Table of Content

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Table of Content

Acknowledgments ... i

Abstract ...iv

Samenvatting ...vi

Résumé ... viii

Table of Content...x

List of Figures ...xii

List of Tables ...xiv

List of Acronyms ... xvii

Introduction ...1

PART I PRESENTATION OF THE RESEARCH... 6

Chapter 1 | Theoretical Context of the Research...7

Chapter 2 | Theoretical Hypotheses... 20

2.1. The Relative Deprivation Hypothesis ... 21

2.2. The Identification Hypothesis ... 30

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PART II RESULTS...79

Chapter 5 | Descriptive Statistics and Exploratory Data Analysis... 80

5.1. Univariate Analysis of the Socio-Demographic Variables... 80

5.2. Mediating Variables ... 86

Chapter 6 | Pupils’ Gender-Related Attitudes... 96

6.1. Data...102

6.2. Results...104

6.3. Discussion...112

Chapter 7 | Pupils’ Sexual Prejudice...116

7.1. Traditional, Modern Sexual Prejudice and Gay Civil Right Issues ...119

7.2. Data...122

7.3. Results...127

Chapter 8 | Pupils’ Endorsement of Assimilationism...140

8.1. Hypotheses ...142

8.2. Data...147

8.3. Statistical Analysis ...150

8.4. Results...151

Chapter 9 | Impact of Schools on Pupils’ Attitudes towards Minorities...160

9.1. School Explanatory Variables (N:70) ...165

9.2. Results...170

Chapter 10 | General Discussion...185

References ...200

Attachments ...213

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Brussels Administrative Units ... 42

Figure 2: Flowchart of the Research ... 51

Figure 3: Municipalities Selected in our Sample ... 52

Figure 4: Location of Participating Schools in Relation with the Proportion of Non-EU Immigrants in Brussels Municipalities in 2006 ... 56

Figure 5: Location of Participating Schools and Average Income per Inhabitant in Brussels Municipalities... 57

Figure 6: Location of Participating Schools and Proportion of Inhabitants Younger than 20 in Brussels Municipalities in 2006 ... 58

Figure 7: Location of Participating Schools and Total Population in Brussels Municipalities in 2008 ... 59

Figure 8: Illustration of the Dependency that May Compose our Clustered Sample with the Covariance Structure of an Outcome ... 64

Figure 9: Diagram of a Two-Level Hierarchy Structure: Pupils (p) within Schools (s)... 65

Figure 10: Graphic Illustration of a Random Intercept Model... 66

Figure 11: Graphic Illustration of a Random Intercept Random Slope Model ... 68

Figure 12: Three-Level Nested Structure: Multivariate Responses (I) within Pupils (P) within Schools (S)... 71

Figure 13: Mediational Model (Reproduced from Baron & Kenny, 1986, p. 1176)... 75

Figure 14: School Track ... 82

Figure 15: Socio- Economic Situation of the Family ... 83

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Figure 27: Ethnic Identification of Pupils with a Migrant Background ... 93

Figure 28: Distribution of the Women Emancipation Item...103

Figure 29: Distribution of the Gender Role Item...103

Figure 30: Frequency of the Mokken Scale with the Items on the Endorsement of Assimilationism ...149

Figure 31: Schema of the Sequential Regression for the Endorsement of Assimilationism ...150

Figure 32: Distribution of the Gender Diversity Index across Schools...167

Figure 33: Distribution of the Cultural Diversity Index across Schools...168

Figure 34: Distribution of the Average SES across Schools...170

Figure 35: Distribution of the Standard Deviation of SES across Schools...170

Figure 36 : Cultural Diversity Index against Predicted Values of HomoT3 at the School Level with the Impact of Cultural Diversity Index (N=70) ...176

Figure 37: Cultural Diversity Index against the Predicted Values of HomoT3 with the Impact of CDI (N=67)...177

Figure 38: Social Diversity against Predicted Values of HomoT3 at the School Level with the Impact of Social Diversity (N=70) ...178

Figure 39: Position of the Six Outlying Schools on the Distribution of SD SES and Average SES...179

Figure 40: Social Diversity against Predicted Values of HomoT3 with the Impact of Social Diversity (N=64) ...180

Figure 41: Average SES against Predicted Values of HomoT3 at the School Level with the Impact of Average SES (N=70) ...181

Figure 42: Graph for Guttman Errors in Response Patterns for the Entire Sample...288

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List of Tables

Table 1: Berry's Typology of Acculturation Strategies ... 31

Table 2: Comparison of the Non-Participating and Participating Schools with Regard to Municipalities ... 53

Table 3: Comparison of the Non-Participating and Participating Schools with Regard to the Education Systems... 54

Table 4: Comparison of the Non-Participating and Participating Schools with Regard to the Education Networks... 54

Table 5: Comparison of the Non-Participating and Participating Schools with Regard to Education Tracks ... 55

Table 6: Comparison of the Sample Composition with the Official Statistics on the School Going Population of the Last Year of the Secondary Education in 2006-2007 in Brussels Region ... 62

Table 7: Overview of the Research Questions and Statistical Analyses... 78

Table 8: Frequency of the Origin Categories... 81

Table 9: Country of Birth of Pupils with a Migrant Background ... 82

Table 10: Mother Tongue ... 82

Table 11: Gender... 82

Table 12: Employment Status of the Mother... 85

Table 13: Religious Socialisation ... 85

Table 14: Religious Services Attendance ... 86

Table 15: First Institutional Discrimination Item against Country of Birth of the Mother... 87

Table 16: Second Institutional Discrimination Item against Country of Birth of the Mother ... 88

Table 17: Third Institutional Discrimination Item against Country of Birth of the Mother... 88

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Table 26: Overview of the Results of Youngsters' Attitudes towards Gender-Related Issues...112

Table 27: Overview of the Hypotheses on Sexual Prejudice...122

Table 28: Items on Attitude towards Lesbians and Gay Men ...123

Table 29: Frequency of the Eight Sexual Prejudice Items...124

Table 30: Multivariate Analyses of Variance with the Explanatory Variables at the Individual Level and the Eight Sexual Prejudice Items ...126

Table 31: Socio-Demographic Predictors of Sexual Prejudice at Level 1 (Controlling for School Variation)...128

Table 32: Variance-Covariance Matrix at Level 1 for the Model Comprising the Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Pupils...129

Table 33: Identification with Receiving Society, Ethnic Identification and Experience of Group-Level Institutional Discrimination as Mediating Variables for the Socio-Demographic Predictors at Level 1 (Controlling for School Variation)...131

Table 34: Variance-Covariance Matrix at Level 1 for the Model Comprising the Socio-Demographic Predictors and the Mediating Variables ...133

Table 35: Variance-Covariance Matrix on the School Level for the Model Comprising the Socio-Demographic Predictors and the Mediating Variables at the Individual Level ...135

Table 36: Overview of the Results of Youngsters’ Sexual Prejudice...136

Table 37: Hypotheses on Perceived Group-Level Institutional Discrimination and Experienced Group-Level Institutional Discrimination by Ethnic Minorities and the Majority...146

Table 38: Overview of the Hypotheses on the Endorsement of Assimilationism...147

Table 39: Analysis of Variance for Each Predictor on the Assimilationism Scale...149

Table 40 : Results of the Individual Characteristics on the Attitudes towards Assimilationism –by Controlling the Impact of Schools ...152

Table 41: Overview of the Results on the Endorsement of Assimilationism ...154

Table 42 : Index of Dissimilarity for Gender, Ethnic Origin, and SES across Schools...166

Table 43: Predictors of Sexual Prejudice at the School Level (Controlling for the Socio-Demographic Predictors and the Mediating Variables at Level 1)...172

Table 44: Variance-Covariance Matrix at the School Level for the Model Comprising the Schools Characteristics and the Individual Characteristics...173

Table 45: Contingency Table with the Region of Origin and Gender ...279

Table 46: Contingency Table with the Region of Origin and Education Tracks ...279

Table 47: Contingency Table with the Region of Origin and Education Degree of the Mother...280

Table 48: Contingency Table with the Region of Origin and Marital Situation of the Parents ...280

Table 49: Contingency Table with the Region of Origin and Employment Status of the Mother ...281

Table 50: Contingency Table with the Region of Origin and Religious Education...281

Table 51: Contingency Table with the Region of Origin and Religious Services Attendance...282

Table 52: Correlation Matrix of the Nine Sexual Prejudice Items...284

Table 53: Communalities of the Principal Axing Factoring...284

Table 54: Pattern Matrix of the Principal Axing Factoring...284

Table 55: Labels and Items on Assimilationism...286

Table 56: Item Score Pattern ...286

Table 57: Summary Results for the Scale ...286

Table 58: Summary per Item ...286

Table 59: Summary per Item for the Check of Monotonicity ...287

Table 60: Summary per Item for the Check of Non-Intersection via Restscore Groups...287