~IAJUiE , .P,.A : . B .EO·: .

AN ANALYSISOFl'iOCllN'tCO-ORDINATOR,PRINCIPALANDTEACHER PERCEPTIONSOFAN INSTRUCTIONALSUPERVISORYPROCESS

REFLECTINGTHECHARACTERISTICSOF _CLINICALSUPERVISION

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^A.R.BRUCE

~IAJUiE , .P,.A : . B .EO·: .

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A thnh''''I.bll.Ltt edin put1:a1fulf1l1"nt of thereq~Lrealln~,11for th"'~Hte&reeof

• . H..t~'.Educat ~on .

.DeputDent of Educational AdlILnhtratLon Hell.o rLal Unlver. lt:yof Newfoundland

April,1988

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New~oundland

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Permission has been granted to the National L1..brary of Canada to -. i c.r o f n .lD. this thesis and t.o.lerid or sell copieepf'tqe film •.

'Th eauthor (copyri"ght oWner)....

has'publ-!cat.ion."r'e s e r"v e drights

0r:-er

, and -nei ther .the thes i" nee exeenatve extracts'.fr m it m.ay be pri'nted'or,o t h e r wi&e.·

..reproduce4.~ithout hiB/her wr~~ten.perminion.

L'autorieation a Ittlt accorUS'·

A' la B:ibUoth~que n'ationale du Canada de llicrofJ.lller cette th~8ee! de prater,00 de ven,dre de' exelrlplairee eu

film.. - .

~ 'a~teur '(tftul~ire

^{du droit}

d'eute\U:)~ee r&serve -1 8 a aut resdroi~'de'p.ub l i c i!lH o n ,,

~;trllla;t~h~~: ~~l1d:icion~:

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d o i vent atre illpri.m6e .o u 'autrelllent reproduite sans lion

autorisation Ilcrite.

ISBN 0-315-45099 ":'1

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^,ABSTRACT

Mode rn day dell.lnd . fol'educa t i onal.accou n:ab1..lttyhaveph~.d .

l~re"s1ng e.phu~,

?n chaonled'torln at n.o.ct l onal

hpr~~III~nt ~nd

ⁱⁿ

., ....lo·cloi ns.ha ve poe i u d .;.newed.re:~nslflllity'o n tho ••indiv i d ua l .-

chargedvi ~~[fectrngau.c hllllp~ove_nc: ."na1hly.instructional• ..'~P'l!IYlIIor;. Yet the re 1li~pleeVlde~ce

in

theIlt.r"'cur~t'o'\Igg.~t

tha~^{.n"egat h:e}p.rc~ptlonsabound'rela tive to.iu·rrent aupe rvho ry. .ff~rt•. .Thepurpoaeof thb ItudyVII8to __ . ,uret~.,p.re'P t l~ni .'

h~ b y .p~,ogr~.~o.ord~~'

^'.principa ls ; a'nd

tucher~.

ⁱⁿ

th~

^.

Province ofNewfou ndl andand Labrador towardCh ar _t ee r h t i._ of a' ,comprehensive

In.t~uctio~l: ".upe.~hOry proc.~. k~o\i!l' " clin;~'al

\ - ,- • I . .. ' '. : . ", . .

supe rvfsLon,8qd·todet~.~lne W~.Fdlf fe re nc:: IlS,i fany,Iil gnt exist.

. . ' .

^{, ' \ '}

- . . .

among pen:eptions'he ;dby:theBBgroup s. •

.Aquestlonn'alr~ ,^dev;l~ped^{by the}·im:e~tl&.to-r^frolll..eOlD.prehen - alvesear ehof the

llt.r~tul"e ,

va.

~d~atributed

^,to100.prog ralllee-

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lay,

'~rdinato n ,100principjlla.~·loq·te.ehen~h;'en.thmugh_a---ai~pl.~__.:~ ,random s&I:Iplin&proc:e Sl..Ite'~~ond~ntswe re a.ked tot~die.~ethe

exten~of theira~e_nt.wi t h'eaeh.~ateinnton • silt-pointlIeallll rangi ng fro.. stronglya&rlll/l to.•tr ongly dl. .&ne...

Thedata we reanal,-ze d'ualng,theSteti~ t lealPa ckag e'for t~e Soc ialScien c llS. .Ft'eq"':ney dll trlbutlonswe re obtiiine dandaee n ..'ieore s,_we re compuu d.for

'ee~h

^{g;OUp one. .h}

ite,.~

^{Onll:wey-a nal;s; io !}

va ri a nce

"'.11

used_toIIIl1a lluredifferencesin mllan send the

.

Scheffe

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preeeecreutilized to estab U sh ilionpreehe l y where au eh dlffennce ll

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The'. .jorfi~d in&of the'at udy v•• that ontha.v erega aUthree

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gr oupa:'of

rea~ndenu- .progr

^{. .}

co -ord~tora, pri~ciP.la

^{andte achera}

--agre e dw~:hcli nicalaupe iv hion,with an overall.ean r. t.ins·of

".g~ee laOde ~ a hly ·. Ofthe 33quut ionnainit ••adeal i ngwi th

. .

var ioua ..ape e r·of·eHn le .lsupervision,eo,ordinatoreagr eed wIt h32, ..princlP~l~wI th30a~teaehen with31.

.A~\t~w~rthy. an~.alY.:.howe.ver·,appe~~e~'lnth.~t.-,In.that,

~ •contrat"y~eothe preceptsofelinle.r.~~p~~i~lon"tea~hll rs,prl tlClpab .n~~t~•\:e ..er extenteo-o rdinato ra.•g.re e~thatau.pe rvl ai o~in cl ud es

,te.lhet ey.tu.J:1~n , Rupon~ent'!'

^{agre edwith} the.coneep t'sef!1!'l n gl y.•

ant~th~ti~d'

^to,

~l1nieat eUP&l~idOn

^{thattheprlllar y;}obj ective-of:;"•

•upeEvil'ory progr o .ho ul d

b e

'to'evaiusteateacher' . competeneiea••

., .' :. 6.' " . " '" .:

'. ,the~re~at~to.h1s~e'i:.Inetruc tionalprog~~ , Hore,o~~r,prlncl p's h '

. ' ·.nd

teaeh ere''d id not.~&re~'wi~h". Itatemen~tha t eupervlaion11 lIlOt8 lik. lyto,b;,effec t lv.

vhe~ per~o'~d

by

Idu~.tional p~fsonnft{

,who.

~re

' notdi r.ctly'rnponiiblefor tea che r evaluatIon,

, R..e~_ndat,i~nsfor~ctlon,cim t ered.ar ound theadopt i o'nof

cl1nic~'l

^{auperv i don}

b y aCh~~i. ,d1atr1ct~, a~d ~h.

^need'for

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ini.~rvlC: :r~ining

^{o'reU

po~~nt.~al pa~ticip.n~a ~rl"cr

^to

'inlt1~t'10~

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,of t~e,cliniCa lau p.rviaoryprocess. Furt h.rr.. . .rchValsuggellte d \ tnee·th e

~.i.etio~e~ b.tw.~n. e.uperYi.'i~n

^{'a ndtea cher,}

evi.lua tio~,

^{the ,.}

,~

.

~cc"p.t..bil1t.r_~{cl1ni cal'eup.rv1aioncOIII~'~ldtooth er types

ot

.eupe_~i.iiO~~::thlsch oo l,aamlnhtrator 1a role wit~~11thecl1~~~ai

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" :proc.~11andthe.ff~ctof clinical,.liup~~l'ion?n,s t ude n t perfQrmanc .,

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n..vd,tervhh..to Opt.• •• btl,t nc. ttsr.tlt\Ul.~toDr.Hu'o-rt l1.tCben.'U.~rl'0rof the~th.'b.who, dut1n&.an Ixtrilidy

bu.,.

.~ehe duh ,'prcrtl ded the lapetwl to br i ns ebh Itudy to fruition.

Appr~cl.~io~

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^Ilzpr es . edto ne.Shenan Strycefor p1ldanceIn

".prep~r1ngthe thuh proposaland.In the 1~ltlal:.deVe10~I.n,and. -r-,

tesd ng of the InltruJlent j·to Dr:Iloy Kdhhevforhi.eon,structl ve"

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e'rltlch~ at

^th"pr oposa'll,ta ge;

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^{ThOlll:-,..Pop',.nd}.~

Dr~:\.1ev'llyn

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Pan ion.for't hei r effo rtas,D.e~bllnof th.·.,;.1I.1nlng·collllllltteti-lind\ to

1'I1~. ~~~~n ~nfl~ld

for providing

invd:"b~' c~~utlr

. .11.tllnC,."ln prepadng

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thltt.u for^' "ndyll••.

.Cut.ltudeh,.l.~o^{1l1lpt••sedto}~h6^uachen•.eda.lnhttatou·.nd

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Ic'o001districtpenonnelellpl oyed'11th tM Por t AuxIlu qu. .tn~.

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u&rr u^d5 h1! r4-fot'....tM h-partidp. t l o.Q,I n,tht~pl10tlrllof tn.

lnat~nt-; ^tocl1Itl'1ct_tuptE;l~ta~nt.fo: th al r panilulon-to cond\lt.t the

Illrv~ .nd

to

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ch.~.:

pl'1!1c1pd ,.nd

Pl'Olra~

Ico-orcllJaton .cro~.theprovine. who C.v.tndrtla.And en'rry.ln ,lap por t of the .tudy.

ri nd ly . thtmolt ptofounclappncl.tl?fl.IOelto~vi r. ,.Col b. n!

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^typlncthe

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c~nlt~nt fo~;c~

^{of -}

luppo~t

^andencoura gellllntthr oughoUt th l 1 tndu,vour.

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ABSTRACT

TARLE OF.COllTEN'IS ,",

Page i l

ACKtlO1JLEDCEMENTS•.•

LIST OFTARLES••

LIST.OFFIGURE S CHAPTER

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ix

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INTRODUCTION·•.•••••.." •.•..••• ••1',':'

Stat ementoftheProblell 3

.Theore tic alFru6wor k 4

.Del i lllita t i onll•• .."•• ••• • •.••... ,. 16

'-Limita tioIUI ._ , ~. . .... 17

Signif i canceof,thtStu'dy•.• 17'

Defi ni tiqnofTenlls•. • .•-, •....,•.. ...I •••~.. 19'

Org.nizatio~.ofth~Study 21

IfVIEW OFRELATEO LITERATURE

,

, :... ... 22 Irttro·duction_•..:•.• . .• ... •• •. . .• ... . ... •..,. 22 CUni dal Superv 1sion · -A Des criptiveFrame _of Reference••..•:•.••• ••.•••..•• ,... 23

" Devel Opllent·of·CU nical Superv is10n 24 What 1,CHn1c~lSupetvh1on1••• ••••. . 27 Clinical.Superyh10nasConcept ' '30 Clinic alSupervision asProces s•• '43 11IeCU ni calSupervis ~onCycle••• 51

.. COncl usi orr " , , :. .. 73

Clinical Supervision-- A Resea rc hFerllpect1ve. 74 AttitudesToward Clini calSupervis ion 7S Changu in TeachingBeh'avi ourdJ.Ieto

CU n1calSupervhi on ~. 79

.Effec tof Clin1 calSuparv 1s1onon

Student s•. • •.••. ••.•. •..••.• • .••. .. .• . 87

METHODOLOGY ,... • ". 90

Rese ar ch Inritrwaent••.• .: •• ,... 90

Col\ltructionofInstrument 91

Populationl 94

S'-llfllel ,.' · , ; '94

•Aclainhtntion of theQuestionnaire:.,., ?. 95 AnalysisofData ••••••••••• •t••• • • • ••_. . . 9S

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Pase

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ANALYSISOF DATA•••;••..••••• •••••', ••••.• •.••••••. C0-Pflrh onofCr ou pR.e'ilon~••per It••·. o.'f••

Questi on One: Perc epti on !-o f Pro&ulI i

.Co·a rd in.tora••• • .•.. • • • ... . . ,'... ... .•.... 1]6 Que.tl o n Tvo: rerce"tlon. of Prlnc1pe h •... .. . . 145. qu.u tl,on Three:.'Perc.pt: lC1~of.Teach'!rl ....' \.. IS3 QI,I••tlo nFo...r: Diffe rence . _an IPerc ept l onJI\

of Pr og r_ Co·o r di natdh,Prlne1pa h and Te7hera...•. .•.•..••....•...••.;-.... ': ... 161 ) . SlmMRY. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOKHENDATIONS•••.. .•",...

: i

¹⁶⁹

Purpo. .~fthe

Study .. .. . ... . . .. .. ... . . ... .. . . . 1 69

Me thodolo gy•.: :•. •. ·,'171

Findin g• .•.. •. •.•: , '" ••.. .. • 171 Con clus ion.'. :'. .. .... .... ... ... ... . . .. .... 177

' I

Rec ollllllend a tion i for~l:tion..• . .• • . .... .. 178

.Re cOlllIlIend ati ons',for Res e ar ch 179

REFERENCES \ : '••.•; -/ 181

! " , ,

APPENOI,CE~ ~•••••••••.•• ••• .••••. ••••)••••••,.... ... .... ... 187

.I , . ,

APPENDiA••.Quutio~nalre.. •..•:..: ...'.'.•....•.. ... .• •.. ..!-.88 APPENDIX,Ilo''Cor res ponde nc e.... ... . . . ... ..•.••. .

! "

CllAPTER I.

I

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^, ,." ^. '. !\ ^{.. '_'.' ;.. t.;..;: " ,}

vi

'''\

LISi OF TABLES 'Iabl e

Frequef1e\.Dijstri~tiOn

^{snd MesnSeores for"Item'I}

Frequency~istributlOnand !'lean scereefot Item

'2

FrequencyDistributionandHean ScoresforIt em3 4 .Fr equency Distribution and Mea:nStores for Item4 Fr~quencyDlstributfon and,Heari~coresfor It em 5 Fraquenc)'DistributionandKean Scores for Item 6 FrequencyDistribution and KElsn Scoresfor Item7 'FreqUenc;

D1stributi~n .

^anJ.

K':~:-

^-

s~ore.a

^.

.

^{. : item B}

Fre~uencyDistributionand ,Mean Scoresroe Item9 Page

99 100 102 103 104 ,.•.•·104 lOS 107 106 10 "l'req~t1ncy^Distribution,and HeanSc~reil^{for Item10. 109} '11' FrequencyDistribuSionand HeanS~oresf~)tIte~

n ... no

12 FrequencyDistribut~onand Munsc~resfor Item; 12 III II Frequency~istributionsndHeanSe~resfor Item13...\112 14 Fre quancyDis t ri buti on and HunSco.retforIt em14 . 113.

,

^.

.

15 Fraque ne~Dis tribut i on and HeanscereeforIteill15 . 115

~6' Fre quency DistributionandMean sceres forIte m16•.t :116

. .

^{. .}

-;;- . -

11 Fr equencyDis t ri but i onandMean ScoresforItelll17.' 117

_ ' . . : t '

IB Frequency'Distribut ionlind MeanS~ore sfor Item18 118 19 Fre quency Distribution

. ^{. .}

endKu n ,scores for Item19,.. 119. 20 Fr eque.ncyDis tribut i on andMean ScoriSforItem20 1~1 21 Frequency Dis t ribu tl.on and MeariScores_forIte~fl. 122 22 Frequency Distributio nandKean Sc'oresforI~~l1l122 123 23

F"'lu~~ Dhtrib~~10n

^and

Me~n

^{ScoresforItem23 124}

24 Fre quencyDi~tributl0nand Mean seeresfor Item 24'••.•, 125 vH

.,

'.

PAge 25 FrequeneyDiu::r i bu t LonandMe a n Scores[o r IU III25 126 26 Frequ e n cyDlIt r l bu tl on and Me an Scores CorI t•• 26... 127 27 Fre que ne y Dlstrlb.l.tionandMeanScon.forI t•• i)

'28

28 Fre que n cyDh~rlbutl onand.He a n score.. fo,rltea28

"

30

.Fre que ncy Distribution .nd-Keansco-.z.:~fo rIua2'.l.::.. III

Freque n<:y Ohtrlbutlon andHe a n Sco r "forIt. ••30 .. ... 112 31 Fr equencyDhtr~butlonandKeanStore,'for IUIII 31..•. • "134 32 Freq uen cyDlatribu ti onand HeanStotufor

It,,,,

32.... l~S.

'\

!

38 Dist rIbutIonof Teachers'!'leanScore eon33,lt e llle...

33 .Fj"'QUe n cyDhtrlbution~ndHean.St atu.for It em33 34 Dis tr ib ution ofCo-ordi na tor s '"!aan Score.on 33

'1/

It e ms.••••••••• •• :. '.'•.•• "•.0 • • •• • • • •- •• •••••• •••••• ••

35' / Pla gramCo~ordln.tors·Rank ing ofClinie alSup_evil lOR _/' It em. b(Hean Score ••... . ..•.• .•...••••..• . • •..•.. ... 3 Dls tr lbu t l on ofPr1ndpal~ 'Me a n Scores on }31eel's ...

/~1

Princ I p a ls' R.ankingofCUn lcalSu pervh io'nlUI... by J Ke an Score .•....•. •..::...•.•.•• • • ...• . . ..•... .

.135 1~7

\

138 14 '

146 m

".

163 ItelU on whIc hStatIstI calDlrferene. . Occu r&IlOna

Percept ionsofPr oaralllCo-ordinatonIPrI nc Ipals andTea ch e r• .. •..• . .•.

39

40

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UST OF ncuRlS

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ng\lu Page

Partlc lpat h~Ch.t~eCycle·lndi catln&tl aeand dlr~leu.lt,.invol vedin ....kingvu t Oll' dange.... . .

a

Schelaat i c ofClinlcalS uper'f1l 1on.. . ... . 32

Dbe nt l onlof thl Sup.rvllor'.Rob .. 40

Thl Supl rvllor'lRole (Revi.edEdition) 41,

""II!,..

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Chapte~1 INTRODUCTI ON

Althoughmoderneducat lona~supe~hi~nha s,.a s 1~ ,prine l p ll1 objectivethe improvemenfofiDs t ru cti on , studiesof theeffectlv\l'n~lIi1S ofsu~ervis?ryeffor tshave yielde dhss~hanpo s i t i ve ou.t'co mes. Ye t

{ - ..

th er e 14agrowingconvic t io nthatifschoo ls aretpbeledtowar d qualityeduca tion itisthesuperv is ol::swhomu~ tpre v tdethe leaders hi p(Harr i s ,1975; Sa.rglovan nl, 19'75 ),"It"h l!,d eeddi f fi cul t.•

.

t~ ~maglna

^{'ch'i soa curre nee ina climate}

Whe~,

^{te ache;s}

percef~e :' ~

supe rv is i on as athreatenl~g .unh elpf ul,'dul l andHme-wasting expe r_lenceandperce ivemos~csuperv is ors as hos ti l t! , and eVlln

contemptuo~s (Bl~berg.·. 1~80; ~itz

^{£.Cuhall.198<1";Waller,.1971;}

Wiles

6.

Lovell,1983).

Hodl'O~educati on'!l lit e r a t u r e ident(fles'a.var iety'of llimsfor c cneenp or ary aupervisionifit is co becomeproa c t i ve,growth- orie n t ed, change -o rie nted,an d po.d t ivelyregacd ed by taa c hers. All

I .:

of t.heaeai lDsr elat e toone.of twoar ea s:·( a)\th e.tea ~her-Bupe r",:isor relat io ns h ip,and (b ) theteac her "" gr owth towa rd . lOlf- an al ysi s , sel f- di recti on. indse lf-a up erv1a ion. 'Ther ecur r!'nc lyexistsa st ro ng feel~ngtha t' te ach e ur mus tbeecee1II0r' dir e ctlyinv ol ve ditlthe ' superviso ry pr o Ce u ·-mo resp e cifically;that'it shou l d'be init; ~stedby theteacherinasUPRort iveor gan1.zationalcli mate - -i f thfl8ll aillla are to'be acc ompli s hed .•

Oneof the ee ae co mpre h e n d "'''' instruction alsupervisionprocaaa~1 ..whichfocusellita effor tin thhdi re c t i on 11 whathaa been labeled

·cli ni cal aup~rv1aion " (Cogan ,1973 ;Goldhslmller.And. r~on6'Kr.jew~ki,

- :

1980). Itconal . ; , 'of

II

number of

b aSiC

e.oeponant s,devi sedina 'ys t e mat l c mann.er wl'th J!laJor emphasBon aachercollab orati on wi t h other8uppo r U,ngln dl v i du sl s. Inth foundlll ndend t:abradorschoo l ays t e ms such ind iv idual swouldin c ludecentral office personnel',

'a c h p o l adnlnlstrators ,deP!ir t~enthead. andot h erteachen. Alwa y s

such suparvbionistobeconduc t edin avery~Ulllanlsticmanner , thus permitti ng~Lfr ee andex ee est veexchange~fidea sbetwee n all pa r ti cipants,withtea che r(a ndBupel;Vi s o r ) self·gr owt h th een sui.n g intent ".CUnical supervfa ton foculIlIS pri llar1lyon helpingtheteach e r improve hlllfhercialitOOm per f otllla nce through the observati on and ll¥lyal~of clsasroQIIIexperle~ces ., ^The-flLn~calapproachenabl esct:"e tea~h:rtobe~0J.l"eaware of patternsof teachin,behaVio~.rIoIhi~hcan lead to inltr?ctionalself·iraprovementbenefltF;l.ng both teach e r.a nd .tu4ent•••·

.-.~l1nical~u~~~i.don^{wa s}4~eloped^toshiftthe emphuisof

aupervldon,away.,..~!o,~·eva~ua.t~on,e.nd towarda'collab orati veanaly sis of teachingm~ te riallland prac tic el, Itha abeco meincre u in gl y

,i n_fl u en t i al in the f;ie ld qf instructionalsuperv1s io .n.Theult~lDate

ef f ec t i vene s s bf any prepcaeu1Il0d e I'of SJ,1pervisionisin' large part depende nt-upon the acceptab ility.ofth e aS$UDIptions ,componentssnd procedur~s^of th~^modelby.the teaChers, adllli n ls tra t o n.and

. i

lu~erv1sorsIneaeh,i ndiv i dual's oh oo l district.Forthe moatpart the ,~-uperv1.s1on ~roca.u^{at 'work in the}~rovin~eofNewfound~.nd^IU'ld

Lab r a dor,'as elBewhere,is foundedand'~gro~nded~on t\editional prac~lce. ~ndas such is subjectto manylIIisgivbtg.(B~ffett,1967;

Pan ons,1971 ),

supervis ion?

2..Wha tpercep ti ons do pt;,in c l pab hold of an In.tructional. 1. Whatperc ep tionsdoprogram'Ci o. or d i nst ors ~oldof an • ins truc tionalsupervis or yprog~whi chtendsto'uti l iz;ethe ra ti on ale ,assumptions.andprocedurea (ch a ra c to r istica)ofcli n i c al

~hcouragedover th e irown seemi n gLneff'eetLv ene.ss . Cl1 n ic el superv is i on ,withits systemetic andhuman isti c app roach and cve rvheIsdngconcernfor tea chlit.:invol v emen tand sel f - growth ,may provide a vi ab leeltern ative. Theinten t of th b st udyia to determine a measure of theacceptab i l1 ty by llelecte d pera on nelofthe

\ rationale,assumptio na and proc edu res of cli n ic a l supervi si on wit ha viewtowardassessi ngits'rela t iv e potent ia l for us~ inthi spre vt nc e'

Stat ementof the Prob1e1l

In agh t of the negativism'surrouhdingcurrent supervisory pra c tic e s and the 'apparen t.pot~ntialofClini~el'"superv ision lUIa viablealte rn a t i v e ,the majo rfocusof this study is to lid.sur a_the perc ep c fc neof

vario~~'

educationll l pers dnnel

(~rogram ~o.~rdinatra ,

principah an~tea che r s) towar d chara ctar isticsreflectingthe clin i ca l superv isoryproces.sJor;thepurp osllofasaesai ng itsrelative

- .

potent ia l forimpl ement a ti onin the Pr ovinceof NjWfOUndlan dand Le.br a do r. More spec ifica lly, this stu dyseekstoanswe r the following questi ons:

' 6

supe~1soryprogramwhic:hte ndstoutll! zethe~a~lonale,au~Pt'ifs..

andprec ed cree (char acte r iat ics)'of clinical filupe rvid on ?

3. .lJha tperee pti on adotell.che n hold ofJlninatruetione,l

" '

..

^,,",

lIupflrv180ry pro grail.wh i chtflnd~ tout~l1zethe rationale, aUWDptl ons and procedures (characteristics)ofcli n i c al supervlsi~n ?

4.JJhllt differeryell 'if any,existalllongperc eptionsheldby progralll co.ordinatprs.principa~sand teachersrelative to an • in s t r uc t io nal supervfee ry programwhichtends t.outilize the ratione1e ,aUWDptions and proce dures (charaece rts cfee ) of cli n i ca l supervision?

Theor e t i c a i Fraraework

Bydeflniti.o~.an organizationeXistsJor the purpose of achieving sOliespecific goal or set of goals. To do t¥s.necessi~ate s t~einteractingof four key el.f1l11enu:task, structure,technology.and peo ple'( CUlQi n ga·&'Ounhalll,·1980,p,524; Owens&Steinhoff,19'76, p, 60) , InVllr1~ly,this int.eraction.wi t h i n a dyn8.Ill.ic societyr~v';lIls certain ins dflquaciesordiscrflpa nc1esbe tween "whatis"and~wha t

,

,

lu gh t tobe"rela t i v stothe overalleffectivenessof,t heorganization i':roa~hingn:w and higherlevels ?fee jueve e e o c. Cons equently, erangebecomes illllllinen t,

\ Bennb,B"enne and Chin(1969)interpret" cha ngeas "ana~teratio_n

\ .

o~an exhting field offo rce s ~(p. 315). \.I'ood, Nicholsonand Findley (1979).d~~~n~~1~lIorepre c ise l y as

A planned , .yltemat ic,controlled'effortto alter llIo.re than one of ehflfollowl ng'aspectlof tll'e org an ization: (1 )itstas ks,(2) lea struc t u re,(] ) i t .technology,'or (4) itspa rti c i psn t s in A

way. though t to be mor e ef f ectIve in ach l e vin'g the organization' s go.ab~ (1',57) .

WithinInedl.lcatlo nal··m'ore speoifically,-. supervllory••context _ ·ch a nge IIl\Ult be brought about·inthe

undll~~tendings,

^attitudes,

. ; '.

"

:--

:\

^."

~.J

.,

appree1et i ons, and pra ct i c es ofin d i vid ua ls"(Neagley&Evanll,1970 , p. 14 5). Since such elIaJor emphashis placed on the "pe op1o"

aspect ,the slgnif ipantqueatio n relati v e toeduc a t i ona lchango becomes,"D~tea che rs chang..theirinstructional'P~&cticeslIeceuae

\ their thinking haschangedordoestheirth i nking chengeonly~ifte r exp o su r~(2'a specificproc edu ~rtechnique "? It appearsthatthe same conflict whicheurro.unds the "cMoken or the eggftalao cha r a cte d z esch'an ge. Neagleyand 'Evens(1980 ) maintainthat for personsinterestedin~mprovingedu cati on a lp~a cticellbothaspect s Illus t betakenint oaccpun tbecause ftit ia\awidelyacc epted psychologicalfact thet hUlllan beings tend to f·i.ndtime forendIe arn todotho~ethinglllwhl~htheyunderstand:believe in, and valueas imp~~ant· (p.176).-

Havelock(197 3; pp.55-58)outHnllll'a number-of cOlllponen ta wh ic h comprise an ideal baee from....hichto launchtbe changeproceaa.

:nq,y

incl ude:

1.,

Rec1prOe1~y-';WhlCh

involve'a,th e two-way transferof infot1llation.

2. Opennus--which 1sthe most'1Jllpo~tantcrite r ion.

3. Reali,sticexpectat,ions--whic h inv ol ve. specifyin.gboth benefitsand dlffLcu lt ies thatmay be en c ount er e d .

I.-"}

4, • Expectetions of.r eward··in whichthe changeagent..must try to find a~at1vecompromleebe t we en discouraging the client.y.telll;and leavingit,without any clearconce~t"fwhat~1l 1be expected;

5. Structure••ineludin gadefin it."'1onof roles,w?rk 1ng procedures, and expec tedoutcolles:

"

I

6. Equa lpower•• sothat changeswhichappeet-ean beassumedto be real and'notmeralytheap pear a nc eofchange stosatisfy amore powerful.,p,artnor.

1. HinimWlthre at - - so.th a tin d i vi d....l attitudesan d beha viour willnotragra . sto re membe re dorfan t aa lze d aec u rley. " ' "

8.

~"hfrontation

^{of 'dlfferances. .whieh}

involv~s

^{an honest}

l:'ela,tlon ahip,ato r my at tlmes.poss ibly.buthealthy an d'st r ongwhen ehegoingge t stough.

9. Th..inv o lve men t of all relevantpartiea,

Alfo~o.

^{Fir thand}

'NaV~lle (~:'5'\.U/lllIIat\l':e

re lle..rchonchan ge theory~Andco~c1udetha t :.

1.

S.ign ificantchanges,inhuman b1lhavlour ca n be brought about r.apidlyonlyif the person!!,wh o.e 'resx pectedtochange part icipate,indecidingwhatthecheng e'shallbean d howit 2.

:h:~:n:: =:~:~t,till::)lIIore

^{effectiveifit,isperceived·ag· -}

building onex is t i n g. practlceratherthan'threateningIt..

(p,187) • .

3. Change\ wi. l lll.be'i n it ia ted more effectivelyas thei-e'1acareful' plann i~dasobjective . 'and policiesar eclear; . t ea l is ti c 4.

~~:n~f~~~:~o:;ps~~ ' t~8~;quire lIl~re d~pendence

^{on othe'raor}

decreanporaonal:·initiat.l.vewilltend to be resta tod'.an d tho'sethatappeartoin c roa s e autonomywill tendto be

,-a c cap t e d . ( p.168)-... • ,

These -con ditions for change a:ll'pla c e considerableemphasison the

e~tabUshman ;

^of

appr~pr1ate

^Unes of comaiunii;:ation'. riiaxed 'a t lllo'; pher e , and mutual,·understandi.ngof what i5boin~atte~ptod.

SiiRiiar ly,atressed ar e opennell'lI,1N~uai^hona.ty. sharing power (a n d.

\-. ' ' -iI • -\. - - .

en.ui n g re sp onsi b i l i t i e s ),and_'king thesit~ational;non-threataning

•••.po••ibl e to the cl ientor,tea clflor. Undoubtedly; l;hellemeallure . eillie d atthe'creation ofp08itf:ve·att i tud e'swi t h ina dyna..i~^and

?elllpa ~h icframeof referanceare,ofparamountsign i fi c a n c e to

'.l.~

',',

s'Uccessfu lch ange impl emen t a ti on.

Itwoul d appear tha ta coeacndenomi~atorto both the-t hi nk i ng snd doi ng^Kof educationalchangeis Ma tt itude'formation ,- ,sollle tlilles re f err e d to asm~mtalevaluat ionorallU,ki n g ordis l iki ng (Zaltm s n , Flgrio&Sik~raki,1971). Attitudeformati on involv es a men t l'l1check on the pro posedchange wi threg~d.t oit s'c ompa t,ibllitywith the

~divi dua1's valuessnd mode of oper a t ion: The sign 1ficl'lnceof' attitude change .ce thebverallimplementat ionptoce.. 18perhap s best

\ - ""

depic ted·ina.ai mplemode l,byHersey~ndBlanchard (1977,pp,280- 285). They c1su ifyfour 1evei, of chan !e: .knowle dge change, atti tudi n al change,indiVidUal:'b!,h~;iou'r ~hange ,^andgr e;tup or organiza,tionalch~nge{ee e~igure,1),_

Th~ismodel pe r t ains to,a'·pa rtiCipa t iv eMcharigecyclewhich emphallizesindi vidualch ange"inan'etlllollp~el:'e ofopennes s,andmutua l crlrt, as.cppc ae dto.a·~irec tive·-ch~ngecycle wh i ch18i.~~Oll8dfrom a powerposi t i on and Wh ic h,tendato~eeceeetv e innatu t e. The part i c i pativemod~lis ece e. appro pri ate here'efnc e it ta more.

compat ib le';'ithprese nt'day approachestoedue,a t i o nal chan ge , wh i c}:t streu,ope nCODlmUni~at io n a~dequd pa r tictpat.i:onby all il)di VidUaiIs

:n::: : :::,t: :::: w:: : : e

b:h::::.~~~::::t::n:O

^&

C::::.:c:::~O::::

^jl:F.Lrth

Firesto ne , 1977). .

. ( '

Theimplemen t ati on of thecyclebe~nsbyllIakin gav"l1a ble

I

0 the in div idual newknowle dge, I t18 hope d

th~

indi v i dual01:'grou:l i l l acce p t thbinfO~lIIationand developapo a Lt:ive attitude and critmen t

In che" .. ., . "

~

^{. . .}

~ ~.

^{,' -' ' ' '}

~ ~r

^Ln

t.

"

~.

"

.

- - .

i'

r

r-.

\.---

\ _\.

problem solvingand decision

r-.

making is cr ucialat this leveli f

attitudesand

cOlllB;'t:~ents

_{" ,} ^{are tobet}r ens foxeed_. into actull1

beha~;o'ur

_{;, ,}

changes.'Throughthe i"dentlf1cetionofinfluentia l lndlv l duals••bo th· informal andformal··and concentrationon gainingthe'lr~ehavloural .support.,group bellavlour la ef fectivelypatternedandthe ch8nge 11

evlentuallyInt e gr~ tedintotheorga~lzatlon'Snorms.

Herseyand Rl aJ."char d (1977) contend tha'tchanges in knowledgeare easiest to make-and·canoccuras a.resultof readinga bookor .ax;tle le.,or hear Ln g somethingnew from a respectedperson-Ip,280);

Attitudes are more dlffLc ultco Change.,d nee they areelD.odo~ally • C~at;gedinel~~er.~ ~Os1t1Veol"nega tive

"?":

Individua lbeha~iour ch.anges are significantlymor,ediffieu1tandtime-c~nsUllingth an either of the·,othe r two' leve h•.Group beh av i ou r, inwhi ch long-

~tandingcuscoae,moruand tradi tionsareto be altered,ill;-evenmore d,moulo.nd,,4?oon.='nsee .ff;oi.

HO,wev e r,despitethe.ti llleandeffort required for imp;ement ing thepartic i ; a t i ve change'cy cle ,-enee theCh_ang: isaccepteelitt~ndt to be long.lasting ,,~, (and'> each persontends to be more high1' commit tedto its implementation, ft 'The di re c t ive -c oerc ive eppr c echto changi ng

b~iulvi ~"ur ,

^{on the other hand,}

te~d!l

to be voh t l1e and 1a ftmdnta inedonly as longaathele;der

h~!I

^'pOsition

~wer

^to

~ke

^it'

.'

\

.

st;:ic k·, Itlaoft e'neha raC:: t~ rb e dby con t in uing·8~imosity,·

ho s t il ity , and , in aomeceses , ove r t'and convertbehaviou rto underm ine and~ov e r t h r ow· (He,~aey&:8l en ch a r d,19 77 , p.284).

HOlll8nlll(195~):1IIa1ntain. th~tall 80c la1 aya'teras.a recomp r lled of three b; . icanlf4i.rela t ed .epants:.(a)act·ivitie a•• ta.ka.t h atP.n~~ot

,"0,6,','

/

~.~

pe rform,(b ) interllcti ons · ·beha v i oursthat occur be eenpeop I In perf~TlIltn'gthes e tarilui,

a nd

(e)gent l mentlil••a~tLtude ^{ha t de} lop betwe enindivi dua ls and be twe en groups. Inorderforpeople.towor k togeth er(in ter act io ns)toaccomplishta.sks (act iv ities)penofU'l el ..

must de velop andmel n t alnpositi v e attitud es (sentiments)to~ardthe ta ska,fe1 1 01<1worke rs ,and theorg an ization Ingeneral. ThelIIore .people inte rac tIn thecour sdoftheir ac tivi tie s the eorepositive

th e

ien~1lJlent8 gIInera~ed.

^{Likewis e, theeer e}

~(J.ve

the".a t t i tu de",o r . .ntllll.nt . the' mor epe o plewil ltendto intera ctwith,eachothetto Itt .1l~lItanorgllnLza tl onalgoalor,ac tivit y: Thisreciprocatin gpi,Dee s s

wUle~entuallylea~tolIOlllellIa~ll1l\Ulllev~ioflIqu llib riWll,at Wl1ch thegoalsofthaorganizationarebeingachi evedandadeqUately, lIIa1~taine·d. Throughou ttheproce ssmelllb era ofthe organizati ontend tobecomemorealike·indie~rac t1v it: i es ,interact ionsa~se nt i ments .· in-whatthey do,how theyrelate to~neano t h er,olmdhowtheyfe el towardthe,organizati on , Where th b occu rs inspositivemanner ,bo th individualand,o.~gan1zationalgrowthwI nbe gre at lyenha nced.

Alt h ough Homans'modeldoe s notspec~ fywhe t h eranyone ofthe s e cOlllpon~ nt s (ac ~ivltl s s ,interacti o~.!1orsentilllents )isaprsrequis it,s to·t haothers,theindividu al' satUtu1. wouldseemto.bethe '. comaratona't o intaractionwhich,1n

' rrn, ·wher~ ~osltive

atti t u de s prevail, would affecttheorgan1:r.at~onaltas k otaC"tlvity.Thus, If each'·new·.ctl~l tyre qui res a·oh anga in the indiv id.ud'sbehav i ou r

.10

thenh.~ina• positive at titude towardthe propose dactivity8houl d enhance the potential ac~ eptanc eof that activity.

A nUII.berofat r :at e gi u for achieving,organ1:r.ational.change,wh i ch

/

I~'

hav eimplicationsforattitu4e change , ha v e beenhyp o th e sized. Chin and Benne (1976)hav e labeledt~reetypesas fo11o..,s: (al.empl r i c a l.

'r a t i onal ,(b)normative •

re .educ~ ive.

^{and (e)}

pOloler-coerc~ve .

^An

I

empir ica lstrategyaSSUIIl9Sthat.pa ople are rationaland",illfollow theirown self·interests. Ch.ange,w1l1occur onlyif itcanbe rationallyjustifiedand the~ndlvldua l.eXpllcted aec:~umgeshownhow he/she....iilbenefitby thechange. Anormative· re- ecucectve

i . . ' i

strategyassUlll~ sthene ed forc~angesin soc io-cu ltu ralnormsand cOlllllllt~ent. of:llndlVldU~hbu t dossnot'~eny 'the need for rationa l ity andlnteillgen~e.. Chang ew~ lloccur onl ywhenthein d ivi d u ali.able to al t erhlsfhernorllls t iveorien tat i ons towar dol d pa t terns of

I

I . ' •

behaviourand~velop cOlllll.i tm~ntsto new.ones , Thus.chan ges in nOl1llat ive,orie n t at ionsin'(ol v ech angetn att itud As,values.,ski llsand significa ntrela t i cmsh ipe , not'jus tchallg e s inknowl e dge, itlfor lllatiW' . orintel lectu a l ration al es foracti on . Apower- co ercive str ategyis

"a llied on the essumptionthllt'someformofpower--e c cn cetc,llIora ~ ,' poli ti cal, or,s ocia l- -lIIay be appliedtoward influetlcing human(h ence, organiz a tion a l )behavi ou r. Bentle (1976,), in afur t he r elaboratio non ,re- ed ucat i oll(t he norma tive -.re- .educ llt i veappr oa ch to,pl-allned chatlge ~"pointsoutt!ha t.the proces se s ofch a nge-tnv ct venot only extrinsic sdd i t1 0tls of knowle dgeor beh avi ora l repertoireto theself or person,but 'Chatlges inthe self lltld.thewo r ki ngthrough of self- suppo r t ed rea!atancesto ;u~.ch a ng es ·(p.317). Since tb eu,elf - psttertlllthllt.off er reallltstce (toch a nge} IlrelIulItained by itldivldual, a~dgroup"llorms,effe ctivere-edu cstlonof a person'\equlr eschangea in attitudes towa,rd

,

exis t i ng norms or patterns.,

11

.'

..;:.1

·, / /

12 Walton(196 5 ) alsoee e s organizationalobjective sbeingatt~lned

i throughtwo quitedif fere n tlltrsteg ies.inv o lvingpowe r tacticsont.he onehand and

att~de

ch ange activi ties'

th~

^{ot h e r. He}

~t~tes

^that

,"....hereee allbigu!tyand uneer taint-yareoftentacti cal to

,the

power stra tegy.opennessandg;ed i c t ab 11 1t:yareess e ntial to,th e- at ti tu d e cha nge strategy· (p .·~12.). His conte nt io nlsthatChI'attit udecha ng e_

strate,?,1&builto.ntrust,.f'reed onandreS:8ctl\n d

If

^{usef u l in -}

eUmlnat1ngprovocah v e actswhich,eli c i t negativ e ac tltudes. Moreover.w~l1enotdenyingthepOlSibilityof effective powe r-tac ti cs for change,hema:Lnt alns

tha~

^{t:heobjectivesof a power}

.stra~egy·

^are

,

.

m'ore.likely tobe realh:fld~her~.impr ov:me nt.i~att i t, . ia Bought

fint,Hiapointis that'atti tudachaggellIa:{~:es41tin someles sening Of'the

p~tential

^{forcon flic t.}

' ; r

^t(:

Portar, Lawler and Hackman (1915) and Schmuck ,Ronkel,Arends and

, ~.

Arends(1911), in attelllptitlg·t o B;pply"or gan iza ti oni'lL. deve lopmen t "

stra te gi e o? tosch oo l s , focull on 4ft:erven t:lontechniques,inten ded illll1.edia taeaeeeees,an d assumptions about majorcausesof organizat ionalbehaviour " 80th groupa advocateaasqu enti a11,y pat~erned ~ategy, Porteret et.(1915) mo've 'f r ?1ll individual', , IItt1tude change toch a nge in structure.and on~~ expe~imental t~niquesaimedatenh an c ing the organizational,climate, Sch;mucket a1. (l9!7)deal with

communica~ions

tr ain i n g,

devalop'llIent~of ~orms

for decision,.makingandchan gi ngst r uctur e , inth a t order. The\;'r~;,exa hea vily stress

.

the needfor free and open cOlIIIDun icatlon

^-

andfu ll collaborat ionbeeve enal~pflrt i c1panta fromthe.i n iti a lplann ingstage onward, Througho\l,t ,the emphas'his on~process;consultatio~as"

.~.'

>.... '-..:

;~

, - _~ .

oppose d

~.o "cont.nt~ consu~t.t lon

as..lDe.n. o'build i ng

f~.~.ln

^...an el cre a t ing thequa l l tla.of Int erpe rs ona l efr. tlvennswhi chllIaybecome

•fun~nt:. lle" arforora_n ha t l ona lchanle.

Muc h ...rlter.KurtLevin(19 4 1) dav.loped.. uchnlque fo t"

"

anal y z i ng organlzatlond sit uations with ..vt•.,to datar-ln l n ath.Y' II

effec t ivene s s.

"driv i ng"and"r;. t ta ln l ng"for cellworki n g.1Dlultanllou.lytoInfluenc~

chang e: While drivi ngforc".tendtoInlt~bte..chang eandkee p it going, re s t rai n i n gfo ree.acttoho ld bo-k "br d.cr. ... . the:d.~~Vln&", (gr eea . Equl1ibrlUl1111i".ch e d,ofcou~ae,^,Whenth e IWII ofthe driv i ng'for ceseqUl'ltthe'W11 of theres tralnl~i··f~rcel . Apathy

and

hos tili ty arelh eedoalbeing.predoalln ant alllo n gth ..tut u t n ! ng forc.. . . ~ereth.... at Utudu'prevaUtheorga nl u d on11 forced to operate,be l ow Ite_lll _ef~act Lvenesslevelan dtheequ U ibr l UllO 11 lovere deond dera bl y. Fordng cha nge throughau toc:ratic:inputto the.

driv ingfortei vill

_n~r

the equUibrlwe ennfur ther'b

,

y insti l ling.tron ge rne i e tivf.fe'lin~. ,henc e , incn. .inghoetili ty·and\ ent a gonle. toward thepr opo. edcha nge and th a or ga ni za tioninseneral.

tharefo r e ,theon lyaenli b le alte rne tLve letov~ rlttovl rddecreaetng

atti t u de aprev ai l'.

thefo~~golngdllcua l1 0n on change haseona ld arable.r ele vant for

. J

~

there , : ra.i ni ng torcee, whi ch, inef fec t ,can onlybeaccoll p l llhe d by prollo t1~gmorepoel tiv eattitudu. Thus ,theacquLeiti ono.f'Poettive att i tud~ gappe a rs once1D0reto bea.~rongprerequ i l1 t;.eto de tend n ing organizationa leffeetLvene.. ,byinc re a elng'thepo~entLaIf~r~hange acce p t anc e. 'olhere etruc t ur aa~di~te racti.onareforced.,lIor e ne gative

" .,~..~ .~.'., :":'.1.".••:.-,•• ""',:.,.'.~- '

-'if-

-,

thestudybeing proposed since cl i n i c alsup e rviBionre p re s ents botha cha n g ebylC8lllf and a usefultoolfo rin i tia tin g.andllllplePlen tlng ot herproposed ins truc tio nal changes .

Ifoneis"qUngtoeeeepethatedu cationisadyn~lc en de a vou r; itfo11 0"'8 tha tchsngeswillcon t i n ue to occurIn

,

" /'

.

,stlue .tionalpeeceteee. There 1sample suppor tInth e li t e ra t u r eee .ugg s . t thatch iliBeq uB,:!ceofcha n ge act ivi t iesrevo l ve saround interpersonalrll1atlonshlpsandth~es t abli shmentofposi tive .t t l tudjr..towardthepropos edchange. Infect ,it iDaybe arg ue d tha t attitudechange-is a strongprerequisi teto behavio ural cha ngeas indicatediti thellIodel-byHerseyand'Blanchard(1977),1n which ..,

- < -

knowl e dge an4 atti tude chan ge rep r'ea en t th e initial stepsofthe procell . Hence.itsee lllirea l onabl etoinferth st befor e a cha nge likeclinical lupe rv is i on canbe su cc essf ul l y illlplemented . pllrticullrlywithina~,pirt1clpative·frame~ork.theattitudes0'£

thOle,pe n onawhomightbe ccee di re c t l y involved in anyphas e of the .proce ~aahould befavounblydisposedto it. Therefore ,bef or e

clinicalsupervbion1& initiated ,·theatt i t ud e sof those tobe involved ihou1d be asce rte1ned .

Within't hb con t e x t and thefrt.mework ou t line dby Her u y and

+

B1anchar~.(1977 ) .,thisst udy w111 at,temptto deteruinethe exte n t to which theet t i t udu ofv.r~ou. e;u~ationa1 pe~.onnelwlt~inthe New'f oui'ldland andLabra.d~rscHy0l.aya te lllare favourdblydifP~ledto, dini~alaupe~il1on: Cl1niul au p e rv li i on wIllb~definedbythe

-

-

fo1:lovlng'. . eentialcharacterhticsandaUUIIlptions:

-- ,

1:'Th~ imp~oveu.entof Inatruction requirea that:,teacherl~e.rn Ipacific intellectual.and beh.!Iviora1akills:

~

.

\

I

:-';', ::,,' ;'.'-,:,••::~';) .,,~,:,.' ^i..'",i;.".:,~~;.":::, '"^.,,:...:h' "~·:':'~:•.

,:i,:· ;

14

-

..

~.

\

2.Theprl. .ryfu nc t i o nof the.~JHlrvhor11toteac~'\.:bIl.1I. skill.1:'0the tuch e r:

(II) sk llll ofc:_ p h• •nalytlcpeT e . p t l onofthe lns uuct i ondproee u; .

(b) sk.11b ofrati o ....l .na Iy.isoftheins.tructl o nalproc .. . ba . .d onexp lici t ob••rvat lo nd IIvi de nce;

(c) .11.1111of cllrrlc uh.llllinno va tio n, 1.ple lllent a c lon. an d expert _entat io n;

(d ) ski l bof cuching perfonunce.

3.Thesup. n t . oryfoc \U11onwhlitand

nov

t.ache r. cel eh ;ttl Id'inobJe ct.tve11 to~r ovlIIn.truc t l on.no tchang'the

tea ch er' .pllr lloM).ity. .

4.ThelIuperv la o ry foeu.-Inplanning Ilnd"""ana lye h 11but- anchored inthe Dakingand ' tut lng of In. tructlona l hypochu lllb•• edonoblllrvat lon.ilevidence.

5.TheIlupervlaoryfocua11 on In. erection.l1.'\11111that are sma llIn .nUlllberIeducat i ona llyvi ta l,.ln t ell ec tually acc•••lbllto th,c••char,andamanabh tochan ge: 6. -Thesupervisory foc u sison cona truc t lveanalyd s andthe

rain f or eelllen t ..of eueee.. ful pattar n a ra ther th an onthe ' conde.nationof'unsu ccn aful pltt a rna . I .7.The lupervho r yfoc uslaba a lld onoball rvatldi'1'alevidence,not

on unsubstantia t edval ueJud gelll8n ts.

8. 'lbe cycle of pbnli:tng,tea ching,and.na lya h isacont i nuing on.thatbuildsuponpast exper ienc e. '

9.Supe rvhi onlaa dynul cproe u ll of.g ive-and·t ak eInvh1ch-.- superv ta or aandInteIllJ are colleague. In e"arch ofau tua l educa tIonal UJ'ida utandfng .

10.The ."upervllory.pro e...is$11II8r11y on. ofverbal In t era ct i on eent.redonthe analy daof In atruc: tion.

11. Theindi vidualeaa ch erha.botheb. fn. do....ndeh.

ru pondbUityto Inltl .~e111ues ,anal y n andll1prov. hll 12.

~~~~~~r;1' a~a:~t"~:~t:~:~~:=la~:::~:r;t:~~~arabl'

^•

proee ••e. 0'£ complex pnc e pe lon,rati onalanal y_t a, and I-pr ove a e ne.'

13.The.~pervisorh..bot hthe'fre. dom and·t herllponlibU ltyto analyz::eandevaluatenh ownlup.rvhloninaaa nn er II" i1fr to ate a char' s ans1y lll andevaluatIon ofht. Instructi on. (\lelle r,197i.I Iei ted In Acheaon"C.U ,1980 ,p p:11-12) Questi onnaireat atelllen tsreflect i ng th•• •~har.cte r1. t tClwi ll stlt;'e.to~tth ecri te riaof step on eIntheHe u eyand 5hn.chard . 1D0dal,that'la,prov idi n gforknowledgech an ge. On theb••itof solic i te dnaponsea on e ahou l d beIn poll tionto~etet'lline^aOllathlng of thepot entl.althatexht.wi thinthlapr ovinc e for'posalbIe .1I8pl_Jl"nt a t l on of'\lch achan g_ re

. .

auperv^. laory pr a ctic.aa. clinic al

^,

.... .

supe rvi sion . There f or e , eMs st u dywil l determineifcurrent

~ atti t udes areal n a d yfa v o ur a blydi sp o s e d towardclinica l supervision , or~whe thermore favo urableattitudes"need tobe creat edbefore cLlnt e a!8uperv1s1o!,.c~nbe implemented.

Deliml tat.lons

The foll owingfactoon are acknowledgedas delimitati onsIn the study : "____

- ,

1. ~Ilesuperviso rsareof t en engagedInIInUDIber of"very· diver seactivit ies,thisstudy 11delimitedto t.hosesupervisory actlvl cie srelAClldtoc~aS8loolllInst ru c ti on. Hen c e .. t'he studyis delifllL t e d to anBXllllina tlol;lofthose activities ;'hil:h conllt.it:ute both 'theconcept and,p roc ll. s of clinLce.1supe rvis ion.,Not: includedBrB

.a ctlvi tie sfort••ch ingconten. r eas;cl a Sllro olll management.o rothe~

beha~iourllspec i f ic to cl ass room ce ec hdo gand~otessential to' par tic ipa tio n in clini c s l superv1aion.^2.~,Th1l

.

study 11 del1mitedto the responsesof th os e personnel (p r,ogramco. or~lnatoretpr!~cipalsand teachers)ehc have the po te n t 1alt~bec ome1nv ol ved 1nthesuperv1~oryproces seith~ras lIupervisoror supervisee.

3. •Bec aus ethisstu~yisres tri c t e d to schoolsyst ems wit h i n the Prov 1nceof~ewfo undla ndand Labr adort.re s ul t s may not be gen e r aliz abletoare..ouU 1detheprovi nce whe r e supervisor y pr oc edure smaydi f fer.

16

~".

U. it a t ion:s

AnyconcLu.ion.orre c o_nda~ion.arb1ns frOIlI the results of thissrudy mu.t beconside red InUahtofthe fo llowing Ua itation.:.

1. Iti.a••Ulledtha,tthscty-'tac t sr b tic . del i ne at ed repr e. e nt al less ent ia lelellenu ofthe

cl~ical

supsrvili on pr cees s,andthat thesut eae Jlt.fon ula tedby th e resea rcheraccuratelyrene ctthese chara cte r h tic s.

2. Thtastudy du bwithonlyper c eption.of.upervbo ry behAviours',••ob tlli nlldth rough ",anedqueat l,oflnalres,andro s ponllls ar enot Jlec oss llri l ybaud OJl actual exper 1anca.With.the cU nic a l process.

Sign1fi.cane eo~the St udy

. Des.p.it e the..~myl~rov.~ent.1Vthefbldo! educat ional adll.lni.tr a t io,-:ndsuparvi.l on Inr~ c: entyear s,thelite ratur e .hov.

thatlIatt)'negat.lv ta...st ill aboun dconce rnlna thena'tu re of

superv1lll0 ry proc esse.,(!1U111.buS ,1.980 ; Ritz&c.ahe n,1980; lI.lker, 1976 ; IIUe s&Loven,1983). lihUe teachencontinuetoneed.uppo"t inat tellp t.i Jlgto af fect1I0r e po.it ively pu pi l.'acadelliceeh teveeenes , atti t u desandsel f-c once pts,such support.ppea"l tob~denied

_ .t"

te .e h ets a. renectedbythe irexp re. .ion.o( unh a ppine•• •boutthe supe rv isiontheyhav eexperienc e d. Suporv~.o n,too ,.ro....rchi ngfor insights"hleh vi llen. b le thellltobrJ n g increatedcompetency to their t~aka. Cle.rly,tr.ditional".upe rv is i on.has been.tr ~ k lJlg ly unau c eulful ,~nd'what b Jllled edmOltat thb pointita .yl t l . of

17

aup:e rvbiontha t"doe avork. In thbagl ofaccou n tab i lt t y ther.• ara

Or'

.... ,

Inc rea a lng demands. both internall yand externally, torea sses s currentsupe rv is ory behaviou rs and ways of func t ion i ng . Conse qu ently, schoo l.ya,t alllsmus tbe pr ep a r ed to ma ke greater us e of existing theori e s ,lIIodeban d.tee hno l ogls$ --aawel l asaid Innew devel oplJls n ts and dlllc:ov e r l e s·· s nd str iv e mo r e diligently toprac t i cenewbe h av i our s .

~ Inthedisch.srge of future su pe rv is o ry re spons ibi li t i e s. ItIshope d that ehb studywill lendsu ppor tfor thede velopmen t of potentia'lly mor a8\lece~sfu lsupe rvisorybehav io urs . namel y.thoseassociatedwith a cl inic a l superv isory process, Mor e spec i fica l ly,this stu dysho uld havesi gnificanc e fo r th e foll o wi n g reasons :

-,

1. Itsh oui d he of 118.l11s tance eoaschooleya ree inter e s t ed in thede v elopmentof strategi esfo rin str uc t i o na l improvemen tby

, .

~~~vldlnglIome usefulinsight s.int o.the po t e ntia l accep tab ilityof the rat i on a le. a!l"lIumptlonsand procedure s (ch a r acte r h t icll) ofcli n ical supe rvlll i o n by both teac he rs andsupervl.so ~s..

2. It should focus on the nee d for supe rvi s o rs.

.

^~ no tonlytobe SUbjec t .pec i a l ists lothear ea oft.he ir "re·s pon s ibl..li t y , but.toha ve specific tra in i ng in compet e nciesrelated to class roomobs e rvation.

ana lya1aand confere ncing.

.

^'-

.

3, Since researchre l a tiveto cl1 n l calsupe rv ision inCanada is

.

^~

meager-·noneln th ePro~inceof Newf oun dlandandLabrador - -this'study sho\1ld serveto add t~that res ea r ch lliterature .

4. It shouldp! ovideseeeinsi gh tintothe att itudesof supervllor stowardthe clinica l pro ce s s . Acc or d ingto~chesonand Gall (1980.p.20 )nosuchrlSearch curr en tlyex is t s .

5. Itsho ul d aho lI,rv88!11a steppingsto ne to~reexcena tve 18

t.:;,~.•

corr elatlona.land/or Illtpe rlaentalre se arch'l'b lch... y aupport or disprovetheutH1c1 ofclin icallIupervhlon,a • • toolforll. provll....nt of ins t ruc t i on ;

D6U nl t l o n of Ter-a

Inthis seecren,uedefined the IIllIIjor term. co beu'lIdin the .cudy .

CUnlc a lSupe ryh to n

For purpousof ebbat:udy cUnicAl .upervt:,r.n h defined1188, supe rv i s o ry proc e . 1IwhLchfocuse sdirec tl yupon thetepreveeeneof the teach e r'sc1a.sroolllnl [ r ucti on . It consla ' . of,sy.rlllllat tceye teeof pla nnlng , observation,and intensiveincelhCC/.lal _nalyahof ac t ua l

~e.c h ln g..b~h.vLour. Thetea ch erand~upllrvhor Vll.~or a teIn plannin gand cond uc t i ng the ent i re prac lI... .. The Bupu'Yhory1II11ph••la h focusedonhelping tIlachersgrowprofe . .lon aU ybyeJtpand1 tlgth e I r perce ptions of ch e lr own.tre ng t hsIIfld weakJl8.ae.. 5uperv~ao r.u.e• JlOfl-e va lu;mtive :flon·dlre e tlveappr oachin helplnstuchera to Iyltelllat lc.llyanely z.thel rt ••ching. itee or d a of el e .arOOIll eventa, tha ci.,wh.t thetaaeha r ac t ually doaldut ln g t.ach i ng , for. an.

intesra lp.c tof theproe e ..in th a t the objec tiveIIn~'yllt ellot ic .collectionofdate pr ovid ethe baslsfo r co llab or a tive·.nal yl h tlnd

dlscussion . Through·face.t~.face·in t~ract ionthe teach e r and supervisor,in a trul tingrel~ tio nship,'lIIIkt~establi.hteacher behovioure1~ott ern .th,t,,111 eMenceet ude n t ha.:rnlng (Coglln, 1973; Goldh atllll.llr. 1969),

"-

"

. 1

- ....

20

"Colle giAl S"p " ry ' , 'on

Forpurpo.lle sof this ,arua ycolleg l~lsupervls 1~n^1.fde fL n ed as

eu pervfe Len In whichtea c he rah'81p one anothe rbyobservin g .analy zing '..

and.II •.II"••lng teachingstrategL e.And e1 •••roolll' lnt cn.ct ion.

DirectiyeSURrty!goryAp p rp l s;h

re epu r po llell~fth h stu dy a directlv,,'superviso ryap proachis da fl ne d a...liIupel;VLllo ryappro ac hinwhich the sup e rv i so ratte lllp t s to influencethet.ul.ch er '. behavi ourbyofferingop i n io n8and"U8 &''' .tl on.ll indeclarative .IIen t'! ncu (Cop el and, 1980).

NQodinctiypSuperyJ ao r y'ApproMb

Fo rpurpo ses ofthl. study anQnd L re c t ~v esu?"rvLlloryapproa ch La ,defin edasasu pe rv iso ryapp roac h .1nwhichthesup e rv i so rte nd sto que sti onth eteacherto80 1 icit.hl~/heropIni on s , and'en cour_a g e s him/herto~.kesug ges t i ons (Cop el and,1.980),

•S@lf_Sup@rvlsi on

For purpos es of thisstudyself _supervisio n

,

isdef i ne d88 supe rvis ion in vhi chthe teacher ana lyzes,and... "essu hls/her own teaching IIt ra t e g iellan dcl a .sllroolll in t erec ti on ,

Forpurpos es oft~isstudys.su pe rvis or is def i ne d a!l aper aon form..Uyd8lignated by;sch oo l bosrd toln t e rctvith teache rs'In or d e rto improvethe nilture'and qual i t yof.cl roomin s t ruc ti on . in th eexis t i ng Newf oundlandand~Lab~adoreduc at iona l'sys te m !Iuchpe rs on s wouldprimarilyinclud e prog ramco- o r d i na torsandscho~lprinc ipal s . Tflash l n gPatterns

Fo rpurpos e s of th is studyteachingpattern. arede fined"IIthe

\

\

, . .I ~l

ve rb al lIn d/o r non -verb alac tions ofthe teacherand/o rthe..tu d e nts whichcan beob served , reco r de d,cat egorizedAndana l y z e d,

Org8 n i u tl oll ofth e Stud y

Chapter IhIls presente.danin tr odu cti on to ther".earch problem an d deline ate da nUlllberofspe cif i c re....rchques t io n•. A,ra t ion al e orthe o re t ical frameworkforth.. st u dy

w ._

^{pr ovided..Alsoconta ined}

.in thechapt;..r wereth.. ai gn i fi cance ofth e.. tu dy, th e deU lli tatlona.

. . '

theU.lIlitat~ons..nd the J:.£initlon sofkeyte rms. Chapter2pr e s e n t8areview ofre l a te d l1teratu t"fl.

de si gned toprov i d e a ba ckground,orfr'am.. ofreferenc~to clinic al sup ervi.Bion.and·a.. Ruchco~sist"ofanexten aiv ede a ctlp t ion ofthe

...- .

. .

7atlonah a. aa sump tions.procedur e s and model.- un de rlyi n g the, cli n 1c a l

~rocell .. ^{It als o}.WDm~rlu"nseat c h d.a Ung:'primarily",ithteac h e r att itudes'

,

toward cl i n ica l Bupervisi o n an d cha n&e s.i n te .ching behavi our dueto aclinic alRup e rv ia or ypr ogram.

• Chapt er )descri besre " " a r chmethodology ,in cludingthe in"t rumen t. pi ;t.o tseudy ,population._amp le , dataco ll e c tion,and do ta .a nal ya !•.

Ananalysisand interp retat ionof'tho da t aga ther ed fr om tho

stUdyiS~dln^{Chapter4. • •}

Ch a p ter 5co ntain.theaUlllnlary .con clusion.andre e oJllllle n d" t i o na of th e#atu dy.

Chapte r 2 REVIE\J OFRELATEDLITERATURE

Introduct ion

Althoughsupervisionhas beccee snaccepted practiceineduca - tional circ l e s,muchskepticism rema i ns as to its~otives,procedures, and<;ov e al l,itll effectiveneu. Clinicalsupervision has often been .heralded 8lIa.viablealterna tiveto thetradi tiona ltypeof super-

vii ion that,eeseteac h ers . h av e expe rIenced, .with its emphasison eva l ua t io n and teacherdefi c i enc ies. Clin ic e lsu pervision rep r e s ent s bothapo.tential.chengein educetiona l pra c t i c e anda'meansby wh ich

. .

fur t h e r,ch angelDay beini t i a t ed. It is necessary, therefore, to revie wthe lite r a t u r e andrelatedr~searchoni::li~icalsupervis ionin order toestablishsupport.f or the theo retical,basisofth~study.

.

^.

The.que s ti onnai re,us ed in the presentstudywasdeve~ ope dto,.;.

a~se lllatt itudesebout t.he eejeeeOlllponents of elinlc alsupervision, U id en t ifie? in theliterature. Th.nf o r e ,it was essentialthat the' lite.ra tudi reviewbe bot h comp r eh ensiv e and·detai1~d.

;>" . '-0- ' ~

This chapteris'div id edinto two raaj orsections. The first p:~Videsacomprehensiv e ,de tail eddes crip ti on of cl1?ica 1 supervis ion includingitsdevalopment ,un de rly ing.concepts ,and proc edures. The lIec ond .sec t i onof.the ch ap t e r sUlilmarl:u_sthe rasearch'on clinical .upervl~i.OTl::including teache rattitudes toward it,and its effectson teac~erbeh av iou randstu dant ac h ie ve men t.

'( ....

^";",

..

"

I

ClinicalSupe rv hlon· · A Descr iptIvef--:- aofaefa rence Today'. supe rv hlonI, s.een . , that eU, enslo nofedu c a t i ona l .da i n t s tr. c i o nwhic h11c:o :arne d..,i eh the i.prav....

ee

of In, t.n1C e i ona lef fe ctivene . .. Kany definitionsabound,but, co~on thea.eindic:.t....·th. t su pe rv isionisthet••k ••lienedtopar t icular ., Indivlduab.in althera Unaorl u f freletl on.hl ptochu room

teachers, withthein t ent toatll11UlatastaffCfovt hand development, toinfluenc eteacher b!havloutin thechl~rDolll.andto foster the setee eten .,dev elopment,u. eand ev'el uat i onofallce ptlon.al ina tr·ue- tl onaleppr c eehes,mlltho dolog ies andma tedah . Tofu1fll1auch ruponsl b il it1e1l curra nt:.supervis orypra ct! ti one r a mUl t develo pand utilizestro ngcOlIIIWnlca t ion. sk U ll, with part icu larelllphashon

,

^,

"

prob lelll.olvi ngandln terpe riona lrela tionship. ,in;,nef f ort to

-,

- ' , "

ereece• 1I0re'.effecti vea~h...ne.taosph~rlfor all~ho seinvol v ed in the edw:ationalproc e l ',

If.ch~oldhtrlcu cont inue their preoccup.tlon.lith th e ev.l\1&t i on

of

^{te.cher,plrfor-nee,there}ls' conce r n that .upe)l.ory e[ [ ort s . .yonce .gaindege nerat-e Into-iR.pa ctlon.upe rvlsi on- (Snyd e r.1981 ), Kanyeducato r.~hovever,haveCOIl~tore. l ~t lthe con tri butio nof•healthy'. choolcU_te ':01.\,ningre.ult ., Hence, .upe rviso ry ef for t•.t~atreflectcha r.cterist ic.of.uchacUm.t eare.

. -' ....

^{' , ' .}

likely 'to beilioneffec tive , Ilhlle there islittledoubt~~a t teachin gperformenceItanda~dsand g6&1aIIIUltbalIla,int-ained, aspecially in this .

..

geof accoun t . b i lity,

^,

ah .rni n gcUII.te th. t fo.terstea cher gro wth.hou ld.110 provid ef~rthe/lo~iv.tlonalnee d.

..'f .~

I

.""..'

. .

^;

. ...

^~-..

j

,',,:.~ J.~

-

.,

....

^~

.. . :-.;

per f~r1Ia ncenOr m8.

rather th an an evaluation tool,rlilco gntzl!.Andencourages the pot enttal growth anddeve lo pment ofbo t hte a ch e[ll andsuperv iso rs.

Teach erswhoareabla __.l:O'grow per s ona llyand achieve thei r maxiJlllUll profe s sion alpotential arabette rprepa redto pr ovide students with opportunitiea andchalle ngesfor sel f"developmentonan intellectual, aoc i al and payc h o1o$i ea'1~evel(SerSiovann i&Starratt,1979), Hen c e , clLn ic a 1 eupet-vf sLon appe ars to hav e much toof f e rwith respecttl , teache r growthandstude n t lear ningwh U e ensur ing effe c t i veteacher

I

I

payelgpmpn t'gf Gli n t e d Sup p ryfs1 gn

'The concept and practi c eof cUnical,supervLs lo nweredeveloped

by Horris Co gan 'arid agr oup of colleagues inthelate1950s as. they att e mptedtobe come eereeffec tiv einsupe rvi s i ng stude'ntllenrolled in the

H~lIter

^ofAr t s in Tea chingprog:alll

~t

Harv a,rd . In

analYZ~

^and

reapond ingtocer ta in neg a tivereactio nsfrom. theirstud~nts,th eyI>

dLseovered thatm"nyofthe n· suparv is ory sugge stions wer e notbein g perc e ived "" helpful, Ins te ad ,they foundtha t·supervisorswere

'"

~rovid lnginformationandsugges t io ns onproblelllilthey~them s elve swere cont:er ne d wLth,butnoton the prob1elll S the sraduate studen t s were expe r ie nc in g intheirbeginnin~teachingalJsignme~ts· (~eav1s,19.80, p,19).On'oocuion lome of thesugguted activitie shsdalready been

.

^{.~ .}

tried"bythet~eeheraand found ineffective . Hore over , theauper- via or y conference iUelftended'tobe.directiv~ ,with the supe rv is or t'l'klns and thetueher lhtenlng.

:'!1'"

"

,

'. . ,mul<or..lo . . .. .

J

^{Co.on,. d hl:'o\l. ..u..}

b"'~ ^:0

re ·t hi nkthe a"Wllpt io n.. andrationa le of.xtantsupervis ory pr.etiee s.andeonl .ql.1.n t lytl.1rnedth~irIff or tltowarddevelopi nga eU ni ea l apprcreeh.vh ich theyfel twouldcha nge,thepr eviou.sl,.

unproduc ti ve'patte rnofc~nieationandluparvis i on. Aftaraf\lDIbar ofy.a r lof tri a l anderr or.experimentat ion andanaly sla. a eycleof lupervh or-teac he r intera e tionvasdevelop e d .whichellphllahe dthe colle ction ofb~haviouraldata,the analylllloftuch i ng plltternl lind theconsequent mod ific.ti onofa teaeher ' sbeh a vi Ol.1rt

The

v:

pUbli.hed texts onclin ical.•uperv hionver"by Goldhammer(l969) andCogan(l9n),which..adethe..IntllfnstionaUy sceep te~lea de n In thl. flald. Mosherand Purp. l (1972)and SerglovanniandStarra t t(19 19 )each.devdU da chapter tocli nical"

.upervia1on. Alao,ae~.r.l..~nograph.have.pp••red. Includlr13tho..

by~~el.s(1971),Ruvil{1918b).~.l1er(1971).Ch....p.gneand Hogan (1977) ,Hale andSp anJe r (1912),an d Su11 i"' an(19 80 ). TheJ..s!..IwlAl...

~(Fall ,1911)devoted.pe eialthe ... i . .u. .to tha .ubJ ect , A

••eccnd editio!'ofColdha.llllller' lwor k.reviledandco~authoredby , AndersonandKraJ e.,lki ,appea r e d in 1980. Moreov. r.r ••••rch i • .ongoingatsaveraluniveralt1e.'.espe cial lythe Univeu.i.tyof

Pittsbu rg , where bot hCogan andChampa gn••recurren tlyonIt . f f. In Can.d., theUn i veuity of C.l gary" inparticular,hili .do pted .nd .d.pte dthe clinis;al.upe~i~ionmodelfor it.studantta~chin&

programl, Like.,i.e. a. nlJll.b.rof Ichool ay.te••aero•• the count ry

.

^{'';: -;.-....".}

^- :"'. .,

^.

haveincorporated aomevllr..!on ofcl ini c a lsuperv i s ioninto their In. t r ucc l onal Il11p r oveme nt procedures .

However,it wouldbe..groll:'overs tatementto Implytha t cUn ic a l, ecp ecvt eten1s widespread throughouteitherlune r i ca norCanadi ~n sch o o l systems. 1Jh11eit appears readil yaccept a b l eIntheory , cUnicalsupervisionrelll8.1ns inth e rudimentary st a g e of itsdevelop - Illent. It hasbe ensugge ste dth at because supe rv is o rs lack the

"

nece.~ary..kill.t.Gappropria t ely ob s erve and analyze cka s sxcoa teachingbeftav iour.the clinicalpractice is difficulttoinitiate . Wha t I ..·n eede d hIthe

prov~. 10n

^{of moreadequate}untverility superviso r

"

.

trainingprograms, anli greatarJppor tun l tyforpra.cticlng supe rv is ors to nceiveon -the-joh'training \-n.o11 nic&1supervis ion ski lls (Krajewski ,,19 76).

Perhapsoneof thereason swhy cl i nic al'up a rv i ll1on hss stlllnot received -the hoped.for,widespread acceptanceby teacherssndaupe r- visors 1s thatithas toooft~nbeen equated with the c18ssroom observationcomponentonly . While the ob s l!I rv a t l on s tiegeis crucial to the lupervleorycycle ".clinical lIuperv b i onIIlUlit beperceivedas offer i ngllIora than this. Inadd i t i on to providing.a'me t h odological atructurt,'i t can aboprovide aph iloso ph i c alfrSJI.eworkfrolllwhi c h teachars andsupervisors,canwork.tog~ th'erto enhances~udent learn ing. KOTe recently,there.8.Ppearsto be a great eremphasison .

the latte; (Snyder,1981) , ,

•Obvioul1y,the

illlplelllentat{~

of clinical

f1uPe.rvhiO~

^wili

re quirea lon g term eff orton the. partofallconcerned, Sutas the

•••rch continua.fora bet t e rma tch be twe en teaching style and 26

27. learning style, thecUnlc~lpr oc edure lillyeve nt uallyre c eivegreater accep tance.'....tta ini ng the bett e r matc h Isp08s l ble,and"'.clin Ic a l

...

supe rv 1s10ll(bothconceptan d¥roces s)be c o~eamor e harmoniouswith the cur rent thinking ofedue a torstoward Ins tr~ tlonal11l1prOv8mlll\t, it could bec omea real ityin the nottoodistant'future (Kr ajewski, 1982).

'ih!j.l:h C\,nlpilSupe ryhl p n1

Themain focu sof clin icalsupervis i o nh onhe lpi n gte a c hers impr~vethe i r~erformance.th roughtheanaly 81sand feedba ck of,events observed inth e clas sroolD. Sullivan (1980,p.1) de sc rib esclinl.ca.1 supe rv f ef.on asIt"f~eldbas e d"ap proa ch toimpr ovinginstruction . Fie ld ba sfld,ofcour se" refe ra to the observ a tionan dan alysh of

~ctualclauroolllevent s. Hoshe.randPurpe1(1972, p.75)III"" ital!I .focusingon"t he ""h4ltandt?e how the tteacherate a ch , as they teach"

v!ththepri ma ry goalbeingEhe iIoprovelllent ofins t ru ction. Cogan(1973) ett\mptsto differe ntia teclin ic alaupe rv ~ aia"frolll generalsupervisi on. Hecontends th a t.. the former focuse s upon the ove ral l!

improvell.en~ ~f

^{a teacher 'a}

claur~om

inatruction....hi1e

t~

.btte rfocuse s lIIarespec1fic~llyan th eout- o f-clas s op e r at i on sth at are inten dedtoimp~ovein- c1 888instruction. ~lth oughheappea u\to

"mivegiven

~

^great<;leal 0\ thOUght totheunde rlyingtheory of . clin ical

aupei-viIJio~ ,

^{hh emphasis}

,re~aLn8'

^oneof proces s

orientstio~

.(Kr ajewski , 1982,p.~9). Cogsn(1973)~efl.n. .clin ics ~supervis io n

The rati onaleand practiceda dgnadto illlprov a the tuch er ' l classrooll pe rfOrJllance. Itcakesie.princip a~'datafrOIDthe