observa-tionsgivealsoarecommendationforthechoiceofthemacroscopic lengthLconsistentwiththedynamicmodelusedinournumerical modeling.Indeedoneshouldhave/2=L≈10−4−10−5m.
Thecomparisonbetweenourmodelingwithothervariant mod-elings,i.e.staticcontactangleversusdynamiccontactangle,noslip conditionversusslipcondition,ispresentedin[16].Agridandtime convergencehasbeenperformedanddiscussedforthedifferent possiblemodels.Thesecomparisonsclearlystressthestrongeffect ofthenumericalmodelingusedforthesimulationofdynamic con-tactlinesasillustratedinthenextsection,wherethesimulations arecomparedwithexperimentsforwaterandmoreviscousliquids.
2.3. Comparisonwithexperimentsforwaterandviscousdrops
We consider a spherical droplet of volume V=4R3 0/3
depositedonanhorizontalwallthatentersincontactwithan hori-zontalwettablesurfaceattimet=0.Allthenumericalexperiments reportedinthisworkaredescribedbyFig.1.Thecomputational domainisasquaredomainofequalradialandverticalextension
10−2 10−1 100 101 102 103 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 τ r / r f
Fig.2.Comparisonwiththeexperimentsforviscousdrop[15].Thenormalized radiusr/rfisreportedversusthenormalizedtime=t/V1/3.Contactanglemodels
usedforthesimulations:—Dynamicmodel,−−−staticmodel
Lr=Lz=3R0.Theaxisofsymmetrycorrespondstothewest
bound-ary,thewettingconditionsgivenbyeq.(7-4)areimposedonthe southboundaryandclassicalwallconditions(noslip)areimposed onthetwootherboundaries(eastandnorth).Theinitial condi-tioncorrespondstoadropinitiallylocatedatthedistanceh≤R0
fromthewall. Theeffectofthis initialconditionas wellasthe gridandtimeconvergenceshavebeenperformed[16]by consid-eringdifferentinitiallocationsofthedropcenter(h=0.95,0.98, 0.99,0.995,0.998R0),differentgrids(correspondingto32,64,128
and167nodesperradius)anddifferenttimesteps(t=10−5 to
t=10−8s).
Squalaneandwaterdropsareconsideredforcomparisonwith theexperimentsofLavi&Marmur [15]Winkelsetal.and[24], respectively.
We first consider the experiments of [15]. They have con-sidered the spreading of squalane drops with R0=1mm. The
fluidpropertiesare=809kg/m3,=0.034Pasand=0.032N/m.
Thecomparisonbetweenoursimulationsandtheexperimentsis showninFig.2.Thenormalizedradiusr/rfisreportedversusthe
normalizedtime=t/V1/3.Thedynamicmodeliscomparedwith
thestaticmodel(aconstantcontactangleSbeingimposed
dur-ingallthesimulation).Asignificantdifferenceisobservedbetween thedynamicmodel(4)andthestaticmodel(W=S).Thedynamic
modelsgiveasatisfactoryagreementwiththeexperimentsof[15]. Wenowconsiderthespreadingofwaterdropsandwe com-pare our simulations with the experiments performed by [24]
formillimeter-sizedwaterdropletsinair(R0=0.5mm).Wehave
selectedthecasescorrespondingtoverydifferentcontactangles S=115◦andS≈0◦.
Basedonpreliminarytests[16],thecomparisonwiththe exper-imentsperformedby[24]areperformedwithagridcorresponding to128nodesperradiusR0andatimestept=10−7s.Theinitial
positionish=0.998R0.ThecomparisonisshowninFig.3wherethe
normalizedcontactlineradialpositionr/R0isshownasfunctionof
thetimenormalizedbythecapillary-inertialtimet=(R3 0/)
1/2.
Theagreementisverysatisfactoryforthetwocasesconsidered.In particular,thepowerlawt1/2isclearlyreproducedbythe
simu-lations.Consequently,oursimulationsdonotshowanoticeable effect ofthesurface wettabilityonthe powerlawevolution in agreementwith[24]butinoppositionwith[2].Below,we con-siderindetailthispointwithadditionalsimulationsperformedfor afluidtentimesmoreviscousthanwater.Notealsothatour sim-ulationrevealstheoscillationofthecontactlineattheendofthe
32 D.Legendre,M.Maglio/ColloidsandSurfacesA:Physicochem.Eng.Aspects432 (2013) 29–37 10−3 10−2 10−1 100 101 10−2 10−1 100 101 1 2 t / tρ r / R0
Fig.3.Evolutionofthecontactlineradialpositionr/R0asfunctionofthe
nor-malizedtimet/(R3 0/)
1/2.Experiments[24]:()
S=115o,(♦)S≈0◦.Numerical
simulations:−−−S=115◦,—S=5◦.
spreading.Suchoscillationarenotreportedintheexperimentsof
[24]andwillbediscussedinthefollowing.
3. Results
Weconsidertheeffectofthemainparameterscontrollingdrop spreading: fluid properties (liquid density, liquid viscosity and surfacetension),thedropsizeandthewettingpropertiesofthe sur-face.Eachparameterisvariedindependentlyoverawiderangeof variation.Allthesimulationshavebeenperformedconsideringair asthesurroundingfluid.Asaconsequencethedensityandviscosity ratiovalues(i.e.2/1and2/1)arenotconstantbuttheyalways
remainmuchsmallerthanunitysothatthereisnoexpectedeffect ofboththeviscosityandthedensityoftheaironthespreading.
3.1. Inertial-capillaryregimeofspreading
Wefirstconsiderlow-viscousspreading.Thedensity,the sur-facetensionandthedropradiusarevariedindependentlywhile theviscosityis setfixedtotheviscosityofwater =0.001Pas.
Fig. 4 shows the evolution of the contact line radius when varying the density from =100kg/m3 to =4000kg/m3 with
theotherparameterskeptconstant:=0.072N/m,=0.001Pas, R0=0.5mmandS=65◦.Whenthedensityisincreasedthe
spread-ingtimegrows(thecurvesaretranslatedtotheright)sincethe inertiaoftheliquidtobeacceleratedbythemovingcontactline ismore important. We notice that thesame powerlaw evolu-tiont1/2isobservedforalltherange ofdensityconsidered.The
t1/2 powerlaw resultsfrom acapillary-inertial balance.Indeed,
whenthesphericaldropofradiusR0contactsthesolid,thebalance
betweenthecapillarypressure∼R0/r2andtheinertialpressure
∼(dr/dt)2givesafterintegrationthefollowingevolution:
r(t)∼
R0 1/4t1/2 (9)
Fig.4(bottom)confirmsthatthedropspreadingiscontrolled byabalancebetweencapillary andinertia,sincetheuseofthe timenormalizedusingthecapillary-inertiacharacteristictimet= (R3
0/)
1/2makespossibleagoodcollapseofthedifferentcurves.
Fig.4alsorevealscontactlineoscillationsatboththeearlyand thefinalstageofspreading.IndeedasshowninFig.5,theinterface issignificantlydeformedbythepropagationof capillarywaves.
Fig. 4.Effect of the liquid densityon the dropspreading for=0.072N/m, =0.001Pas, S=65◦ and R0=0.5mm. The normalized contact line radius
r*=(r−r
0)/(rf−r0)isreportedasafunctionof(top)thedimensionaltimetand
(bottom)thenormalizedtimet/(R3 0/)
1/2.
Theappearanceofacapillarywavethattravelsfromthecontact linetothetopofthedroplethasalsobeenreportedinthe simula-tionsreportedby[11]usingadiffuseinterfacemethod.Thisfigure reportstheevolutionoftheshapeofawaterdropforS=65◦.The
sequenceispresentedlinebylineforthetimesgiveninthelegend. Thetimestepsarenonregularinordertoshowparticularevents observedduringthespreading.Atthebeginningofthespreading, onlythecontactlineismoving.Thetopofthedropstartstomove duetothecapillarywaveinducedbytheinitialimpulsegenerated atthecontactline.Surprisinglythiscapillarywaveinducesthe ele-vationofthetopofthedrop.Asaconsequence,combinedwiththe displacementofthecontactline,thedropiselongatedintotwo orthogonaldirectionsresultinginthegenerationofapinchevent (see2ndimage(t=2.52ms),line3).Inthiscase,thepinch-offdoes notoccursresultinginthepropagationofarelativelylarge ampli-tudewave.Thiscapillarywavedisplacesagainthetopofthedrop inthedirectionoppositetothewall.Thisgeneratesasecondpinch thatresultsintheejectionofasmallsatellitedroplet(see2ndimage (t=3.34ms),line5).Then, thesatellitedropletimpactsand coa-lesceswiththedropgeneratingagainwaveoscillations,explaining thefinaloscillationsobservedforthecontactlineinFig.4.Such regimeofdropletejectionfollowingthedepositionofdropsonto
Fig.5. Shapeevolutionofawaterdrop(radialsection)forS=65◦.Thesequenceisshownlinebylineforthetimest=0.06,0.36,0.56,1.00,1.40,1.66,1.86,2.52,2.70,2.86,
2.98,3.12,3.28,3.34,3.52,3.60,4.80and5.80ms.
a solid substratehasbeen identified inexperiments and direct numericalsimulationsby[10]forsmallercontactangles(S≤65◦).
Weshowherethatthedropletejectioncanalsobeobservedfor largercontactangles.
WeillustrateinFig.6theeffectofthedensityonthedroplet ejec-tion.Thesimulationsareshownforthreedensities=700kg/m3,
=1000kg/m3 and=4000kg/m3.Theimagescorrespondingto
thetwosuccessivepinch-offsandtothemaximumheightofthe satellitedropletareshown.For=700kg/m3twopincheventsare
observedbutnodropletejectionisgeneratedbythesurface oscil-lation,whilefor=4000kg/m3thedropletisejectedatthefirst
pinchevent.
The effect of thesurface tensionis now reported in Fig. 7. The surfacetensionis variedfrom=0.007N/m to=0.2N/m. The other parameters are fixed to =103kg/m3, =0.001Pas,
R0=0.5mmandS=65◦.Thespreading timeis decreasedwhen
increasingthesurfacetension,sincetheinitialimpulse transmit-tedtothedropisincreased.Wealsoobservethatthepowerlaw
Fig.6.Shapeevolutionofawaterdrop(radialsection)showingthepincheventsforS=65◦.Firstline:=700kg/m3–fromlefttoright:t=2.16,2.64ms.Secondline:
=1000kg/m3–fromlefttoright:t=2.52,3.28,3.34ms.Thirdline:=4000kg/m3–fromlefttoright:t=4.56,4.94ms.
evolutiont1/2isnotsignificantlyaffectedbythechangeofthe
sur-facetension. Againtheuseofthenormalizedtime t/(R3 0/)
1/2
makespossiblethecollapseofthecurvesandclearlyrevealsthe capillaryoscillationsthatimpactthecontactlinespreading.
WereportinFig.8thespreadingtimetSforthecontactline
evo-lutionshowninFigs.4and7.Thespreadingtimesdeducedfrom simulationsforwaterdropswithradiiR0=0.5mmandR0=5mm
arealsoreported.tSisshownasafunctionofthecharacteristic
capillary-inertialtimet=(R3 0/)
1/2.t
Sisdefinedasthetime
nec-essarytoreach98%ofthefinalequilibriumradiusrfofthecontact
line.Theplotconfirmsthatspreadingisclearlycontrolledbythe balancebetweeninertiaandcapillarity.Thespreadingtimecanbe estimatedas: tS≈1.7
R3 0 1/2 (10)Thespreadingtimeisthusincreasedwhenreducingthesurface tensionandincreasingthedropdensityandthedropsize.
3.2. Viscosityeffect
WereportinFig.9theeffectoftheviscosityonthedrop spread-ing.Theviscosityisvariedfrom=0.001Pasto=0.07Pasfor =103kg/m3,=0.072N/m,R
0=0.5mmandS=65◦.The
spread-ingtimeisenlargedwhenincreasingtheviscosity(thecurvesbeing translatedtotheright)andtheoscillationsobservedattheendof thespreadingduetothepropagationofcapillarywavearedamped. Despitetheincreaseofthespreadingtime,theslopeofthe evolu-tionattheearlystageofthespreadingincreasesfromt1/2(water)
tot2/3forthelargestviscosityconsidered.Butthedurationofthe
powerlawregimeisreducedbecausetheendofthespreadingis characterizedbyanexponentialevolutionoftheformgivenby(2). Forcomparison,theTannerlawt1/10isalsoshowninthefigure.
Thereisnoclearevidencethatthistypeofevolutionisobservedin oursimulationsduringthefinalstageofthespreading.Infact,the staticcontactangleS=65◦istoolargetoobservesucharegime.
Forliquidsmoreviscousthanwater,weexpectthattheevolutionis controlledbyaviscous–capillarybalance.Theviscousstressnear thecontact linecanbeestimatedas∼(dr/dt)/ℓwhere ℓisthe characteristiclengthcontrollingtheshearstressatthecontactline. Assuminganevolutionoftheformℓ=R1−p0 rp,thebalancebetween
theviscousstressandthecapillarypressure∼R0/r2 gives,after
integration,theobservedt2/3evolution:
r(t)∼
R1/202/3 t2/3 (11)
for p=3/2 corresponding to ℓ∼R−01/2r3/2. The corresponding
viscous–capillarycharacteristictime t=R0/ is usedinFig.4
(bottom)tonormalizethetime.Foraviscositylargerthan0.01Pas, asatisfactorycollapseofthecurvesisobservedindicatingthe tran-sitiontoaspreading regimecontrolledbythebalancebetween capillarityandviscosity.
TheevolutionofthespreadingtimetSisreportedinFig.10as
afunctionoftheviscous–capillarycharacteristictimet=R0/.
Twodifferentbehaviorsare clearlyobserved. For low viscosity, tSisfoundtoevolveast1/5(i.e.1/5sincealltheother
param-etersarenotvarying).We havenoexplanationoftheparticular evolution tS∝1/5 revealed by the simulation for low-viscous
drops. Forlargerviscositiesan expectedlinearevolution tS∝t
isobserved.Thelinearbehaviorresultsfromthelinearityofthe governingequations(Stokesequation)atlowReynoldsnumber. Theviscous–capillaryspreadingtimecanbeestimatedusingthe relation
tS≈55R0
Fig.7. Effectofthe surfacetension onthedropspreading for =103kg/m3,
=0.001Pas, R0=0.5mm and S=65◦. The normalized contact line radius
r*=(r−r
0)/(rf−r0)isreportedasafunctionof(top)thedimensionaltimetand
(bottom)thenormalizedtimet/(R3 0/)
1/2.
3.3. Contactangleeffect
WefinallydiscusstheeffectofthestaticcontactangleSon
dropspreading.Figs.3,4and7showthatthet1/2powerlawisnot
affectedbythesurfacewettabilityatthebeginningofthe spread-ing,whenconsideringafluidhavingthesameviscosityaswater foralargerangeofcontactangles(S=5◦,65◦and115◦),in
agree-mentwiththeexperimentsreportedby[24]forwaterdrops.The wettingconditionsconsideredby[24](S=5◦,65◦ and115◦)are
nowsimulatedforafluidwithaviscositytentimeslargerthanthat ofwater(=0.01Pas),theotherparametersbeingkeptthesame asforwater(=0.072N/m,=103kg/m3)andR
0=0.5mm.
Addi-tionalwettingconditions(S=140◦andS=160◦)havealsobeen
considered.
Fig.11clearlyrevealsthatthewettingconditionhasnowa sig-nificanteffectonthespreadingrate.Whenthecontactangleis increasedtheslopeseemstodecreaseinagreementwiththe exper-imentsof[2].However,iftheradiusrisnormalizedusingtheradius reachedattheendoftheinertial-capillaryregime,allthecurves collapseonasinglecurveshowingat1/2evolutionindependenton
thecontactangleSinagreementwiththeexperimentsof[24].
Fig.8.SpreadingtimetSversusthecapillary-inertialtimet=(R3 0/)
1/2
when varyingtheliquiddensity,thesurfacetensionandthedropradius.(◦)is vary-ingfrom100kg/m3to4000kg/m3for=0.001Pas,=0.072N/m,R
0=0.5mmand
S=65◦.()isvaryingfrom0.007N/mto0.2N/mfor=103kg/m3,=0.001Pas,
R0=0.5mmandS=65◦.(△)R0isvaryingfrom0.5mmto5mmfor=103kg/m3,
=0.001Pas,=0.072N/mandS=65◦.Thecontinuouslinerepresentstherelation
tS=1.7t
Fig.9. Effectof theliquidviscosityonthe dropspreadingfor =0.072N/m, =103kg/m3,R
0=0.5mmandS=65◦.Thenormalizedradiusr*=(r−r0)/(rf−r0)is
Fig.10.SpreadingtimetSversustheviscous–capillarycharacteristictimet=R0/
for=0.072N/m,=103kg/m3,R
0=0.5mmandS=65◦.(—)tS∝t1/5,(−−−)
tS∝t.
Fig.11.EffectofthecontactanglesSonthetimeevolutionofthedropbaseradius
rfor=0.01Pas,=0.072N/m,=103kg/m3andR
0=0.5mm.Thedropradial
sec-tionscorrespondingtoa,bandcareshowninFig.12.
ForthesmallestcontactangleS=5◦,weobserveafterthet1/2
evolutionacleart1/10evolutioncharacteristicoftheTannerLaw.A
similarbehaviorhasbeenreportedinthesimulationsof[11]where aregimeclosetotheTanner’slawisobservedwhenincreasing theviscositywhilearegimeclosetot1/2isobservedattheearly
stageofthespreading.Fig.12showstheshapeofthedropduring
thet1/2evolution,duringthet1/10evolutionandatthetransition
betweenthesetworegimes.Thecorrespondingtimesaredepicted bybulletsinFig.11.Asphericalcapisclearlyidentifiedduringthe t1/10evolution.
Inthelimitofaverythinsphericalcap,thecontactangleW,
thedropvolumeVandthecontactlineradiusrarelinkedbythe geometricalrelationW≈4V/r3.Inthelimitofasmalldynamic
contactanglewithS≈0,theCoxrelation(4)canbeexpressedas:
W3 =9
dr dtln(L/)
Combiningthesetworelationsandintegratingintime,theradius ofthecontactlineisfoundtofollowthefamousTannerlaw:
r(t)∼R0
t t 1/10 (13)Forspreadingdrops,suchevolutionisthusobservedforsmall contactanglesoncethedrophasreachedasphericalcapshape asshowninFig.12c.InthelimitofS→0,thebaseradiusofthe
sphericalcapcanbeexpressedasrf≈R0−1/3S anditfollowsan
estimationofthespreadingtime:
tS≈t−10/3S (14)
For the simulations reported in Fig. 11, relation (14) gives tS≈0.2swhichisacorrectorderofmagnitudeforS=5◦.The
corre-spondingviscous–capillaryspreadingtimegivenbyrelation(12)is twoordersofmagnitudesmaller≈0.0038s,butinagreementwith theevolutionreportedforthelargercontactangles(S=65◦,115◦,
140◦and160◦).
4. Conclusion
Wehaveconsideredthespreadingofadroponahorizontal wet-tablesurfacebynumericalsimulation.Inournumericalmodelingof movingcontactlines,theapparentcontactangleisgivenbythe[8]
relationwhileazerosliplengthisimposedforthemomentum cal-culation.Thesimulationshavebeensatisfactorilycomparedwith theexperimentsof[15]forsqualaneandwiththeexperimentsof
[24]forwater.Theeffectsofthemainparameterscontrollingthe dropspreadinghavebeenstudiedseparately.Forviscosityofthe orderofthatofwater,thet1/2powerlawhasbeenrecoveredat
theearlystageofthespreadingforallthecontactangles consid-eredinagreementwiththeexperimentsof[24].Whenincreasing theviscosity,theearlystageofthespreading is still character-izedbya powerlawevolutionbutwithanincreasingexponent inagreementwiththeexperimentsof[2].Boththeviscosityand thecontactanglearethenshowntoimpactthelineexpansion.In particular,consideringthespreadingofaviscousdroponahighly wettablesubstrate(S=5◦),weobservetwosuccessivepowerlaw
evolutions.Thecapillary-inertialregimer∝t1/2isfollowedbythe
Fig.12.Dropradialsectioncorrespondingtothetimesa,bandcshowninFig.11(S=5◦).(a)inthemiddleofthet1/2evolution(t=4×10−4s),(b)thetransitionbetween
Tannerr∝t1/10evolutiononcethedroplethasreacheda
spheri-calcapshape.Oursimulationsshowthatthecombinedeffectof theviscosityandthecontactangleplaysanimportantroleinthe spreadingofadrop.Theymakeconsistentthedifferent experimen-talobservations(aprioricontradictory)concerningtheeffectofthe wettingconditions.
enddocument
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