Annotated bibliography on snow drifting and its control

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Annotated bibliography on snow drifting and its control

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ANNOTATBD

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ON

SNOW DRIFTING

AND

ITS COXTROL

compiled

by

ANALYZED

L,

w,

Gold

Head,

Snow and

Ice Section

Division

of Building Research

Drifting snow and its deposition

is a familiar character-

istic of the Canadian terrain. Its occurrence must be con-

sidered

in the design, construction, and operation of

many

structures

and transportation leerviees. Although nUme~ous

s t u d i e s have been made on d r i f t i n g

snow

and its control,

few

of these have been

of

the nature that

give

directly to

the

engineer the information that

he

requires, There is a growing

need for this information, much of which can be obtained

th~ough

a review of the resulta of past investigations corn-

plemented, when necessary, with appropriate field and labora-

tory studies. This bibliography has been compiled as a step

in

this task and

with

the hope that it

will aid and encourage the

investigations that are required,

The

refe~enrres

available

up

to

June

1964

have been used in

compiling this bibliography. Acknowledgement

and

appreciation

must be expressed to the main source of references and abstracts,

the

Bibliography on Snow and

Ice

compiled

by

the Library of

,/

Congress for the Cold Regions Research and hgineering

Laboratory,

U,S.

A m y Materiel Command.

Ottawa, December

1960

a6

/a~a&(Z

DIVISION OF BUILDING RESEARCH NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OTTAWA, CANADA

_--

-

-

Copies of shorter articles listed in this Bibliography may be obtained, in general, through the photocopying service of the Nationol Research Council. Rates for this service ore as follows: $1.50 for o photoprint of any article of not mare than 7 pages. An addition01 $1.50

is necessary for each additional 7 pages or fraction thereof. A discount will be allowed to the libraries of Canadian universities. Requests for photoprinta should ba o d d r e d to the National Research Cwndl, Ottawa, Canada.

Coupons are issued by the Coundl valued at 5, 25, and 50 centa. These can be rued in payment for this service 0s well as cash (stomps are not acceptable), money order or cheque (payable at par in Ottawa credit Nationol Reseorch Council). Coupons con be used for the purchase of all Ndional Rerreorch Council publlcotianb.

ANl'J OTA

TED

BIB

LI

OGRAPIIY

ON

SNOW

DRIFTING

AND

ITS

CONTROL

TABLE OF

CONTENTS

Paae

No,

PART

I t O B S E W A T f ONS AND I 4 E A S U ~ ~ J T S

OF

SNOW

IM

TIIE A I R

1.

Snow

in

Air

la. Snow

in Air

--

Measuremeat;

2.

Deposition

of Blowing Snow

3.

Miscellaneous

P A R T 11:

SNOW

D R I F T I N G AND I T S CONTROL

1. Snow Drifting on Highways and

Railways

1,

SNOW

1% TMi: AIR

-

Arai, Hideo, Masao Shiotani, and Taizo Ogasawara.

On Blowing Snow.

SeppyB, May

1953,

Vol,

15,

No,

1:l-5.

The r e s u l t s of s t u d i e s i n Japan from Jan,-Feb.

2952 on

the v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of blowing snow a r e reported

and t h e method and device used f o r collecting the snow

a r e described.

An experimental equation i s presented

r e l a t i n g

the

amount of blowing snow caught i n the

c o l l e c t i n g device and the height of the device above

ground.

Data a r e tabulated and raphed on the amount

of snow blown a t heights from

5-

8

00

cm.,

air

tempera-

t w e s

at

t h e

time

of observation,

a a d the

v e r t i c a l

wind d i s t r i b u t i o n ,

(

I n Japans se

)

Bontr~hkovsky,

V.

Snowst arms and Blowing Snow According t o Observa-

t i o n s a t t h e Observatory of Moscow University

i n

1905-1913,

Bull, I n s t , Physique Cosmique de Moscou, 1923, Fasc, 1:68-91,

The c k a r a c t e r i s t i o s of snowstorms and blowing snow a r e

described and correleted with

- i n d i d

dual meteorological

elements, The frequency of snowstoms and blowing

snow a t t h e observatory ranges from 7-32/yr.

and

averages 16. The max, number of snowstopms during t h e

season i s observed i n Jan.-Feb.,

t h e min.

in

April and

Oct,, whfle blowfag snow occurs most frequently i n Feb,

and not a t all i n April and Oct.

The optimum conditions

f o r the occurrence of snowstorms

and

blowPng snow

include a i r temperature

fram'-40

t o -60C f o r snowstorms

and -7" t o

-90C

f o r blowing snow, SE. winds a t 7-8 m./

sec.,

a

r e l a t i v e humidity of

98%

a t temperatures down

t o -10% and

88%

a t lower temperatures, and negative

pressure v a r i a t i o n s ,

Data a r e tabulated and graphed on

snowstorms and blowing snow i n individual years and

accompanying meteorological conditltons, the monthly and

annual frequencies of snowstorms and blowtng snow,

t h e i r r e l a t

f

on t o temperature, wind d i r e c t i o n and speed,

and gressure v a r i a t i o n s . and r e l a t i v e and absolute h m i -

d i t g - a t various temperatures.

( I n B e n c h )

Bucher,

E.

Mass Transport

by

Wind, Referate und Diskussionen der

Hydrologi schen Tagung der Eidg

.

Konnnission

f

b

Schnee- und Law-

inenforschung vom 9, und 10, Oktober 1947, Interner Ber. No,

92,

Eidg. Inst. f. Schnee- und Lawinenforsch, Davos, Switz., Nov.

1947,

4-7.

The movement of snow

by

wind is analyzed b r i e f l y . Wind-

speed gradient s and t h e amount

o f

suspended snow per

u n i t volume determine t h e amount of anew accumulation.

Snow accumulation

is uniform

with cons t a n t wind speed b u t decreases i n a r e a s where wind speed i s g r e a t e r and i n c r e a s e s where wind speed i s l e s s . The more snow t h e a i r c o n t a i n s , the g r e a t e r t h e e f f e c t s of v a r i a t i o n s i n wind speed. R e s u l t s of l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d i n v e s t i - g a t i o n s by

K,

Croce on t h e e f f e c t of snow f e n c e s on

snow accwnulation a r e summarized,

( I n German) ~ f i n f n, A.K. Mechanics of Snow Ero sion. Trudy Transportno-Energe-

ticheskogo I n s t , , 1954,

~ y p .

4:59-69. Ens. Trans., TT-1101, National Research Council, Ottawa, Can,, 1963.

The e r o s i o n o f dry snow is shown t o be a s p e c i a l case, of t h e e r o s i o n of g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l s i n water and a i r and depends on t h e same parameters. Erosion was c a l - c u l a t e d f o r various combinations of water, a i r , sand,

s o i l p a r t i c l e s and snow p a r t i c l e s , A formula i s derived on t h e b a s i s of dimensional a n a l y s i s f o r determining t h e c r i t i c a l wind speed preceding snow e r o s i o n , This c r i t i c a l wind speed i n c r e a s e s w i t h

i n c r e a s i n g p a r t i c l e s i z e , roughness of t h e snow s u r f a c e , and cohe s i on of t h e p a r t i c l e s , Theref o r e , i n any program f o r prevention of snow erosion,

provision should be made f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e s e t h r e e f a c t o r s ,

~ i ' h i n , A.K. The S o l i d Flux of a Snow-Wind Flow. Trudy Trans- portno-Energeticheskogo I n s t .

,

1954, Vyp*

4:

71-88.

Eng,

Tmns., TT-1102, Nat Zonal Research Council, OLtawa,

Can.,

1963.

A g e n e r a l formula f o r t h e s o l i d flow of a f l u i d p l u s g r a n u l a r - m a t e ~ i a f mixture i s d e r i v e d by dfmensional a n a l y s i s and i s a p p l i e d t o t h e s p e c i f i c c a s e of a

snow-wind flow, S o l i d flow

i s

defined a s t h e weight of the snow t r a n s p o r t e d per u n f t a r e a c r o s s s e c t i o n of wind f l o w per u n i t time a n d ' i s measured i n gin./ sa.m.sec.

The

t r a n s p o r t of snow i n an a f r stream obeys t h e g e n e r a l

laws

of t r a n s p o r t of h e a v g r a n u l a r m a t e r f a l i n a f l u i d medium whose s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y

i s

l e s s than t h a t of t h e t r a n s p o r t e d p a r t i c l e s , The g e n e r a l formula i s checked a g a i n s t f i e l d measurements and i s found t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y , V a r i a n t s of t h e g e n e r a l formula

can

be used t o c a l c u l a t e t h e

magni-

t u d e s of wind t r a n s p o r t OF d e p o s i t i o n of snow f o r

a

s e r i e s of storms o r f o r t h e whole w i n t e r and f o r d f f - f e r e n t measuring devices. Generally, t h e flow of

snow I n a given s e c t o r and snowstorm

i s a

f u n c t i o n not only of t h e t r a n s l a t i o n v e l o c i t i e s of t h e wind flow, but of t h e s t a t e of t h e snow s u r f a c e ( d e n s i t y , f r e e z - ing, roughness)

,

stream t u r b u l e n c e , s i z e and d e n s i t y of t h e p a r t i c l e s , and a i r temperature. Some of t h e s e f a c t o r s c a n be c o n t r o l l e d and t h e r e b y t h e snow d r i f t - ing of r o a d s can be c o n t r o l l e d o r modified t o a

~ h i n ,

A.K. V e r t i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n

of

S o l i d Flux i n a Snow-Wind Flow. Trudy Transportno-Energeti che skogo I n s t

,,

1954,

Vyp.

4:

49-58. Eng. Trans., TT-999, N a t i o n a l Research Council, Ottawa,

Can., 1961.

T h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e h e i g h t d i s t l ' i b u t i o n of t h e s ~ l i d f l u x i n a snow-wind f l o w a r e p r e s e n t e d . The t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s i s compared with f i e l d observa- t i o n s of t h e wind t r a n s p o r t of snow. Formulas a r e o f f e r e d which g i v e t h e dependence of t h e amount of snow t r a n s p o r t e d i n a g i v e n time on t h e wind speed and h e i g h t above

the

ground. The f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s f o n s a r e

drawn: (1) th e v e r t i c a l df s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s o l i d f l u x of a snow-wind flow depends on t h e p r o f i l e of t h e

averaged t r a n s l a t i o n a l v e l o c i t i e s and t h e l i n e a f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e wind-flow t u r b u l e n c e , ( 2 ) t h e d e r i v e d formula f o r e x p r e s s i n g t h e t o t a l s o l i d f l u x a g r e e s s a t i s f a c t o r i l y w i t h experimental d a t a o b t a i n e d under f i e l d conclltions, and

( 3 )

when

the

d e r i v e d f o r - mulas a r e used, most of t h e d r i f t i n g snow measurements can be m d e w j t t h d r i f t i n g snow g a g e s and t h e s e d a t a can b e used t o determine t h e t o t a l s o l i d f l u x of

a

snow-wind flow more p r e c i s e l y .

~ n n i n , A.K. Fundamentals of the Theory of Snowdrifting. I z v e s t . S i b i r s k o g o O t d e l e n i n Akad. Nauk SSSR, 1959, No.

.

12:

11-24,

Trans.

,

TT-952, Nat i o n a l

Re

s e a r c h Council, Ottawa, Can., "151.

T h i s paper i s t h e o r e t i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f t h e problem o f s n o w d ~ i f t i n g . Equations a r e developed 'baihich d e s c r f b e t h e movement of snow by wind. T h e o r e t i c a l expressf ons f o r t h e dependence of t h e mean v e l o c i t y of the snow p a r t i c l e s and t h e t o t a l r a t e sf snow t r a n s p o r t , upon

t h e a f r f l o w v e l o c i t y a t t h e

5

cm, l e v e l , a r e compared t o wind t u n n e l o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h snow.

GerdeP,

R.W.

The Sirnulati on of a Blowing Snow E n v i r o m e n t 1x1 a Wind Tunnel. Proc, Western Snow Conf',, Spokme, Wash., A P ~ .

1961, 106-114.

A r e s e a r c h program h a s been undertaken a t New York U n i v e ~ s it y t o d e r i v e t h e e s s e n t i a l s c a l e parameters f o r a model snow and t o s e l e c t

a

m a t e r i a l which would p r o p e ~ l y s i m u l a t e snow when used w i t h s m a l l s c a l e models of s t r u c t u r e s and f a c i l i t y l a y o u t s , The prob-

lems a s s o c t a t e d with wind t u n n e l s t u d i e s a r e discusse.d b r i e f l y , t h e c r i t e r i a f o r a snow s i m u l a t o r a r e l i s t e d ,

and t h e wind t u n n e l o p e r a t i o n and model t e s t s a r e des- c r i b e d . Some of t h e r e s u l t s are i n d i c a t e d .

GerrdeP,

ROW,

and Gordon

H.

Strom,

Scale Model Simulation of

a

Blow-

ing Snow Environment.

I n s t i t u t e of Environmental Scienaes,

1961

Proceedings, M t

.

Prospect,

Ill.,

1961,

53-63.

Scale f a c t o r s f o r t h e simulation of d r i f t i n g snow

were determined i n connection

w i t h

wind t u n n e l s t u d i e s

of snow

d r i f t f

o m a t i o n on the Greenland Ice Cap.

Hodel s t r u c t u r e s on a scale of 1:10 were used and the

IpaFmeters of t h e faaterial f o r simulating

snow

were

devised accordingly.

The following f a c t o r s were con-

sidered: diameter and velocity of the snow p a r t i c l e ,

i t s f r e e f a l l velocity, t h e ambient a i r v e l o c i t y

a t

the p a r t i c l e , t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o gravfty, and

the c o e f f i c i e n t of r e s t i t u t i o n ( r a t i o of v e l o c i t y of

rebound t o

the,

velocity of impact). The diameter of

blowing snow p a r t i c l e s on p o l a r i c e s h e e t s may vary

fsom

0.4

-

0.1

mm.,

but the p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n

of snow p a i n s i n a s p e c i f i c w e a frequently does nab

vary mope than

-

+Is$

from t h e mean.

The f r e e

f a l l

vel-

o c i t y of 0.l-m. snow p a r t i c l e s was measured and found

t o be 200 cnr./sec.

The c o e f f i c i e n t

o f

r e s t i t u t i o n was

found t o be 0.555.

Prelimfnary c a l c u l a t f ons showed

t h a t t h e simulating m a t e r i a l must have a d e n s i t y of' 2

gm./cu,cm,

o r more t o give t h e required f a l l v e l o c i t y

of 63 a,

a t

a

diameters s i z e of 0.1 m. Of t h e various

materials t e s t e d , commercial borax was found

t o

be the

most pmmising and h a s been used successfully i n scale

model t e s t s . Remarkable c o r r e l a t i o n was Pound between

d r i f t

accumulation around one of the 'Dye" s i t e build-

i n g s on the

S.

Gfeenland Ice Cap and around

a

model of

the same building i n t h e wind tunnel.

Wind tunnel

t e s t s l a s t i n g a few hours can provide information on

d r i f t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t could not

be

acquired i n

l e s s than

3-5

y ~ s .

under natural f i e l d conditions.

Gerdel,

ROW,

and Gordon

H.

Strom, Wind Tunnel s t u d i e s

w i t h

Scale

Model Simulated Snow.

General Assembly of Helsinki, 1960, Btbl,

No.

44,

Intern. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol. Gentbmtgge, Belgium, 1961,

80-08.

I n P o h r regions where l i t t l e o r no summer melting

occurs, Improperly designed s t r u c t u r e s m q be quickly

and permanently buried

by

d r i f t i n g snow,

I n most wind

tunnel atudies on d r i f t i n g snow no consideration

i s

given

t

a

the relratiornsh8p between t h e v e l o c i t y of a i r

i n the tunnel and t h e physfcal and aeroc%ymamic proper-

t i e s

of

the reaterial s e l e c t e d t o represent snow nor t o

t h e extent

sf

satupat

5.

on of t h e wind

w i t h

t h e synthetic

snow.

Reoogniz ing the d e f i c i e n c i e s i n knowledge on

mow drf f t i n g and the advantages inherent i n wind

tunnel studfes, t h e

U.S.

Amy Snow Ice and Permafrost

Research Establishment (now

U. S. Amy

Cold Regions

Research and Engineesrimg Laboratory) has supported a

research program leading t o t h e s e l e c t i o n and use of

m a t e r i a l s which might be used t o s u i t a b l y simulate snow

i n c o n t r o l l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on s c a l e models of s t r u c -

t u r e s within t h e range of 1/10 eo 1/50 prototype s i z e .

Some of t h e r e s u l t s of t h e wind tunnel s t u d i e s

w i t h

a

sealed, simulated snow a r e presented,

Godshall, F r e d e r i c

A.

The Mechanics of Snowdrf f t i n g *

Thesis

(M.

S,),

College of Engineering, New

York

University,

W.Y.,

Hay 1958.

Mode l i n g c r i t e r i a f o r simulat ing d r i f t i n g snow with

ground cork were developed on t h e b a s i s of 'aerodynamic

analyses and data c o l l e c t e d during wind t u n n e l e x p e r i -

ments on t h e e f f i c i e n c y of snow fences, The

f

o m a t i o n

of snowdrifts around models of various t y p e s of fences

was measured, and curves

o f

accumulation a t various

s a t u r a t i o n s a r e graphed. From d a t a on the percentage

of snow blown p a s t t h e fence and deposited i n t h e eddy

r e g i o n of t h e fence a t various s t a g e s of d r i f t u n t i l

f u l l s a t u r a t i o n

i s

reached,

an

equation was developed

f o r quant if'ying c o l l e c t ion. e f f i c f ency.

O f

t h e

4

models

t e s t e d , t h e e f f i c i e n c y - c o l l e c t i o n capacity of

the

50%

dense s l a t t e d fence was g r e a t e s t . The Swedish s l a t

fence, however, was more e f f i c i e n t a t c e r t a i n d r i f t

s t a g e s t h a n the o t h e r models t e s t e d , and i n a c t u a l

use,

t h i s

type of fence

i s

removed a f t e r t h e l a t t e r s t a g e s

of d ~ i f t i n g

have

been

reached and

is

placed a t

the n e w

snow l e v e l where t h e e f f i c i e n t c o l l e c t i o n character

is-

t i c s may again f u n c t i o n , plieasurements were a l s o made

of t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of wind-blown p a r t i c l e s

and a Boltzmann equation was a p p l i e d t o t h e s e data.

F i n a l l y , a b r i e f suggestion

i s

o f f e r e d f o r improving

snow fence design by adding a forward d e f l e c t o r t o

s t r e n g t h e n t h e vortex movement of t h e wind on the l e e

side of the fence.

Higuchi,

K ,

Experimental S t u d i e s on

D r i f t

and Turbulent D i f f u s i o n

of

P a p e r l e t s Emitted

f r o m A i r c r a f t a s a Model of Snowflakes,

J O W ~

Meteorological Soc, Japan,

June

1962, Ser. 2, Vol. 40, No.

3 :

170-180,

F i e l d experiments were c a r r i e d o u t Feb,

1,

28

and March

16, 1961 on

d r i f t

and t u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n of p a p e r l e t s

( 2

x

2

cm.) emitted from a i r c r a f t , as a model of t h e

d r i f t of snow c r y s t a l s and f l a k e s . F a l l e n p a p e r l e t s

were c o l l e c t e d by Sapporo c i t i z e n s , and r e t u r n e d t o our

laboratory.

The i s o p l e t h s of t h e c o l l e c t e d p a p e r l e t s

emitted a t 456 m. and

1800

m.

r e s p e c t i v e l y a r e shown,

The h o r i z o n t a l d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c ent was estimated a s

₆

the order of magnitude of 105cm.

/set.,

according t o

Sakagamif s

f

omnula f o r an instantaneous p o i n t source.

Birada, Tokutara.

Snow Storm.

Seppga, Mar. 1951, Vol.

12:

165-167.

Three s e t s of d a t a on t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of

blowing snow 0.1

-

11

m.

above t h e ground

are

analyzed

m a t h e m t i c a l l y w i t h regard t o t h e r e l a t i v e q u a n t i t y of

snow a t each l e v e l up t o

1

m.,

p a r t i c l e s i z e , and

t o t a l q u a n t i t y of blowing snow.

(

I n Japanese

1

~ h o d a k o v ,

V.G.

The Transport of Snow by D r i f t i n g

in

t h e P o l a r Urala.

Akad, Nauk SSSR, Mezhduved, Komit

.

Proved,

IrqGG,

GlTaCsi

ologich-

e s k i e Issledovanifh, Sbornik S t a t e r

I X

Razdel Programmy

MGG

( ~ l ~ t ' s i o l o g i S ) ,

1961, No. 6: 136-162.

D r i f t i n g snow p l a y s a l a r g e r o l e i n t h e n a t u r e and

economics of the P o l a r Urals, a s has been demonstra-

t e d by v a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , and

i s

an important

c o n s i d e r a t i o n

f o r

road b u i l d i n g and construction.

The

wind t r a n s p o r t of s o l i d m a t e r i a l (snow) along

t h e surface i n the Polar Urals i n the middle s e c t i o n

of t h e Boll shaya Khadata r i v e r v a l l e y was measured

by the

IGY

expedition of 1957-58,

The

f a c t o r s con-

t r i b u t i n g t o t h e wlnd d r i f t of snow a r e discussed

and four empfrical equations a r e derived f o r deter-

mining t h e t r a n s p o r t of s o l i d m a t e r i a l i n t h e

1-m.

surface l a y e r of a i r a s a f u n c t i o n of s p e c i f i c con-

d i t i o n s of tlhe snow s u r f a c e , t h e wind f o r c e , and t h e

g e n e r a l meteorological s i t u a t i o n .

( I n Russian)

L i s t e r ,

H.

Glaciology.

1.

S o l i d P r e c i p f t a t i o n a d WifL Snow.

Trans-

A n t a r c t i c Expedition 1955-1958, Sci. Rept. Hoe

5 ,

1960,

1-51,

Three a s p e c t s of t h e

glaciological

s t u d i e s of

the

Trans-Antarct i c Expedition a t Shackleton and Southice

a r e t r e a t e d : s o l i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n , d r i f t snow, and

snow accumulation.

The d a t a a r e t a b u l a t e d and graphed,

and t h e r e s u l t s of o t h e r expeditions a r e included i n

t h e discussion

of

accumulation.

The instruments em-

ployed

for

measuring snow p r e c i p i t a t i o n proved unsat-

f

s f a c t o r y , s o p r e c f p i t a t i o n was measured

b y

observing

both

d r i f t s ng

snow and d r i f t i n g snow p l u s s o l i d p r e c i -

p i t a t i o n .

A

logarfthmic r e l a t i o n s h i p

i s

given *ich

b e s t expresses the v a r i a t i o n of d r i f t d e n s i t y

with

wind speed.

The s t a t e of the surface proved t o be

about

P/S

a s important a s wind speed.

The mean par-

t f c l e approaches a rounded form (dominant s i z e apps?ox.

0.07

mm.

dim.)

and t h e s i z e decreases slowly

w i t h

h e i g h t i n t h e range 0.2-6.0

m.

P l a t e and columnar

snowflake fragments a r e common, and composite g r a i n s

produced by surface f i r n i f i c a t i o n a r e f r e q u e n t i n

d r i f t .

Deflation

i s <1

gm./sg.

cm./yr.

over Antarothe8

and the n e t annual accumulation of snow

is

-

1 3

,p./sq.

am.,

ranging from )30 gm./sq.cm.

n e a r t h e c o a s t t o

Southice, accumulation was -10 gm./sg.cm.

around 1900,

reached a peak of 17 about 1929, and decreased t o 10

gm,/sq.cm.

i n the l950V s.

Lord, Roddee Edward.

Forecasting V i s i b t l i t y i n Blowing Snow.

# a s t e r v s

Thesis.

S e a t t l e , Washington Univ., 1960,

Results from

t h i s

study i n d i c a t e t h a t the problem of

forecasting s p e c i f i c values of v i s i b f l i t y during blow-

ing

snow stomns is s t i l l unsolved.

Although formulas

were determined which wduld give mean values f o r s i s i

-

b i l i t i e

s

a t various wind speeds, f l u c t u a t i o n s i n v i s i -

b i l i t i e s a r e so g r e a t a s t o make the formulas u s e f u l

only a s a guide.

F a r e c a s t i q v i s i b i l i t y values during

blowing snow

i s

a highly complex problem, and the

observed f l u c t u a t i o n s a r e probably dependent upon many

parameters, of which wind speed i s only one.

P e l l o r ,

M.

,

and

U.

Radok.

Some Properties of Drifting Snow.

Ant-

a r c t i c Heteorology; Proc, Symposium held i n Melbourne, Feb. 1959,

New

York,

Pergamon, 1960, 333-346.

Five s e t s of snow-drift measurements with new snow-traps

were used f o r estimates, of drift-snow density a s a funo-

t i o n of height.

The

expected

d r i f l

d e n s i t i e s a t

4

and

200 cm. were computed

from

those sb served a t 100 and 400

a.

and compared w i t h observations, The t h e o r e t i c a l

estimates and a c t u a l observations a t the 200

cm:

l e v e l

were i n reasonable agreement.

A t

4

cm., however, t h e

obhertted values were s u b s t a n t i a l l y l a r g e r , indicating a

d i f f e r e n t snow

drift

mecheurism near the ground, s i m i l a r

t o t h e " s a l t a t i o n n described f o r sand.

The s a l t a t i o n

d r i f t

t r a n s p o r t i s estimated a t 10% of t h e t o t a l .

Odar, Furrt,

Scale Factors

f o r

Simulation of Drifting Snow.

Proc.

:

Am.

Soc. Ci,vilEngrs.

Jour. Eng. MechanicsDiv., April1962,

Val.

88,

No.

EM2:l-16,

Theoretical scale f a c t o r s f o r simulating d r i f t i n g snow

i n

a

wind tunnel were derived by us-

the equation of

v e r t i c a l transport and the threshold c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

The s c a l e f a c t o r s derived from the squation of motion

o f

t h e p a r t i c l e s

can

be substitueed f o r the scale fac-

t o r obtained from the v e r t i c a l - t r a n s p o r t equation

which involves t h e mass t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s t h a t can-

not be solved readily,

These scale f a c t o r s were derived

f o r small spherical p a r t i c l e s which determined r e l a t i o n -

ships between t h e s i z e and t h e density of t h e p a r t i c l e s

of simulating material.

The

v e r t i c a l - t r a n s p m t equation

also provided another scale f a c t o r t h a t determined t h e

amount of accumu$ation o r change i n e l e v a t i o n of

the

snow surface i n the model.

The simulation

of

change i n

e l e v a t i o n of

a

snow

surface

during a long period of

time

i s

examined b r i e f l y .

Since t h e simulating mat-

e r i a l i n t h e model does not compact o r s e t t l e a s does

n a t u r a l snow, t h i s s c a l e f a c t o r was modified accord-

I 1-

l y

*

Rusin I?. P, Horizontal Transport of Snow i n Antarctica.

Trudy

~ f a v n o i

Geof

f

zicheakoi Observatorii, Vyp. 96, 1959, 31-37.

Observations

a t

Nirny i n 1956-57 on

400

c a s e s of snow

d r i f t f n g during k a t a b a t i c winds (SE, and SSE.) a r e

ana1;gzed.

Data a r e tabulal3ed and graphed on

the

mean

wind speed a t v a r i o u s h e i g h t s (0.5-10

m.)

and the

magnitude of t h e turbulence c o e f f i c f e n t a t

w h i c h

h o r i -

z o n t a l d r i f t i n g begins

;

mean s u r f a c e roughness

a t

v a r i o u s wind speeds; t h e r e l a t

109

between t h e i n t e n s i t y

of d r i f t i a k ; and saind speed; wind speed, ttwbulence, and

surface roughness f o r varioys d r i f t i n t e n s i t i e s ;

the

amount of snow t r a n s p o r t e d h o r i z o n t a l l y a t s a ~ l o u s

h e i g h t s

(0-300

cm.

) ;

v a r i a t i o n s

w i t h

h e i g h t of

the

amount of mow t r a n s p o r t e d during medium-atroag d r i f t -

.I=;

and t h e amount of snow t r a n s p o r t e d d u r i w d r i f t i n g

of various i n t e n s i t i e s a t various h e i g h t s ,

Snow d r i f t -

ing out t o s e a averages

BOO

running m e

a t

a

h e i g h t of 0-4

m.,

and 140

kg.

.

running

m.

a t

0-1.5

m.,

w h i c h

i s

e q u i v a l e n t t o a l o s s i n water of

3-5

m i l -

l f o n tons

a

year f o r each

km.

of shoreline.

( I n Russiar#J

Shiotani, Masao,

On the Snow Storhe Researches on Snow and Ice,

Nov. 1953, No. 1:29-33,

D r i f t i n 4 snow i s shown t o

b e

an Austausch phenomenon

due t o add$ d t f f u s i o n .

A

modified eddy v i s c o s i t y co-

e f f i c 9ent

i s

i n t ~ o d u c e d , taking i n t o consideration

t h e motion of t h e snowflake. i t s e l f .

( I n ~ a p a n e s p )

\

Shiotani, Masao,

T h e

V e r t i c a l Density D i s t r i b u t i o n of Blowing Snow,

I ,

Seppy5,

Mag

1953, Vol.

15,

No. 1:6-9,

The

v e r t i c a l d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of d r i f t i n g snow

is

analyzed mathematically taking i n t o account snow d i f

;

f u s i o n a s a f u n c t i o n of t h e s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of

snow,

afr

d e n s i t y , t h e t u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t

of wind, and t h e f a l l i n g speed of snowflakes. Theore-

t i c a l r e s u l t s a r e compared

w i t h

those obtained experi-

mentally, and d a t a on t h e

dim,,

mass,

and f a l l i n g

speed of snowflakes, and snow-cry

s t a l

t y p e s a r e tabu-

l a t e d and graphed,

Strom, C.H.

and others.

Scale Model Studies on Snow D r i f t i n g , Res,

Rept.

73

a.

S.

Army Cold Regions Research

&

Engineering Lab.,

Sept, 19b2.

Scale model t e s t s were conducted

t o

study experimental

and t h e o r e t i c a l aspects of snow d r i f t i n g phenomena.

Hodeling c r i t e r i a f o r d r i f t i n g snow were developed and

a number of m a t e r i a l s were t e s t e d f o r use

as

geometri-

c a l l y and physically scaled synthetic snow.

Crystal-

l i n e borax

0.01.

cm.

i n

d i m *

was found s a t f s f a c t o r y

fop a 1/10 model scale. The f e a s i b i l i t y of using

scaled m a t e r i a l s t o simulate d r i f t i n g snow was demon-

s t r a t e d by the s f m i l a r i t y of

d r i f t

p a t t e r n s obtained

2n

the wind tunnel t e s t s and those observed around

f u l l * s c a l e s t ~ u c t w e s

on the Greenbnd I c e Cap,

Fur-

t h e r , several years of Arctic snow

d r i f t

can be

stmu-

l a t e d i n the wind tunnel i n a matter of hours,

Quali-

t a t i v e analyses are offered of

d r i f t

a c c m u l a t i o n

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s around various s c a l e model s t r u c t u r e s ,

The following experimental k e s u l t

s

were obtained.

(1)

Close s p a c i q

of buildings w i l l

r e s u l t i n caalescence

of d r i f t s ,

( 2 ) If

rectangular buildings mst be

grouped together, they should be erected with t h e i r

long a x i s p a r a l l e l t o the dominant wind direction.

(3)

Erosion of the snow surface may occwr beneath

buildings erected on columns,

(4)

V-shaped snow

fences produce a c l e a r area downwind f o r a distance

of approximately

25

times the height of the fence,

Tanifu

ji,

Shozo and Tetsuo Ogawa.

Experimental Researches on Snow

D r i f t

Control

( I ) ,

Jour. Res. Public Works Res,

Inst, ( ~ a p a n ) ,

J u l y 1954,

V O ~ .

1:129-242.

The s i m i l a r i t y

o f

a i r flow i n t h e f i e l d and i n a wind

I

tunnel 1s established theoretf c a l l y a s a b a s i s f o r

f u t u r e s t u d i e s

of the aerodynamics of snow fences.

This s t r a i l a r i t y depends on the equivalence of two

values

i n

t h e flows: t h e eddy Reynolds number and t h e

i n t e n s i t y of turbulence, These values a r e shown t o

be equal

i n

the

two

s i t u a t i o n s by inductive s t a t i s t i c s

using t h e Navier-Stokes equation and t h e equation of

cent f nuf ty f o r laminar-flow and turbulent-flow f i e l d s ,

The r e s u l t s are summarized graph1 cally.

Walsh,

K v J , Occurrence

of Blowfng Snow on the Greenland I c e Cap

During

1953-1954,

Snow I c e and Permafrost Res.

E s t , ,

Special

Rept. 13, 1954.

The r e s u l t s of an i n v e s t i g a t i o n on t h e frequency of

blowing snow a t two s i t e s and i t s r e l a t i o n t o wfnd

speed,

a i r

temperature, and snowfall a r e tabulated

and

graphed,

A t

S i t e

I.,

blqPJing snow occurred f r m

12-15 days (83-153 hr,) out of each month from

Bug,-

Nov. 1953, i n c r e a s i n t o

20

days (172 hr.

)

i n Dec.

and 26 days

(295

b.

f

i n Jan, 1954.

The phenomenon

was noted a t S i t e

2

on

11

days i n July,

4

days i n

Aug

.

,

12 days i n Sept

.

,

and 24 days i n Oct

.

1953,

o r

53-68

h.~.

Ln

July-Sept. bnd

210

hr. i n Oct.

Blowing

snow

was generally accom n i e d by winds of

ff"

15;

m.p.h.

o r m r e . I n a t l e a s t

5%

of

the cases,

blowfng snow occwred with winds g r e a t e r than

20

m.p.h.,

and

on

50% of

t h e cases with winds

15-20 nf.p.h.,

and only

15%

of

t h e time

w i t h

winds less

than

15

m.p.h.

Blowing snow was independent of a i r

temperature and the presence

of f a l l i n g o r newly

f a l l e n mow.

More

blowing

and

d r i f t i n g occurred

a f t e r t h e major) accumulation period than during the

months of g r e a t e s t snowfall.

Zelenox,

I

.K.

Q u a l i t a t i v e Characderistics of Snowstorms. Neteoro-

l o g i n

i

( i i d r o l o g i ~ , 1940, Vol. 6, No. 1-2:124-125.

Snowdrifts were studied a t t h e Yuspor s t a t i o n (900

m.

e l e v a t i o n i n the Khibiny M ~ S $

during 1936-1938.

The

i n t e n s i t y

of

snowstorms

w a s

determined i n terms

of wind velocity

and

amount of snowdrifts.

Snow-

d r i f t measurements i n r e l a t i o n t o snow covep depthe

and wind v e l o c i t y are presented i n

3

graphs.

Max.

snowdrifting of

25.8

grn./sq.cm./mtn.

occurred a t a

wind v e l o c i t y of

25

m./sec.

l . ( a )

SNOW I N

T E ~ E

A I R

-

MEASUREMENT

-

Bastazuov,

S. L.

Laboratory Study of Snowdrifting a t t h e Geophysical

Observatory a t KucPlino.

~ r u d y

Nauchno-I s s l e d o v a t e l

f

skogo Uprav-

l e n i a Narodnogo Kamissariata ~ u t e f

~ o o b s h c h e n i n , 1930, Vol.

109: 75-76.

Research conducted from 1918

i s

b r i e f l y reviewed.

A r t ificrial

snowstorms were produoed i n the labopa-

t o r y t o study t h e aerodynamic p r o p e r t i e s of various

snow fences used by r a i l r o a d s f o r snowdrift preven-

tion.

An

instrument suggested by Kuznetsov f o r

measuring snowdrifting i n t e n s i t y can be used t o

improve t h e c o n s t m o t i o n design o f Sabinin.

An

instrument was developed by

P.A.

Gusev t o determine

snow-cover mobility.

( I n Russian)

Cherepanov,

Measurement of Amount of Snow D r i f t e d

by

Snowstorms.

Vestnik

dino of

~ i d r o m e t e o r o l o ~ i c h e s k o ~

Sluzhby, 1933, Vol.

3,

No, ?:Is-16.

A n

instmment f o r measuring t h e mount of d r i f t i n g

o r blowling snow a t various h e i g h t s

i s

described.

The streamlined body of t h e instrument

i s

30 em,

long and made of s h e e t iron. D r i f t i n g snow e n t e r s

t h e instrument through a 25-cm. opening.

B a f f l e

I

p l a t e s r e t a i n t h e snow

in

t h e instrument a s t h e a i r

passes through, The instrument

i s

painted white

and placed on

a

mast a t t h e d e s i r e d level.

( I n Russian.)

Qovorukha, L.S. and

E.F.

Kirpichev. F i r s t Results o f b i f t i n g Snow

Observations with t h e D r i f t i n g Snow Meter

yol lone".

Inform.

B f i l l .

Sov. Antarkticheskor Ekspsd. 1961, No. 26:22-25.

The a d a p t a t i o n

i s

r e p o r t e d of a c e n t r i f u g a l dust-

catching mechanism such a s

i s

employed i n many fac-

t o r i e s , t o t h e measurement of d r i f t i n g snow, and a

d e t a i l e d descrf

pt

ion i s included.

F i e l d experiments

a t Mirnyy have shown t h e instrument t o be almost

100%

e f f e c t i v e inasmuch a s t h e p r o p e r t i e s of snow

such as g r a n u l a r composition, s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y ,

p a r t i c l e form, adhesive and a b r a s i v e q u a l i t i e s a r e

so s i m i l a r t o those of dust and ash.

Observations

have been c a r r i e d out

w i t h

equipment i n s t a l l e d a t

l e v e l s of

3, 6,

12, 25,

50,

100, and 240

cm.,

and

r e s u l t s show t h a t t h e d e n s i t y of d r i f t i n g snow i n

t h e

a i r

decreases l o g a r i t h m i c a l l y

with

i n c r e a s i n g

height.

The

sole drawback t o t h e widespread use o f

the

mechanism f o r t h e measurement of d r i f t i n g snow

i s t h e l a r g e amount of l a b o r required f o r operation.

I n s t a l l a t i o n o f a s i n g l e r e g u l a t i n g device which

may be operated by remote control.

(In

Russian)

~ z f b ~ o v ,

N.N.

Instruments f o r Measuring t h e Amount of D r i f t e d Snow.

Trudy Nauchno-Issledovatelr skogo ~ p r a v l e n i f h

Barodnogo Komis-

s a r i a t a putel ~ o o b s h c h e n i f i , 1930, Vol. 109286-91.

Snowdrifts pmduced by winds were measured from 1927-

1929 a t t h e Vodenyapino Experimental S t a t i o n of

the

Hazan Railroad, The data i n d i c a t e t h a t 86090% of the

snow was d r i f t e d i n t h e 10-an. a i r layer next t o

the

snow surface.

About 5.6% was d r i f t e d i n the l a y e r

from 10-20 cm. high.

The remaining 4.9% was d r i f t e d

i n t h e Payer from 20-200 cm, high.

Data

obtained by

t h e Kuenetsov meter i n d i c a t e d

t h a t

t h e snow t r a n s f e r

i n the

2-m.

l a y e r above t h e snow surface reached 2.67

gm./sq. cm.mfn. i n l i g h t snowstorms and increased t o

18.97

gm./sq,

cm.min.

i n heavy snowstorms.

The

Kuznet-

sov meter c o l l e c t e d an average of about 45-505 of

d r i f t e d mow.

These experiments aided i n t h e construc-

t ion of new i n s t ~ m e n t

s.

( I n Russltan)

I

~ e d r o l i v a n s k i f

,

V e N o

and

M.S.

S t e r n z a t

.

Blowing-Snow Meters.

Meteor-

ologiche s k i e pribory, Gidrometeorologiche skoe I z d a t e l t s t v o

,

Lenin-

grad, 1953, 165-167.

Instruments used i n t h e

US&

f o r measuring d r i f t i n g

snow i n t h e air l a y e r s near the ground a r e described

i n d e t a i l . The Kuznetsov meter constructed near t h e

beginning of t h e 20th century was modified and

i s

now known

as

t h e VO-type meter.

T h i s

modified i n s t r u -

ment c o n s i s t s of a cylinder with

an

egg-shaped t o p

and an open pipe measuring

2 x

12.5 cm. i n f r o n t and

3.5

x 18 cm, i n back.

The meter

i s

equipped with a

wind vane and t u r n s about

a

v e r t i c a l a x i s . Three dta-

phragms a r e placed i n s i d e which t r a p t h e blowing snow.

The streamlined r e c e i v e r and l a r g e r r e a r opening

r e s u l t i n

a

smooth

aPr

flow by the apparatus.

( I n Russian)

Kooznetsov,

V. On

Measurements of t h e Amount o f Snow Carried H o ~ i z o n -

t a l l y by t h e Wind.

1900.

Transl. by 1.1. S c h e l l , Blue

H i l l

Observatory, 1946,

An instrument

i s

described and i l l u s t r a t e d f o r measur-

fng

t h e h o r i z o n t a l mow tpansport during

a

given

t W

i n t e r v a l through a f i x e d cross-section i n a v e r t i c a l

plane.

A

c y l i n d r i c a l box with an a t t a c h e d wind vane

i s

mounted so t h a t t h e box can t u r n about t h e v e r t i c a l

axis.

The

air

e n t e r s a n openfng i n t h e s i d e

of the

c y l i n d e r and passes out through t h e top;

the

snow

drops

t o

t h e bottom of the box.

Preliminary measure-

ments during t h e w i n t e r of 1896-97 i n d i c a t e d tihat t h e

I . 4

t v m s g o r t fncreasees a t a r a t e approximat

e3;g

propor-

t i o n a l to the square of the wind speed; a t a wihd

speed

of

10 m./sec.,

the traneport

w i l l

be

30

bims

a s

great

a s

the

mc~unt of snow f a l l i n g on a h o r i m n t a l

~ U P f c l 0 8 ~

Madigan,

C O T ,

Snowfall

and

Snowdrift, A u s t r a l a ~ f a n

Antarceic Expe-

d i t i o n , 1911-a, Sci. Rep*&., June 1929, Ser.

B,

Vole 4~49-51.

An

iraprsvised snow gage from stove pfping i s - d e s c r i b e d .

The

t o t a l annual snowfall beginning March

14,

1912 was

51.82

i n . water equivalent and 60.98 i n , ~ 1 t e r

equiva-

l e n t beginning;

Dee,

15,

1912. D r i f t i n g snow was syste-

'

maticaXly measured

with

a s p e c i a l l y designed

d r i f t

gage. A

wooden box, 3

x 2.5

x

3

f t ,

equipggd

w i t h

a

t f n

cone

a t

one

end

and

a smaller wooden

box

wlth

b d f

l e s

a t ,

the

s t h e r , was fixed

f

i m l y

on t h e i c e

with

the

zkceivbng cone Pacing south, l%e snow

was

removed

pbriod'fcally

f o r weighing

Z

lb, of snow representing

5,213

ft.,

water egtlivalent.

The

t o t a l

&ift for

1

yc.

b e g i ~ i n g

March

4,

1912 amounted t o

6246

f t .

water

e&2%egPsn*

r

I

Two

ty$as

of

snow-traps designed t o

measure

d ~ i f ' t l l r g

snow density a t various h e i g h t s above t h e ground tare

described.

These t r a p s have !rocket

and

a i r f o i l shapes,

maspeoltively,

and

remove t h e snow f ~ o m

an airstream

by

expandiag

the stream's cross-section and t h u s

educing

f t a velocity approx.

9%.

The t r a p s o r i e n t

themselves i n t o %he d w e c t i ~ ?

o f

the

wind

and contain,

no impediments

t o

t h e assage of the a i r ,

TILEI

t r a p s

oan

be

set st

heights

(-400

om.

above

the

snow

surfaae.

The rocket-type t r a p was found t o c o l l e a t

w i t h

complete

I .

effiaiency, whereas the a b f o i l type allowed some

&$ft&ng snow t o pass through,

,

Boloohnikav,

AeV,

Measuremnt a of Blowing Snow a% Yukspar.

k%&eoP

o l o g i f i

i

~ i d r o l o g i - f h , June 3.939, Vol.

5,

No.

6:137-138.

Special measurements

of

blowfng snow

were

i n i t i a t e d

at

r

the Yukspor avalanche

st

a t ion i n 1936.

Observat i o n a l

d a t a f o r 1937-38 a r e tabulated,

Spe

c i a 1 instrument a

constmeted

la

t

the

Vodenyapino Experimen%aL Statf

on

were used

f o r the

measurement

s,

O b s e ~ v a t l

ons i n d i aated

t h a t t h e h o ~ i z o n t a l

t r a n s f e r of snow begins a t wind

speeds of

3

rn./seo.

The

maximum

amount of blowing snow

a t wind speeds

ot

3

m./seo..

w a s

0.1 gr./sqecm.xuin.;

a t

10

./set.

the t r a n s f e r r e a hed

a a

imm

f

about

7.3

gr.7aq.cm.min.

end

a t 18 m.gseo.,

&.%

gr.,?w.~.mino

Orlov,

N.I.

Mew Method of Measuring Blowing Snow.

~ l t a d m i f i

Bat&

SSSR

I n s t i t u t Geograf

ii,

Roll snezhnogo p o b o v a

v

prirodnykh

p r o d e s s a k h , Woscow, 1961, 258-2664.

The Soviet snow gage c u r r e n t l y used f o r m a s u r f n g

d r i f t

iq

snow, t h e VO-2,

i s

deemed bath cumbersome

and i n a c c u r a t e and a new t y p e of recordeli

i s

proposed,

The new instrument c o n s i s t s of a photocell, a l i g h t

source

w i t h

a system insuring p a r a l l e l p o s i t i o n of

t h e rays, a device f o r l i m i t i n g t h e a r e a c r o s s s e c t i o n

of

the

snow-wind flow, an anemometer, a galvanometer,

and

a

b a t t e r y

w i t h a

r h e o s t a t .

Snow p a r t i c l e s c a r r i e d

by t h e wind i n s i d e the l i m i t e r of the area c r o s s sec-

t i o n of

the

inst'rument c a s t

a

shadow upon the a c t i v e

surface of t h e p h o t o c e l l illuminated by t h e p a r a l l e l

r a y s of a steady l i g h t source. The photo-current

value v a r i e s a s t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e shading,

The

light

source

i s

chosen such t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e s of

t r a n s p o r t e d snow

fill

become p r a c t i c a l l y opaque.

Two

s e r i e s of experiments were conducted.

I n t h e f i r s t

s e r i e s , blown snow was s i f t e d through a s i e v e 5-10

times, a homogeneous, loose, g r a n u l a r mass was obtaiaed

and then blown through the e l e c t r o n i c instrument a t

varying r a t e s .

The data obtained on t h e concentration

of snow p a r t i c l e s vs. t h e v a r i a t i o n of

t h e

photocurrent

and time a r e graphed and tabulated.

The second s e r i e s

of e x p e ~ i m e n t s

was conducted i n t h e open i n a c t u a l

blowing snow.

T h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s agree with

recorded r e s u l t s and it

i s

concluded t h a t t h e described

method i n c r e a s e s t h e accuracy of recording t h e

amount

of blowing snow.

( I n Russian9

t

Shliakhov,

V. I,

Methods of Making Drifting-Snow Measureme

n t a

i n t h e

Antarceic,

Inform. B i u l l . Sov. Antarkticheskoi Eksped,

,

1960,

No, 20:26-28.

Standard Soviet

d r i f t

ing-snow gages proved inadequate

under Ant a r c t i c conditions

,

where snow d r i f t s almost

con ti nu all^

a c r o s s t h e c o a s t a l s t r i g t o t h e ocean. s o

a new gage-was designed by t h e author and b u i l t b i t h e

workshop of t h e

4th

Continental Expedition,

It

c o n s i s t s

i n t h e

f

0x1

owing: a sheet -alumin& cylinder

5 0

cm. i n

diam, and 350 cx. l o w ,

w i t h

a r e c e i v i n g s l o t

0.5

cm.

w i d e along

t h e e n t i r e length of the cylinder, a shaft

through t h e cylinder t o

a

c r o s s piece fastened t o a

she& roof (roof a t snow l e v e l ) . Bearings allow the

gage t o r o t a t e and a vane keeps i t f a c i n g

the

wind.

Snow

i s

c o l l e c t e d i n

a s i l k

bag

a t

t h e base and

i s

weighed

4

times d a i l y .

A

g r a d i e n t snow gage

i s

used

i n conjunction with

t h i s

low-level gage; it c o n s i s t s

of

a cylinder

10

cm. i n diam. and If; crn, long, enclosed

i n a 1-me-long s i l k casing,

and

a rod passes from t h e

cyllnder i n t o

a

block of wood a t t a c h e d t o

the

i n s t r u -

ment

m a s t

t o keep t h e c o l l e c t i n g

bag

f a c i n g t h e wfnd.

The height of the blowing-snow layep i s determined

by

the c e i l i n g

l i g h t

technique, and t h e amount o f unrecorded

d r i f t i n g snow i s estimated from the gradient measurements,

The

upper

lfmtt

of

d r i f t i n g snow turbulence varies

greatly

with

wfnd speed and wfnd structure:

it

i s

1-5

me

w i t h a

wind speed of 6-10 m./sec.,

12-16

la. w i t h

winds

of 15-18 m./sec.,

and

25-28

me

with wind speeds of

19-22

m,/sec.

I n

gusts and very strong winds i t .

can

vary

from

1-90

m,

a d

more,

I n 28 days of June 1959,

380,199

kg.

of enow d r i f t e d across a

1-m,

s t r f p

of

coast t o the

Quean

a t

an average wind speed of 11.8 m,/sec,

-

16

-

2,

DEPOSITION

OF BLOWING

SNOW

-

Bates, G.H,

Obsepvations on Snowdrift Formation and Methods of

Control.

Surveyor, May

7,

May

14,

1948,

Vol,

107:23l-232,

247-

248.

Observations on d r i f t i n g snow during b l f zzards a r e

presented.

A

survey of t h e l o c a t i o n of

the

d r i f t s

was made and t h e reasons f o r t h e i r occurrence a r e

discussed, D r i f t i n g sand and snow a r e compmed.

The snow forming

d r i f t s

t r a v e l s only a few i n , from

t h e surface of t h e ground.

Dryness f s e s s e n t i a l t o

d r i f t

fng

snow which i s i n t h e form of granules.

The

d r i f t

f

omning on t h e lee-side of

a

hedge i s due t o

snow whfch

has

f i l t e r e d through, The formation of

d r i f t s on the windward s i d e of impenetrable w a l l s

i s

discussed, The fnf

h e n c e of ground surface and wind

ve1ocit-y a r e analyzed.

D r i f t s

f o m d by right-angle

fences

and

downwind from a p e r t u r e s between o b s t a c l e s

were studied.

Discarded t a r b a r r e l s o r 6

f t ,

l e n g t h s

of

chestnut paling wired together t o form c y l i n d e r s ,

placed a t 6-ft. i n t e r v a l s a r e recommended a s snow

fences.

Chernigov, V.A.

Nature of Snow D r i f t i n g

a t

Mirnyy.

~ o o e t s k a r a

Ant-

a r k t i c h e s k a f i ~ k s p e d i a i p a , No.

13,

v t o r a f h ~ o n t i n e n t a l t

n a f i

~ k s p d i a i f h

1956-1958

gg.,

g l Z 8 ~ i o l o g i c h e s k i e is s l e d o v a n i n ,

by ~ r k t i

cheskir

i

lintarktiche s k i f Nauchno-Issledovatelf s k i %

I n s t i t u t , Leningrad, 1960, 180-181,

I n

1958,

t h e Mfrnyg base consisted of

22

buildings,

1 2 of which were b u i l t on rock and were no% s u b j e c t

t o snow d r i f t s . The p o s i t i o n of t h e remaining, 10 i s

shown,

a n d

t h e n a t u r e and causes of d r i f t s t h a t fomned

about and over them a r e examined.

The d r i f t s v a r i e d

consf derably

f n

depth

and

configuration, but were

r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e a f t e r April, t h e f f r s t month of

the

A n t a r c t i c winter,

( I n Russian)

~ h i r v f n s k i f l , P.N.

The

Formation ard Metamorphism of a Snow Cover

under

the

Influence

of

Wind,

~ n i v e r

s i t e t s k i f h 1 z v Q s t i f i (Kiev)

Sept, 1909.

Vol.

49,

No. 9:l-72 (1.e. 117-189).

The influence of wind v e l o c i t y and t h e aerodynamic

p r o p e r t i e s

sf

o b s t r u c t i o n s and depressions on the

uneven accumulation

of

snow

is

analyzed,

Various

wavelike formations on t h e snow surface ( s a s t r u g i ,

snow-barchans, r i p p l i n g , e t c ,

)

a r e described, c h i e f l y

on t h e

basis of

Cornisho

s

observations i n Canada

during 1900-1901.

The r o l e

s

of wfnd and ,temperature

i n mow meQamorphism and t h e a b r a s i v e a c t i o n of wind

a r e discussed, The meteor010 y of snowsto~ms and blow-

ing snow i n h w p e a n ~ u s s i q + i g

described.