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1 Article Title Genetic div ersity of the endemic honeybee: Apis mellifera
unicolor (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in Madagascar
2 Article Sub- Title 3 Article Copyright
-Year
INRA, DIB and Springer-Verlag France 2015 (This w ill be the copyright line in the final PDF)
4 Journal Name Apidologie
5
Corresponding Author
Family Name Delatte
6 Particle
7 Given Name Hélène
8 Suffix
9 Organization CIRAD, UMR PVBMT
10 Division
11 Address 7, chemin de l’IRAT, Saint Pierre 97410, La
Réunion, France
12 e-mail helene.delatte@cirad.fr
13
Author
Family Name Rasolofoariv ao
14 Particle
15 Given Name Henriette
16 Suffix
17 Organization CIRAD, UMR PVBMT
18 Division
19 Address 7, chemin de l’IRAT, Saint Pierre 97410, La
Réunion, France
20 Organization Université d’Antananarivo
21 Division Département d’Entomologie, Faculté de Sciences
22 Address B.P. 906, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar
23 Organization Université de La Réunion, UMR PVBMT
24 Division
25 Address Saint Denis CEDEX 9 97715, La Réunion, France
26 e-mail
27
Author
Family Name Clémencet
28 Particle
30 Suffix
31 Organization Université de La Réunion, UMR PVBMT
32 Division
33 Address Saint Denis CEDEX 9 97715, La Réunion, France
34 e-mail
35
Author
Family Name Techer
36 Particle
37 Given Name Maév a Angélique
38 Suffix
39 Organization CIRAD, UMR PVBMT
40 Division
41 Address 7, chemin de l’IRAT, Saint Pierre 97410, La
Réunion, France
42 Organization Université de La Réunion, UMR PVBMT
43 Division
44 Address Saint Denis CEDEX 9 97715, La Réunion, France
45 e-mail
46
Author
Family Name Rav aomanariv o
47 Particle
48 Given Name Lala Hariv elo Rav eloson
49 Suffix
50 Organization Université d’Antananarivo
51 Division Département d’Entomologie, Faculté de Sciences
52 Address B.P. 906, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar
53 e-mail
54
Author
Family Name Reynaud
55 Particle
56 Given Name Bernard
57 Suffix
58 Organization CIRAD, UMR PVBMT
59 Division
60 Address 7, chemin de l’IRAT, Saint Pierre 97410, La
Réunion, France 61 e-mail 62 Schedule Received 1 October 2014 63 Revised 20 February 2015 64 Accepted 9 March 2015
65 Abstract Apis mellifera unicolor is a tropical honeybee endemic of Madagascar. Comprehensive knowledge about its mitochondrial and nuclear genetic diversity and structuration was our main purpose. Samples of worker bees were collected from 867 colonies in 76 sites in Madagascar and 1 reference population in South Africa. PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and sequencing were used to reveal variability in the COI–COII mtDNA region. Seventeen microsatellite loci were used for studying the nuclear diversity. Three PCR-RFLP profiles were observed, among which 99.4 % belonged to A1 haplotype, 0.2 % to a new A
haplotype, and 0.4 % to A4 haplotype. In microsatellite analysis, moderate genetic diversity values were found for Madagascar, together with low mean number of alleles ranging from 2.47 to 3.88 compared to South Africa. Bayesian clustering assignment methods and principal component analysis (PCA) separated populations into two genetic clusters which matched with
geographic areas. Several hypotheses are discussed regarding to the low genetic diversity of A. m. unicolor in its native range.
66 Keywords
separated by ' - '
Apis mellifera unicolor - microsatellite - African lineage - genetic diversity - mtDNA
67 Foot note information
Manuscript editor: Marina Meixner
Henriette Rasolofoarivao holds an Ir degree, CIRAD, UMR PVBMT. Johanna Clémencet holds a PhD degree, Université de La
Réunion, UMR PVBMT.
Maéva Angélique Techer holds an Ir degree, CIRAD, UMR PVBMT. Lala Harivelo Raveloson Ravaomanarivo holds a PhD degree, Université d’Antananarivo.
Bernard Reynaud holds a PhD degree, CIRAD, UMR PVBMT. Helene Delatte holds a PhD degree, CIRAD, UMR PVBMT.
The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13592-015-0362-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Div ersité génétique d'une abeille endémique de Madagascar: Apis mellifera unicolor (Hymenoptera: Apidae)
Microsatellite / lignée africaine / ADNmt / aire de répartition / haplotype
Genetische Div ersität der endemischen Honigbiene v on Madagaskar, Apis mellifera unicolor (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Apis mellifera unicolor / Mikrosatelliten / Afrikanische Lineage / genetische Div ersität / mtDNA
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
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1 Q12
Genetic diversity of the endemic honeybee:
Apis mellifera
3
unicolor (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in Madagascar
4 Henriette RASOLOFOARIVAO1,2,3,Johanna CLÉMENCET3,
Q2 Maéva Angélique TECHER1,3,
5 Lala Harivelo Raveloson RAVAOMANARIVO2,Bernard REYNAUD1,Hélène DELATTE1
6 1
Q3 CIRAD, UMR PVBMT, 7, chemin de l’IRAT, 97410, Saint Pierre, La Réunion, France
7 2
Département d’Entomologie, Faculté de Sciences, Université d’Antananarivo, B.P. 906, 101, Antananarivo, Madagascar
8 3
Université de La Réunion, UMR PVBMT, 97715, Saint Denis CEDEX 9, La Réunion, France 9 Received 1 October 2014– Revised 20 February 2015 – Accepted 9 March 2015 10
11 Abstract– Apis mellifera unicolor is a tropical honeybee endemic of Madagascar. Comprehensive knowledge about
12 its mitochondrial and nuclear genetic diversity and structuration was our main purpose. Samples of worker bees were
13 collected from 867 colonies in 76 sites in Madagascar and 1 reference population in South Africa.
Q4 PCR-restriction
14 fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and sequencing were used to reveal variability in the COI–COII mtDNA
15 region. Seventeen microsatellite loci were used for studying the nuclear diversity. Three PCR-RFLP profiles were
16 observed, among which 99.4 % belonged to A1 haplotype, 0.2 % to a new A haplotype, and 0.4 % to A4 haplotype. In
17 microsatellite analysis, moderate genetic diversity values were found for Madagascar, together with low mean number
18 of alleles ranging from 2.47 to 3.88 compared to South Africa. Bayesian clustering assignment methods and principal
19 component analysis (PCA) separated populations into two genetic clusters which matched with geographic areas.
20 Several hypotheses are discussed regarding to the low genetic diversity of A. m. unicolor in its native range.
21
22 Apis mellifera unicolor / microsatellite / African lineage / genetic diversity / mtDNA
23
24 1. INTRODUCTION
25 Apis mellifera subspecies are the most
econom-26 ically valuable pollinators of crop monocultures
27
worldwide (Klein et al.2007). In addition, honeybee
28
contribution to floral biodiversity and conservation
29
through pollination is estimated to affect 80 % of
30
wild flora (Batra1995; De la Rua et al.2009).
31
Remarkable morpho-geographical
differentia-32
tions are found throughout honeybee distribution
33
areas; 28 subspecies are endemic to Africa,
Eu-34
rope, and Middle East (Ruttner et al. 1978;
35
Ruttner 1988; Sheppard et al. 1997; Sheppard
36
and Meixner 2003). Four evolutionary lineages
37
have been described based on phenotypes and
38
molecular traits (Garnery et al. 1992, 1993;
39
Estoup et al. 1995; Franck et al. 2000, 2001;
40
Alburaki et al.2013).
41
In Africa, 11 subspecies are found from all
42
lineages except from the C lineage (Hepburn and
43
Radloff1998; Meixner et al.2011). The African A
44
lineage is native to Africa and subspecies include
45
Apis mellifera scutellata (Lepeletier 1836), Apis
46
mellifera capensis (Eschscholtz1822), and Apis
47
mellifera unicolor (Latreille1804).
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13592-015-0362-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Corresponding author: H. Delatte, helene.delatte@cirad.fr Manuscript editor: Marina Meixner
Henriette Rasolofoarivao holds an Ir degree, CIRAD, UMR PVBMT.
Johanna Clémencet holds a PhD degree, Université de La Réunion, UMR PVBMT.
Maéva Angélique Techer holds an Ir degree, CIRAD, UMR PVBMT.
Lala Harivelo Raveloson Ravaomanarivo holds a PhD degree, Université d’Antananarivo.
Bernard Reynaud holds a PhD degree, CIRAD, UMR PVBMT.
Helene Delatte holds a PhD degree, CIRAD, UMR PVBMT.
Apidologie
Original article
* INRA, DIB and Springer-Verlag France, 2015 DOI:10.1007/s13592-015-0362-1
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48 A. m. unicolor is the endemic subspecies of49 Madagascar, a drifted tropical island, located
50 400 km off the East coast of Africa. Madagascar
51 is among the five richest biodiversity hotspots of
52 the world in terms of endemic plants and vertebrate
53 species (Myers et al. 2000). However, less than
54 10 % of its original habitat still remains (Myers
55 et al.2000). In such an area of endemism, with over
56 80 % of endemic phanerogam (Ganzhorn et al.
57 2001), the role of pollinating insects is vital for
58 the reproduction of these plants. Although the
pol-59 linating role of the honeybee has never been
inves-60 tigated in detail for these floras, A. m. unicolor is
61 thought to play a crucial role in the pollination of
62 endemic phanerogam species (Ruttner 1975;
63
Q5 Ralalaharisoa-Ramamonjisoa et al.1996).
64 After molecular analysis, mitotype A1 was
at-65 tributed to the honeybee of Madagascar, with a
66 surprising absence of mitochondrial polymorphism
67 within this endemic subspecies (Franck et al.
68 2001). The latest molecular study using SNP
anal-69 yses suggested that A. m. unicolor had a specific
70 SNP (Whitfield et al.2006). However, those
as-71 sumptions were based on a low number of samples
72 (<50) taken from regions of the vast territory of
73 Madagascar. In terms of morphological and
behav-74 ioral criteria, two ecotypes were described, the first
75 from the highlands (Hauts Plateaux) and the
sec-76 ond from the coastal area (Ruttner1988).
77 Since the recent arrival of the parasitic mite
78 Varroa destructor documented in Madagascar in
79 2010, severe colony losses have been observed
80 (Rasolofoarivao et al.2013). This situation may
81 dramatically impact the biodiversity of
Madagas-82 car. Therefore, considering the lack of genetic data
83 and the threat to this subspecies, it appears
neces-84 sary to improve our knowledge on A. m. unicolor
85 genetic diversity in its native area.
86 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
87 2.1. Area of study
88 The land area and relief of Madagascar gives rise to
89 various climatic zones. The year is characterized by two
90 distinct seasons: the austral winter (April to November)
91 and the austral summer (December to March). The coastal
92 zones enjoy a warm climate, and mean annual
tempera-93 tures range between 22 and 25 °C. The upland areas of the
94
island have a more temperate climate with a mean annual
95
temperature of 20 °C. Tropical forests mainly consist of
96
deciduous woodland in Western Madagascar and
xero-97
phytic thorn forests in the southern region (Figure1).
98
2.2. Sampling
99
One adult worker honeybee per colony was sampled
100
between August 2011 and March 2013 from 76 sites
101
(n =867) in Madagascar (Figure1, SD TableI).
Sam-102
pling was performed on managed colonies and 33 wild
103
colonies (collected in Djamajar (S8) n =6, Antsoha (S7)
104
n =9, Rantolava (S24) n =3, and Tsararano (S21) n =
105
15). As a reference population from African lineage,
106
samples were collected from 22 managed colonies in
107
South Africa (one apiary from Cape region) in 2013.
108
Honeybees were preserved in ethanol (96 %) and kept at
109
−20 °C until molecular analysis.
110
2.3. DNA extraction
111
The six worker legs were used for DNA isolation. DNA
112
was extracted from individual honeybees as previously
113
described (Delatte et al.2010). All individuals were
sub-114
jected to both microsatellite and mitochondrial analyses.
115
2.4. Microsatellite amplification
116
and genotyping
117
Microsatellite population studies were carried out using
118
17 loci published in Solignac et al. (2003) and combined
119
into four different mixes (mix 1: A024, A113, Ac306,
120
Ap055, Ap081; mix 2: A (B)124, A028, A029, A088,
121
Ap273, Ap289; mix 3: Ap033, A035, Ap036; mix 4:
122
A014, Ap043, Ap066). PCR reactions were performed
123
in a 10 μL final reaction volume with a primer mix
124
(10 μM) using Type-it Multiplex PCR Master Mix
125
(Qiagen) kits. PCR programs were run with an initial
126
denaturation of 94 °C for 5 min, followed by 35 cycles
127
of denaturation at 94 °C for 30 s; annealing was 55 °C for
128
30 s for mix 1 and 52 °C for mixes 2–4, followed by
129
elongation at 72 °C for 30 to 45 s. A final extension was
130
done at 72 °C for 10 to 20 min.
Figure 1. Madagascar map with ecological zonation and honeybee sampling sites (emplacements of each site are presented in red polygons ). The 76 sites are spread in 6 geographic regions. Each number repre-sents a site with correspondence in TableI.
H. Rasolofoarivao et al.
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North: dry deciduous forest, dry tropical climate
West: dry deciduous forest, hot tropical climate during dry season
Center: high land, sub humid forest, altitude tropical climate
East: wetter area of island, lowland forest, sub equatorial climate
South: half desert, spiny thickets, dry tropical climate
South west: succulent woodlands, dry tropical climate
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131 Samples were further genotyped using an automated132 DNA sequencer (Applied Biosystems 3130XL) with
133 capillaries. Allele sizes were scored using GeneMapper
134 4.0 Software. Individuals with genotype data missing
135 for more than 40 % of all loci were excluded from
136 statistical analysis. Small sample sizes under 10
indi-137 viduals per site were not included in the nuclear genetic
138 analysis at population level.
139 2.5. Microsatellite analysis
140 Observed (Ho), expected (He), and Nei’s 1987
un-141 biased expected (Hn.b) heterozygosity and fixation
in-142 dices (Fis) (
Q6 Weir et al. 1984) were estimated using
143 Genepop 4.2 (Rousset 2008) and Genetix 4.05
144 (Belkhir et al.1996). All pairs of loci were tested for
145 linkage disequilibrium using Genepop 4.2 (Rousset
146 2008). Deviations from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium
147 (HWE) were tested using a two-tailed Fisher exact test
148 based on Markov chain (Rousset2008). Permutation
149 tests conducted by FSTAT (Goudet2001) determined
150 whether genetic diversity (He, Hn.b, Ho) and Fis
dif-151 fered significantly between geographical regions.
152 FreeNA (
Q7 Chapuis and Estoup 2007) was used to
153 estimate null allele frequencies. Population
differentia-154 tion was quantified by calculating pairwise FSTvalues
155 (Weir and Cockerham1984) and verifying their
signif-156 icance through the permutational test in Genetix 4.05
157 (Belkhir et al.1996). Relationships between genetic and
158 geographic distances at all sites were tested using the
159 Mantel’s test in Genepop 4.2 (Rousset2008). The
sig-160 nificance of the correlation between matrices of
geo-161 graphical and genetic distances among pairs of sites
162 was tested using 1000 permutations of the data. As
163 potential isolation by distance (ibd) patterns may not hold
164 over the entire range (1470 km), because at some point
165 the influence of gene flow is expected to be weak relative
166 to the influence of genetic drift and homoplasy
167 (Hutchison and Templeton1999), ibd patterns were
in-168 vestigated at smaller spatial scales, i.e., in sites from the
169 northern regions (500 km, nsites=7), the central regions
170 (370 km, nsites=15), and southern regions of the island
171 (380 km, nsites=9). We further investigated the
impor-172 tance of scale on spatial genetic structuring by
173 performing a hierarchical F analysis, which estimates
174 the genetic variation found at each hierarchical level. A
175 nested tree-level analysis of molecular variance
176 (AMOVA, Excoffier and Lischer2010) was performed
177 by partitioning the total sum of squares into components
178
representing variation between geographical regions,
179
among sites within regions and among individuals within
180
sites using Arlequin V3.5 (Excoffier and Lischer2010).
181
Levels of population admixture were quantified
182
using a number of Bayesian clustering procedures as
183
implemented in Structure V2.3.4 (Pritchard et al.2000).
184
The number of population clusters was inferred
accord-185
ing to Evanno et al. (2005) and the ad hoc statisticΔK
186
was calculated for K ranging from 1 to 10 for the full
187
dataset comprising the reference population and 1 to 20
188
within the Madagascar dataset (1 million simulations
189
and 100,000 burn-in with 10 iterations for each K ). This
190
ad hoc statistic was processed through the Structure
191
Harvester website (http://taylor0.biology.ucla.edu/
192
structureHarvester/). Clumpp v.1.1.2 (Jakobsson and
193
Rosenberg2007) was used to align the best of the five
194
repetitions of the K . Distruct v.1.1 (Rosenberg 2004)
195
was used to graphically display the results. A principal
196
component analysis (PCA) was performed on the
ge-197
netic data to visualize genetic differentiation among the
198
population groups using adegenet 1.4 (Jombart2008) in
199
R software (Team2005). Adegenet 1.4 was also used to
200
check the dataset structure using an alternative
cluster-201
ing analysis with a discriminant analysis of principal
202
component (DAPC).
203
2.6. Mitochondrial analysis
204
Mitochondrial DNA COI–COII region was
ampli-205
fied using two specific primers, E2 and H2 (Garnery
206
et al. 1992). Amplification and PCR cycles were as
207
described in Garnery et al. (1992). The size of the
208
fragment amplified was visualized using 5μL of the
209
PCR products electrophoresed on 2 % agarose gel. PCR
210
products were then used both for enzymatic restriction
211
and sequencing.
212Q8
Ten microliters of PCR products from Madagascar
213
(n =867) and South Africa (n =22) were enzymatically
214
digested by the DraI (Promega©) enzyme according to
215
manufacturer recommendations. The resulting
frag-216
ments were separated in 4 % agarose gel. Each
enzy-217
matic profile was scored and compared to expected
218
sizes published (Garnery et al. 1992; Franck et al.
219
2001). Each profile with a different band pattern
ob-220
served on gel in Madagascar was sent for sequencing
221
(121 samples of the dominant profile, 2 per other
pro-222
file). PCR products (n =173) were sent to Macrogen©
223
for sequencing. Of these, some were taken from wild
224
colonies (site Tsararano S21 n =10). DNA sequence H. Rasolofoarivao et al.
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225 results were aligned using MEGA 5.04 (Kumar et al.226 2008) then analyzed by BLAST search on GenBank.
227 Genetic relationships between the different sequences
228 obtained for the A1 haplotypes from Madagascar were
229 investigated by constructing a minimum-spanning
net-230 work of the haplotypes with TCS software (Clement
231 et al.2000).
232 3. RESULTS
233 3.1. Diversity indices
234 The amplification was successful for 710 out of
235 867 Malagasy and for all South African (n =22)
236 individuals (with at least 10 loci amplified per
237 sample). Of the 77 sampled sites, only 33 have
238 more than 10 individuals (SD TableI). Analysis
239 for linkage disequilibrium showed no significant
240 deviation from equilibrium among the 17
micro-241 satellite marker pairs (all P >0.05), except
be-242 tween loci A113 and A24 (P <0.05).
243 The average number of alleles per population
244 and over 17 markers varied between 2.47 and 3.88
245 in Madagascar with an overall average of 7.76
246 alleles/locus , and for the single reference
popula-247 tion of South Africa, the average number was
248 12.57 alleles/locus (TableI).
249 Unbiased estimated heterozygosity (Hn.b)
250 ranged from 0.36 to 0.50 for Madagascar, and
251 for the reference population Hn.b=0.86 (TableI).
252 Across all loci, less than 10 % null allele was
253 observed (Table I). Inbreeding coefficient Fis
254 ranged from heterozygote excess (outbreeding,
255 −0.07) to heterozygote deficiency (inbreeding, 256 0.15) compared with HWE expectations. No
dif-257 ference was detected among geographical regions
258 within Madagascar (SD Table II, Comparisons
259 among groups, all P >0.4).
260 3.2. Genetic structure
261 FSTestimates among pairs of sites ranged from
262 −0.02 to 0.17, with 318 out of 496 genetic differ-263 entiation estimates being significantly different
264 from zero (SD Table III) within Madagascar
265 dataset. FSTestimates between the overall
Mala-266 gasy populations and the reference population of
267 South Africa were highly significant and
268 equal to 0.34.
269
Within each of the northern, central, and
south-270
ern parts of Madagascar (<500 km between sites),
271
nuclear genetic differentiation between sites was
272
positively correlated with the logarithm of
geo-273
graphical distance (Figure2a, b, c). However, at
274
the island scale (north to south 1470 km, nsites=
275
32), the correlation between the two matrices was
276
no longer significant (Mantel test, P = 0.87;
277
Figure 2d). The analysis of molecular variance
278
comprising only Madagascar populations showed
279
that the main contribution to the genetic variance
280
was variation within sites (94 %). Differences
281
among regions (2.3 %) and among sites within
282
regions (3.34 %) were much lower but contributed
283
significantly to the total genetic variation (SD
284
Table IV). When all regions were taken into
ac-285
count (within Madagascar), all hierarchical levels
286
accounted for a significant part of the genetic
287
diversity.
288
Variation in allelic composition was
highlight-289
ed by Structure. The optimal K =2 was the most
290
strongly supported in likelihood using the
refer-291
ence population (Figure 3), with South African
292
individuals being far apart from the Malagasy
293
individuals. Then, looking at the substructure
294
intra-Madagascar populations, the optimal and
295
strongest K population is 2 (SD Fig. 1, SD
296
Fig.2). The DAPC analysis corroborates the same
297
clustering analysis using both datasets. For the full
298
dataset (South Africa and Madagascar), three
ge-299
netic clusters were found (one for South African
300
individuals, and two closer ones within
Madagas-301
car; Figure4).
302
Under the K =2 population clustering
assump-303
tion within Madagascar, a geographic structuring
304
appears with populations from the north,
north-305
west, and south together in cluster 1 as opposed to
306
populations from the west and east (cluster 2). The
307
highland populations were mostly a mix of two
308
genetic clusters (Figures1and4, SD Fig.2).
309
3.3. PCR-restriction fragment length
310
polymorphism patterns and sequences
311
After analysis of the Madagascar samples,
312
three different PCR-restriction fragment length
313
polymorphism (RFLP) profiles were detected.
314
Two restriction profiles were congruent with ones
315
already published. The dominant PCR-RFLP
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316 profile observed was the African A1 haplotype
317 (99.4 %), which exhibited three lengths of
318
fragments (∼47, 108, and 483 bp) (Franck et al.
319 2001). Another PCR-RFLP profile referred to as
t1:1
Q9 Table I. Genetic diversity indices by sites. t1:2 Geographical regions Map codes Sites (S) Number He Hn.b. Ho Fis Nbr An t1:3 Madagascar t1:4 North 2 Namakia 10 0.38 0.40 0.42 −0.07 2.47 0.05 t1:5 Northeast 11 Analamandrorofo 16 0.42 0.44 0.38 0.11a 3.47 0.06 t1:6 13 Analapenja 11 0.35 0.37 0.34 0.08 2.76 0.02 t1:7 15 Antohomarina 22 0.38 0.39 0.34 0.14a 3.29 0.07 t1:8 Northwest 20 Tsararano M. 10 0.38 0.40 0.39 0.01 3.00 0.02 t1:9 21 Tsararano M. 15 0.43 0.44 0.37 0.16a 3.35 0.07 t1:10 22 Tsaramandroso 10 0.42 0.45 0.35 0.21a 3.18 0.07 t1:11 Hauts Plateaux 34 Ambotseheno 19 0.40 0.41 0.34 0.18a 3.24 0.08
t1:12 35 Betoho 16 0.38 0.39 0.35 0.10a 2.94 0.05 t1:13 36 Anjepy 12 0.42 0.44 0.42 0.04 3.24 0.04 t1:14 37 Maharidaza 10 0.38 0.41 0.40 0.02 2.76 0.03 t1:15 38 Mandraka 12 0.40 0.41 0.38 0.09 3.06 0.05 t1:16 40 Ivato 17 0.43 0.45 0.41 0.06 3.18 0.07 t1:17 42 Andramasina 10 0.43 0.46 0.40 0.14a 3.12 0.06 t1:18 43 Toronala 33 0.38 0.39 0.36 0.07a 3.53 0.05 t1:19 47 Ihazolava 12 0.38 0.40 0.36 0.11a 3.06 0.06 t1:20 49 Anativato 11 0.40 0.42 0.43 −0.02 3.00 0.05 t1:21 50 Mahazina 10 0.34 0.36 0.32 0.11 2.94 0.05 t1:22 Hauts Plateaux south 52 Soanirina 11 0.37 0.40 0.40 −0.04 2.56 0.05 t1:23 53 Ambositra 10 0.36 0.39 0.32 0.17a 2.59 0.05 t1:24 54 Tsararano 43 0.38 0.39 0.36 0.07a 3.76 0.05 t1:25 55 Vohimasina 22 0.40 0.41 0.38 0.09a 3.29 0.07 t1:26 West 63 Androvabe 11 0.47 0.50 0.43 0.15a 3.24 0.07 t1:27 Southwest 66 Toliary 30 0.39 0.39 0.33 0.15a 3.88 0.06 t1:28 67 Bezaha 23 0.42 0.43 0.42 0.03 3.47 0.02 t1:29 South 68 Mahatalaky 17 0.44 0.45 0.41 0.10a 3.47 0.06 t1:30 70 Ifarantsy 10 0.35 0.37 0.35 0.07 2.53 0.03 t1:31 71 Ifarantsy 16 0.39 0.40 0.38 0.04 3.24 0.04 t1:32 72 Ampasy N. 10 0.42 0.45 0.39 0.13a 3.12 0.05 t1:33 74 Soanierana 21 0.40 0.41 0.38 0.08a 3.47 0.06 t1:34 75 Ankaramena 13 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.03 2.71 0.05 t1:35 76 Ambovombe 15 0.42 0.44 0.39 0.09 3.35 0.04
t1:36 South Africa 77 Cape 22 0.84 0.86 0.83 0.031 12.57 0.03
For each site, indicated are as follows: their geographical region, number of individuals per site, expected heterozygosity (He),
expected unbiased heterozygosity (Hn.b), observed heterozygosity (Ho), estimate of Wright’s (Weir and Cockerham1984) fixation
index (Fis),mean number of allele (Nbr). Only sites with at least 10 individuals per apiary are considered
An mean null allele frequency
aDeviations from HWE
H. Rasolofoarivao et al.
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ED
PR
OOF
320 the A4 haplotype (∼47, 108, 192, and 483 bp) was
321 found in three individuals in our sample, two from
322 S66 and one from S23. Another notable profile
323 was found in two individuals from S22 and S29
324 (∼47, 108, 150, 350 bp). The total sizes of each
325 haplotype ranged from 638 bp for A1, 830 bp for
326 A4, and 655 bp for the new haplotype. Within the
327 South African samples, two different PCR-RFLP
328 profiles were detected: A1 haplotype (n =1) and
329 A4 haplotype (n =21).
330 A total of 173 samples collected in 49 sites
331 were sequenced. A total of 18 different sequences
332 were found with variable sequence sizes
belong-333 ing to the A lineage (SD Table V). The 16
se-334 quences obtained for the A1 restriction profile
335 have never been reported and were named
336 A1_Mad1 to A1_Mad16 (accession numbers
337 KF976992 to KF977009). These 16 sequences
338 were characterized by one unit P0and one unit
339 Q . The most frequent sequence, A1_Mad3, was
340
present in all sites (n =121, 70 %). The sequences
341
of the two individuals exhibiting the new
PCR-342
RFLP haplotype (in S29, S22) cluster within the
343
A. m. unicolor group (it was subsequently named
344
A1_Mad13) and we propose to classify it as a
345
subtype of A1. The two other sequences
346
(A4_Mad1 and A4_Mad2) were genetically close
347
to the A4 haplotypes of A. m. scutellata
(acces-348
sion number FJ 477987 (Franck et al. 2001),
349
similarity=98 %) and found in two different
re-350
gions of the West coast of Madagascar (R4 and
351
R16) (SD TableV, SD Fig.2). The A4 haplotypes
352
were characterized by one unit P0and two units
353
Q sequences.
354
4. DISCUSSION
355
Previous PCR-RFLP analyses performed on 48
356
individuals from Madagascar by several authors
357
(Garnery et al.1992; Franck et al.2001) detected
Figure 2. Relationship between logarithm of geographical distance and nuclear genetic differentiation as estimated as FST/(1−FST), between a sites from the northern region only (nsites=7, P =0.014), b the southern region only
(nsites=9, P =0.0027), c sites from Hauts Plateaux only (nsites=16, 120 combinations, Mantel test P =0.014), and d
sites from all regions sampled in Madagascar (nsites=32, 496 combinations, Mantel test P =0.84).
UNCORRECT
ED
PR
OOF
358 a single restriction profile (A1). The larger
sam-359 pling scale of this study in Madagascar detected a
360 new A1 restriction profile and the occurrence of
361
an A4 restriction profile. The sequencing
ap-362
proach used in our study revealed mtDNA
vari-363
ability with 16 new sequences. Haplotype
Figure 3. Population structure and Euclidean distances among genetic clusters based on 17 microsatellites loci. Top : Structure bar plots (K =2, 3, and 4) with 22 reference samples from South Africa and 710 individuals of Madagascar organized by sampling sites (S1–76). Each horizontal bar represents one individual, and sites are delimited by black lines . The height of each bar represents the probability of assignment to a genetic cluster (one color ). Bottom : PCAs among individual genotypes assigned to the different clusters (K =2, 3, and 4). Inertia percentage of each axis is indicated (using 232 variables).
H. Rasolofoarivao et al.
UNCORRECT
ED
PR
OOF
364 frequencies and network analyses suggested that
365 divergences are quite recent (SD Fig.3), with all
366 A1 sequences in Madagascar diverging from the
367 predominant one through one single mutation
368 (except for A1Mad_12). The A1 haplotype is
369 widespread. It was found in this study in South
370 Africa, and it has also been reported in Morocco
371 (De la Rua et al. 2006), Algeria (Chahbar et al.
372 2013), Sudan (El-Niweiri and Moritz2008), and
373 in the Middle East (Alburaki et al.2011). Three
374 samples from A4 were found in the Western
re-375 gion of Madagascar. Two of these samples show
376 high genetic diversity compared to A4 published
377 sequences. A4 haplotypes might probably result
378 from ancestral introductions to the island together
379 with ancestral A1, as both haplotypes (belonging
380 to AIsublineage) are commonly distributed within
381 the different African subspecies populations
382 (Franck et al.2001).
383
The absence of haplotypes belonging to other
384
lineages in our study implies that introductions of
385
foreign queens are rare. This can be explained by
386
the fact that other subspecies i) if imported/
387
introduced were too few to be seen in our sampling,
388
ii) are not well adapted to this environment (climate
389
and specific endemic vegetation), or iii) are not
390
selected by traditional Malagasy beekeepers, A. m.
391
unicolor being easy to handle compared to other
392
much more aggressive subspecies like the
African-393
ized honeybee (Ruttner1988; Winston1992).
394
Madagascar populations were highly different
395
(FST=0.34) to the reference population
(compris-396
ing A1 and A4 haplotypes). Furthermore, A. m.
397
unicolor has a poor allelic diversity in terms of
398
number of alleles for each population marker
399
(Nbr=2.47 to 3.88), in comparison to our
refer-400
ence population (Nbr=12.57) or even with other
401
studies performed on African honeybee
Figure 4. DAPC based on individual genotypes of Madagascar (n =710) and reference population of South Africa (n =22). Dots of different colors indicate honeybee samples from different genetic clusters (K =3). Inertia percent-age of each axis, PCs eigenvalues, and discriminant factors retained are indicated.
UNCORRECT
ED
PR
OOF
402 populations with allelic diversity ranging from 7.9403 (A. m. capensis ) to 9 (Apis mellifera intermissa )
404 and even 11 (A. m. scutellata ) (for 7 to 12
micro-405 satellite loci, with most loci being the same in both
406 studies) (Estoup et al.1995).
407 The levels of heterozygosity observed in
Mala-408 gasy populations were also much lower than the
409 reference population used in this study and those
410 reported from African populations. Across
Mada-411 gascar, levels varied from 0.34 to 0.47 (He), while
412 the reference population He=0.84, and the average
413 Heranged between 0.78 and 0.90 (A. m. intermissa
414 to A. m. scutellata) in African populations (Franck
415 et al.2001). In parallel, the lowest levels ranged
416 from 0.26 to 0.66 in west Mediterranean subspecies
417 (Apis mellifera iberiensis and Apis mellifera
418 siciliana , respectively) (Garnery et al.1998).
419 High levels of nuclear polymorphism in African
420 populations have been explained by i) quaternary
421 climate changes that could be responsible for
hon-422 eybee subspecies diversification and expansion in
423 Africa (Franck et al. 2001), ii) larger effective
424 population size (Estoup et al.1995), allowing more
425 alleles to be maintained, and iii) the high migratory
426 behavior of colonies which is typical for African
427 honeybees south of the Sahara (Hepburn and
428 Radloff 1998; Jaffe et al. 2009). Allelic richness
429 within populations can also be increased by
intro-430 gression of foreign genes into zones with other
431 subspecies. Due to the lack of data on the biology
432 of the Malagasy subspecies, it is difficult to
com-433 pare effective population size of A. m. unicolor to
434 other subspecies. However, its insular situation
435 prevents frequent natural introductions and may
436 in part explain the low nuclear polymorphism.
437 Both the significant pairwise FSTvalues observed
438 between neighboring sites (i.e., S34–S35 only
439 10 km apart, SD Table III) and the significant
440 isolation by distance patterns observed among sites
441 500 km apart (Figures1and2) suggest that gene
442 flow is restricted. The larger variance of FSTat
443 longer distances (>500 km, Figure 2d) indicates
444 that at the island scale, the influence of genetic drift
445 is strong relative to gene flow (Hutchison and
446 Templeton1999) and that problems of homoplasy
447 could be more important (Jarne and Lagoda1996).
448 As observed in A. m. capensis from South Africa,
449 A. m. unicolor populations may be less mobile
450 than other African subspecies (Estoup et al.1995)
451
because of the topography of the island (coastal vs.
452
Hauts Plateaux areas) and the climatic variations
453
between regions. Indeed this was underlined with
454
the results of Structure indicating genetic
455
subclustering of the observed populations into at
456
least two major clusters. The observed genetic
457
subclustering did not match the distribution of the
458
two honeybee ecotypes described by Ruttner
459
(1988). Furthermore, we found such an admixture
460
of genetic clusters between populations from
dif-461
ferent regions and the region surrounding the
cap-462
ital (on the Hauts Plateaux) that those ecotypes
463
might have been mixed in the recent past. Indeed,
464
in Madagascar, most goods pass through the
capi-465
tal, central market, and free commercial exchanges,
466
which facilitate honeybee movement. Transport
467
routes around the island are limited but all of them
468
lead to the capital.
469
Wild populations, uninfluenced by beekeeping,
470
exist in many regions of Africa, and honeybees
471
from natural habitats have been shown to have a
472
higher genetic diversity than managed populations
473
(Allsopp2004), so more intensive studies of wild
474
colonies in protected and wild zones of
Madagas-475
car would be interesting to confirm or not our
476
findings on the genetic diversity of A. m. unicolor .
477
Several clues and hypotheses point out the fact
478
that A. m. unicolor might be derived from a recent
479
(in geological time) colonization event of this
480
continental island: i) relatively low mitochondrial
481
and nuclear genetic diversity were found on A. m.
482
unicolor in Madagascar, compared to other
sub-483
species of the A lineage (Estoup et al. 1995;
484
Franck et al. 1998,2001). ii) The hypothesis on
485
molecular data showing A lineage split from other
486
lineages 6 million years ago with A. m. unicolor
487
divergence from other subspecies more recently
488
(1 million years ago) (Han et al. 2012). iii) The
489
prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent
Gond-490
wana which separated Madagascar from mainland
491
Africa is dated much earlier (around 135 million
492
years ago; Rabinowitz et al. 1983) than the first
493
honeybee species.
494
Nevertheless, its morphological (two ecotypes)
495
and behavioral differences (one of the most gentle
496
honeybees in the world (Ruttner1988)) from
oth-497
er African honeybees suggest that, such as the
498
flora of the island, A. m. unicolor seems to have
499
evolved in relative isolation. Furthermore, the low
H. Rasolofoarivao et al.
UNCORRECT
ED
PR
OOF
500 genetic diversity observed, if confirmed in wild501 and conserved areas, might also be the result of
502 over 1400 years of high deforestation rates and
503 habitat fragmentation on the island (Campbell
504 1993; Gade1996) which has been increasing over
505 the last 50 years (Harper et al.2007).
506
507 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
508
509 We thank Ravelomanana A. for mapping sites with
510 GIS and Simiand C. for technical help in the laboratory.
511 We thank the following people for their help with data
512 collection: Rousse P., Porphyre V. (and QualiREG
net-513 working), Borsa C., Mandirola V., Andrianaivoariseta N.,
514 Razafindrazaka D., Cattel J., Chesnais Q., ADEFA, and
515 FENAM. We are grateful to the Malagasy beekeepers who
516 participated in the study. We would like to thank Garnery
517 L. for the fruitful discussions related to those genetic
518 results. This work is part of the Ph.D. of Rasolofoarivao
519 H., recipient of a grant of CIRAD-AIRD-Sud. Field work
520 had been partly funded by CIRAD, the Enlargement and
521 sustainability of the Plant Protection Network supported by
522 the European Union, the French government, and the
523 Région Réunion and the Département of la Réunion. In
524 addition, we would like to thank the editor (M. Meixner)
525 and the anonymous referees for their remarks that greatly
526 improved our manuscript.
527
528 Diversité génétique d'une abeille endémique de Mada-529 gascar: Apis mellifera unicolor (Hymenoptera: 530 Apidae)
531 Microsatellite / lignée africaine / ADNmt / aire de ré-532 partition / haplotype
533 Genetische Diversität der endemischen Honigbiene von 534 Madagaskar, Apis mellifera unicolor (Hymenoptera: 535 Apidae)
536 Apis mellifera unicolor / Mikrosatelliten / Afrikanische 537 Lineage / genetische Diversität / mtDNA
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