1
This project is funded by the European Union under the 7th Research Framework Programme (theme SSH) Grant agreement nr 290752. The views expressed in this press release do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Commission.
Working Paper n°22
Ex-poor Technicians: a case study on
Aerospace clusters in Mexico
Edgar Aragón
ITESM-EGAP
Working Paper
Ex-poor Technicians: a case study on
Aerospace clusters in Mexico
Addressing the lack of skilled technicians in emerging regions
Author: Edgar Aragón1
This case study explores ways on how industrial policy based on clusters and free trade benefits the poor. Being the connection between free trade, clusters and the poor not so well developed in the literature, the paper uses regional case studies in the aerospace sector to identify new dimensions and key elements from the Mexican experience. The relationship is relevant in today’s global economy where competition based on productivity, one of the main outcomes of cluster initiatives, combine with low cost makes some developing regions quite attractive, but not necessarily better off. The attraction of aerospace foreign direct investment, which has grown exponentially under free trade, adds the dimension of how to create sustainable high-tech jobs in a developing country. The new investments have been generating new positions for high-skilled workers who are not been fulfilled by middle or upper middle classes, but by students from poor neighborhoods receiving in-company training while they are still at school. Case studies in three Mexican States: Sonora, Baja California and Querétaro showed three distinct patterns on how aerospace firms, facing the scarcity of skilled technicians, are training students from low-income neighborhoods. Taken advantage of a federal pilot vocational program based on the German Dual vocational training, firms through their cluster organizations are upgrading school curricula and taken students as apprentices. The lack of a pool of specialized technician in aerospace, a market failure, is in this way being solved through the intervention of clusters organizations using some variants of the German dual systems.
In order to understand the dynamics of the aerospace sector and its current needs, the case refers to two conceptual frameworks: foreign direct investment in the aerospace sector; and the solution of market failure through cluster agglomerations. As the case study progressed, it was evident that an additional conceptual framework on vocational dual systems was needed. Together these frameworks help to conceptualize the relevant dimensions for the analysis and discussion of how the upgrading of
1
Research for this study was partially funded by the European Union under the 7th Research Framework program (theme SSH) Grant agreement number 290752
industrial clusters into high-tech sensitive industries promotes sustainable jobs for a wide range of workers.2
Fieldwork was conducted in three Mexican states between February 11th and March 29th, 2013; and from 18-20 August 2014. States visited were Sonora, Baja California and Querétaro, sites with the highest numbers of aerospace firms in the country.3 In the three states (see Exhibit 5 below), interviews were carried on with plant managers, directors of local technical schools and universities, academics, employees and government officials. Secondary sources, such as company and industry reports, academic journals and federal and subnational government websites complemented the information required, including information on how dual systems work in Germany. Aerospace and Defense global industry trends and information was obtained mainly through company and reports from major consulting firms which keep a close track of the sector.4
Exhibit 5: Map of Mexico and selected case States
Plant managers provided information on the challenges of setting operations in Mexico, including the type of jobs required, relationship with local schools and government dependencies. Technical and university staff explained the types of programs specially designed together with industry to developed the skills needed and about the German dual systems implemented with the firms. Academics gave an overview of the industry and the challenges ahead. Lastly, government officials provide information on the dynamics of clusters, technological requirements, and ways to attract new foreign direct investments. Visits to local training centers, such as technical schools, universities and
2 (Shepherd et al., 2014). 3 (FEMIA, 2012). 4
an ‘aerospace universities’, show in practice the links between schools and firms, giving additional inside to the type of training conducted through dual systems.
I. The Aerospace Global Industry Trends
Reports from major airline firms and industry analysts show a positive growth trend for commercial aircraft in the next 20 years.5 As orders for new planes are conducted about 10-15 years in advance, industry can easily predict future growth. For example, in 2013 Lufthansa placed orders for 100 aircrafts type A320s for $ 10 bn and for 25 A350s and 34 77-9s aircrafts for $ 17 billion; Ryan Air placed an order for 175 aircrafts type 737s for $ 17 bn; and the largest order was made by Emirates,
Etihad, Qatar for the manufacturing of 265 planes type 777s and 787s for a total of $ 200 bn.6 Thus, the world’s commercial fleet (20,310 aircraft in 2012) will grow at a 3.3% annual rate for the next 20 years, with a delivery forecast of 1,422 new planes for 2015.7 In nominal terms, this represents a total demand of $ 4.5 trillion, or approximately 31,000 to 35,000 new aircrafts for the next 20 years.8 Demand for commercial aircraft varies according to the type of plane: aircraft over 100 passengers, which can be widebody (2 aisle) or single aisle; regional jest, business jets, freight and helicopters.9 In terms of value, demand for the next 20 years for widebody aircraft ($ 2.5 tn) manufactured only by Airbus and Boeing is closely followed by single aisle planes ($ 2.3 tn) where Canadian Bombardier and the Brazilian Embraer have a niche market. Freight represents a much smaller market ($ 0.2 tn), but with equivalent annual growths forecasted. Regional jets, business jets ($ 0.1 tn) and helicopters seem to be important niche markets for specific firms, such as UTC, Cessna, Dassult, Gulfstream, Hawker, Airbus Helicopter and Bell Helicopters among others. Exhibit 1 shows the Demand for Commercial Aircraft for the next 20 years according to size and type.
Exhibit 1. Demand for Commercial Aircraft
Type Aircraft OEM Corporations
20 year estimated Demand Total aircraft deliveries Annual % growth Value $ trillion
Widebody Airbus, Boing 8,590** 5.40%*** $ 2.47**
Single aisle Bombardier, Embraer, Airbus, Boing 24,670** 5.45%*** $ 2.29**
Regional Jets Bombardier, Embraer, ATR 2,020** 2.87%*** $ 0.08**
Business Jets UTC, Sessna (Textron),Dassult, Gulfstream, Hawker (Textron)
Helicopters Airbus Helicopter (former Eurocopter), Bell Helicopters (Textron)
4,500-5,500 units in 5 years+
5
(Airbus, 2014; Boeing, 2013; Deloitte, 2014b; PwC, 2014). 6
(PwC, 2014, p. 7). 7
(Boeing, 2013, p. 3; Deloitte, 2014a, p. 5). 8
(Airbus, 2014, p. 9; Boeing, 2013, p. 4). 9
Freight Airbus, Boing a. 803*-850** new b. 1,450** - 1,555* conversions 4.5%* 5.5%** $ 0.24**
*Airbus, ** Boing, ***own estimations using Boing data, +Honeywell10 Sources: (Airbus, 2014; Boeing, 2013; Clearwater, 2014)
The factors that contribute to current growth in commercial aircraft are related to the replacement of outdated aircrafts; the increasing volume of leisure and business travel in the Middle East and Asia-Pacific regions; the appearance of low-cost airlines; and the increasing demand for aircrafts in China and India.11 In addition, economic growth, increase urbanization, a growing middle class, and growing transportation needs due to migration, tourism and international student travel are the general factors which contribute to the growth of demand.12
Projections for the defense sector were not so optimistic in 2014, but the market in monetary terms is about 7 times larger than the commercial one.13 The USA was by far the world’s largest market with $ 0.7 tn in 2012 alone or 39% of total. US military spending has decreased 5.6% in real terms mainly due to forced budgetary cuts imposed by the 2013 Budget Control Act.14 Despite increasing military expenditure of other countries, firms in general expect revenues to fall in the near future.15
Consequently defense firms have conducted strategies to maintain profit margins, such as merging, partnership and cost reduction actions.16 Exhibit 2 shows the major defense and commercial aerospace firms.
Exhibit 2: Largest aerospace commercial and defense firms, 2012
# Defense firm $ bn Engine &
components $ bn OEM Commercial $ bn
1 Lockheed Martin 38.8 General Electric 20.0 Boeing 49.1
2 Northrop Grumman 28.1 United Technologies 14.0 Airbus (excl ATR) 36.9
3 Boeing 27.7 Rolls-Royce 13.7 Bombardier 8.6
4 Raytheon 17.9 SAFRAN 9.3 Gulfstream 6.9
5 EADS (Airbus) 16.3 Honeywell 6.0 Embraer 5.0
6 Finmeccanica 13.2 MTU 4.5 Dassault Aviation 3.7
7 United Technologies 12.1 IHI 3.9 Cessna (Textron) 3.1
8 L-3 10.6 Avio 2.5 ATR 1.4
9 Thales 9.9 GKN 0.9 Hawker (Textron) n/a
10 BAE Systems 8.7 ITP 0.8
10
http://honeywell.com/News/Pages/Honeywell-Forecast-Indicates-Global-Helicopter-Demand-Steady-For-Next-Five-Years.aspx, retrieved: 5 October 2014.
11
(Capgemini, 2011; Deloitte, 2014b). 12
(Clearwater, 2014). 13
Growth estimates might change when taken into account the current conflicts in Ukraine and Syria. 14 (Deloitte, 2014b; SIPRI, 2013). 15 (Boeing, 2013). 16 (KPMG, 2014).
Repair (MRO) 11 Honeywell 5.4 12 Textron 4.3 13 Israel Aircraft Industries 3.4 14 Dassault Aviation 1.5 Source: (PwC, 2013b, p. 59)
These growth factors and the increased demand on orders for commercial aircrafts have raised the question whether Original Equipment Manufacturing (OEM) firms and their tier suppliers can keep up with the global demand. Understandably, large manufactures such as the duopoly Boeing (US) and Airbus (UK, Germany and France) might provide most of the supply for larger widebody commercial planes. Smaller assemblers in emerging markets such as Embraer (Brazil), Bombardier (Canada), Mitsubishi Aircraft Corp. (Japan), United Aircraft Corp. (Russia) and Commercial Aircraft Corp (China) are increasingly targeting niche segments of the industry, including narrow-body and regional jets instead.17 These firms have already developed aerospace clusters with a pool of specialized technicians, engineers, R&D and training centers (universities and technical schools) in their home countries. It is unsure, however, whether these regions can cope with future industry demand. Exhibit 3 shows a standard value chain of the aerospace industry for: (a) commercial; (b) maintenance, repair and overhaul (MRO); and (c) defense operations. Airlines provide transport services to passengers according to distances and level of service. OEMs design the plane, coordinate suppliers, assemble the plane, and conduct the marketing and sales operations to their clients, such as airlines and governments. First tier suppliers produce the turbine, airframes and the general systems of the plane. Second tier suppliers manufacture specific parts, such as pumps and tires and parts for the turbines or its surroundings. Third tier suppliers usually provide the raw materials for the manufacturing of parts, such as aluminum, composites (special light materials), and electrical wires and so on.
Exhibit 3: Global Chain of the Aerospace Industry
a. Commercial Operations
b. Maintenance, Repair & Overhaul (MRO)
c. Defense Operations
17 (PwC, 2013a, p. 8). 3rd Tier suppliers 2nd Tier suppliers 1st Tier suppliers OEMs Airlines & Freight firms Passangers & Cargo clients 3rd Tier suppliers 2nd Tier suppliers 1st Tier
suppliers OEMs Governments
Defense bodies
Source: author
Major first and second tier suppliers, which did not manufacture a complete plane, were multinational corporations themselves with a diversity of manufacturing facilities worldwide.18 This globalization of suppliers was made possible due to three key trends. First, the end of the Cold War made pools of engineers in emerging markets “politically” accessible to multinational corporations.19
Second, digital aircraft development programs starting with the B777 in the 1990s, rather than through a prototype, allowed tasks to be bundled in “digital work packages.”20
Third, the broadband infrastructure investments of the 2000s facilitated the outsourcing of such digital work packages and offshoring engineering.21 As aerospace tier suppliers became global, new locations such as India, Turkey, Brazil, Mexico and China became attractive for the supply chain markets22. From 1990-2009, Mexico
received $ 33.0 bn of FDI in aerospace manufacturing, followed by China, the US, Russia and India23
Exhibit 4: Main Macroeconomic Indicators, National and selected States
States GDP 1 (2012) Population (2012) GDP per cápita (2012) Universities (2013) Patents (2013) Manufacturing Employment (2013) Sonora 33,717 (2.9%) 2,809,806 (2.4%) 12,000 56 (1.9%) 38 (1.0%) 110,967 (3.4%) Baja California 34,205 (2.9%) 3,328,623 (2.8%) 10,276 66 (2.2%) 74 (2.0%) 241,811 (7.3%) Querétaro 23,535 (2.0%) 1,912,803 (1.6%) 12,304 64 (2.2%) 106 (2.9%) 94,034 (2.8%) Chihuahua 31,931 (2.7%) 3,598,792 (3.1%) 8,873 91 (3.1%) 65 (1.8%) 297,479 (9.0%) Nuevo León 85,223 (7.3%) 4,868,844 (4.1%) 17,504 131 (4.4%) 504 (14.1%) 292,393 (8.9%) National 1,162,086 (100%) 117,053,750 (100%) 9,928 2,967 (100%) 3,608 (100%) 3,295,361 (100%)
Out of these countries, only Mexico and Turkey belong to the Wassenaar agreement, making them eligible to trade defense aerospace parts with restrictive technologies.24 Some of these technologies might be used for commercial products as well. Thus, certified suppliers in dual-technologies can manufacture parts for both commercial and military aircrafts, increasing their competitive advantage.
18 For example, the American 1st tier supplier UTC Aerospace Systems employs 40,000 people in 150 sites in 26 countries with annual sales of $13 billion (company website: http://utcaerospacesystems.com/Company/Pages/locations.aspx).18 About half of UTC’s plants are outside the US; in Mexico alone, UTC has 3 manufacturing plants for engine components, aerostructures, and landing systems (idem). There are quite a few large tier suppliers in the aerospace industry with global operation, such as Honeywell, GE, Churchill, GKN Aerospace, Rockwell Collins, ITP among others.
19 (AeroStrategy, 2009). 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 22 (Capgemini, 2011). 23 (AeroStrategy, 2009). 24
As new technologies also become available in the production of aircrafts, such as the “additive manufacturing”, locations with highly skilled workers such as Singapore are increasingly attracting new investments. 25
II. Case Studies: Aerospace Clusters in Mexico
In 2013, three prominent aerospace firms were facing scarcity of skilled technicians in Mexico: GNK Aerospace in Baja California, Tetakawi Maquiladoras in Guaymas, Sonora, and Bombardier in Querétaro were all setting up pilot programs for the training of new workers. The programs linked aerospace firms with local schools, a variation of the so-called vocational German Dual System (GDS). Firms provided state-of-the-art equipment, trained the instructors and updated the academic programs. In return, the schools offered a degree and flexible programs to students who received training at school and worked at the firms at the same time. Mr. Hajafian, Mr. Hudson and Mr. Gutierrez did not know each other, and their GDS pilot programs were independent from each other, but they all faced the pressure to keep up with the increasing global trends of the industry. With 287 aerospace firms already in Mexico and a 14% of annual export growth expected (from $ 5.4 bn in 2013 to $12.3 bn by 2021), they needed access to a pool of skilled technicians soon.
Mexico aerospace industry has grown at annual rate of 17.2% during the past 10 years.26 By 2014 there were already 287 aerospace firms, employing 32,600 workers.27 In terms of trade, the country has become the “6th largest supplier to the US”.28
Five states contain most of the industry in Mexico: Sonora, Baja California, Querétaro, Chihuahua and Nuevo León (see basic indicators per state in Exhibit 4). The aerospace industry is relevant for the regions’ development not only because of its technological new capabilities, but in terms of salary revenues, it is more attractive than the average manufacturing plants. Data from 2004-9 shows that salaries in the aerospace industry are 40% higher than in the average salaries in the manufacturing sector, growing annually at a faster rate (2.8% vs 2.4%).29
In addition, Mexican federal authorities have managed to sign two types of key international
agreements. First, Certification BASA (bilateral aviation safety agreement) which provides the same level quality certification as the FAA (US federal aviation agency) allowing plants to export directly to US subsidiaries without further state inspections.30 Second, the Wassenaar agreement and the Nuclear Supplier Group and the Australia Group have made the country a “reliable destination for the integration of sensitive technologies.”31
In other words, Mexican firms can manufacture parts and provide services to defense industry in the US and other western countries.
25
Additive manufacturing refers to the creation of a part directly as it is, rather than by taken material form a block to give it the shape (Michaels, 2014). 26 (Proméxico, 2014, p. 15). 27 (Proméxico, 2014, p. 15). 28 (Proméxico, 2014, p. 16). 29 (FEMIA, 2012). 30 (Proméxico, 2014). 31 (Proméxico, 2014, p. 16).
a. Aerospace shelter in Sonora
Sonora was one of the first locations to attract aerospace assembly operations in Mexico (see map in Exhibit 5). This was possible through shelter firm, now called The Offshore Group, located in
Empalme, a small town next to Guaymas, a port in Sonora State. Within 30 years, Empalme’s economy transformed from agro-business to garments, autoparts, to the manufacturing of parts for turbines. The establishment of the first textile (garments) operation took place in Guaymas, Sonora due to two factors. First, the American-based cotton producer Anderson Clayton closed down in 1984. As a result, many people who had a relative good jobs with very good benefits were out-of-work. Second, the shelter firm was created as the result of an association of an American and a Mexican partner. The American partner set up a firm in Tucson, Arizona (US) which operated under US law and regulations, to provide offshoring services to potential American firms. The Mexican partner, who had previously worked in maquiladora firms by the US border and who understood the difficulties of American firms setting up in Mexico, was in charge of “receiving” the American investor and to facilitate its Mexican assembly operations. The services provided by the Mexican partner included dealing with local, state and federal permits; hiring workers; and dealing with labor unions. The shelter attracted a Detroit based garment firm that set up a 400 worker maquiladora in the old Anderson Clayton’s industrial facilities. After that, other garments firms followed.32
The Shelter was able to attract other types of firms as well. The switch to autoparts was made when firms were attracted to manually performed the “doblado” of fuel tubes and “embobinado motrices” or harnesses. The later was performed by Chotaw, a minority firm owned by the American Indian tribe Issui, who after switching to Casinos, transferred the labor intensive operations to Mexico.33 By 1998, 90% of the firms attracted to Empalme by the Shelter where in the automobile sector, employing 3,000 workers in total. As the 2000 US crisis hit, many autoparts maquiladoras closed down, pushing the Shelter to diversify first into golf bags, electronics, and metal works and then into medical devices and aerospace. The first aerospace firm attracted by the Shelter was SmithWest who already had operations in Guadalupe (next to Monterrey in the North East of Mexico) and who was looking to expand operations from 17,000 to 70,000 square feet operation facilities. Other aerospace 1st tier suppliers such as Rolls Royce and Honeywell arrived afterwards.34
The shelter is now attracting aerospace firms who specialize in the manufacture of turbines. Having 1st tier suppliers such as Rolls Royce and Honeywell who “certified” the parts made by 2nd tier
suppliers helped the Shelter to become aerospace cluster itself. The Shelter functions as an institution of collaboration, assisting the cluster with day-to-day operations. The major challenge for the Shelter, besides attracting firms, is to find and develop local talent. In order to provide its aerospace clients with a reliable labor force, the shelter established a relationship with local schools. One of the schools approached by the shelter was CONALEP in Guaymas, Sonora which specialized in technical
education for students from low and middle-income families. CONALEP, Guaymas belongs to the
32
(Interview I - Manager, 2013) 33
The Issui tribe had support from the US Federal government as part of a program that provided Ford, GM and Chrysler manufacturing contracts to minorities. When transferring operations to Mexico, the tribe when to court to maintain the subsidies (Interview I - Manager, 2013; Interview II - CEO, 2013).
34
CONALEP’s national system of technical education, which was targeted at the federal level to implement pilot programs following the German Dual System.
The contact between CONALEP Guaymas and the Shelter was made through Román Larrinaga, a former employee of the Shelter who worked as instructor in CONALEP. The shelter notifies
CONALEP of the availability of apprenticeships. Then Román pre-selects the candidates among the students who have at least one year already studying at the school and who match the profile required by the Shelter. Additional selection criteria are commitment, punctuality and the student´s economic need. According to CONALEP’s officials, most of the students come from low income families, and even teen single mothers. The students work 4 days a week from 8 to 16 hrs. and afterwards return to school. They can do the exercises missed in class online and follow classes on Saturdays. They also take classes at the Shelter, for example trigonometry and other specialized courses. During their apprentice, they receive a stipend of P$ 120 pesos per day (about $10 US dollar), which is higher than the minimum wage at P$ 87 pesos per day. Once they received their CONALEP certificate, the Shelter can hire them for P$ 250 per day ($ 21 US dollar). After that, the wage is revised every 3 months. In addition to receiving apprenticeships, the Shelter has donated state-of-the art equipment to the school. Once the equipment is installed, CONALEP Guaymas wanted to offer specialized courses to regular students.
b. GNK Aerospace - Mexicali, Baja California
Aerospace firms started to arrive to Baja California since 1966 with the arrival of Rockwell Collins and Switch Luz at the time when Mexico started its assembly or maquiladora program.35 Baja California was attractive to firms because of the short distance to aerospace facilities in the West of the US; the State industrial policy, including industrial clusters; the industrial incentives provided by the state; and the availability of executives with knowledge in the aerospace industry.36 During the last few years the industry has grown significantly and by 2014, there were about 80 aerospace companies in the state providing 28,000 jobs37 or about 4.5% of the total labor force of the State. Baja California has not attracted major final assemblers yet, but most major first tier suppliers are there, including: Honeywell, Gulfstream, Lockheed Martin, Tyco Electronics and GNK Aerospace among others.38 More recently a small-aircraft assembler, UCT Aerospace System, set up a part manufacturing facility, but with no plans in the future to build the entire plane there.
GNK Aerospace is a British conglomerate which manufactures metallic and composite aerostructures for cabins and engines systems components, for civil and military aircraft. It employs over 12,000 people in 35 manufacturing facilities in the UK, Norway, Sweden, Germany, US, Mexico, India and Thailand.39 GNK Aerospace arrived in Mexico in 2002 to supply engine components to GNK US plants near the border: tronics in El Cajon and Astech in Santa Ana, both in California. Chem-tronics, for example, employs 700 workers who manufacture engine components for US military F6s planes and the Lockheed Martin’s F35 stealth fighter. The plant also manufactures parts for
35
(Carrillo & Hualde, 2009). 36
(Carrillo & Hualde, 2009). 37
http://www.bajaaerospace.org/; retrieved: 28 December 2014 38
http://www.investinbaja.gob.mx/english/industry/aerospace.htm; retrieved: 28 December 2014 39
Royce, Pratt & Whitney, Boing and General Electric and has a MRO repair facility.40 In 2012, GNK opened a second plant in Mexicali to produce composite manufacturing materials for the Sikorsky’s Black Hawk combat helicopter and to provide manufacturing support to the GNK Alabama facility which grew 500% in the past decade and which currently supplies firms such as Sikorsky, GE, HondaJet and Airbus.41 Both GNK plants in Mexicali employ about 100 workers each.
Ardy Najafian, head of GNK Mexicali operations has been very active, not only on the attraction of new GNK division to the State, but solving labor issues; promoting the integration of aerospace firms into the cluster; and setting up education pilot programs with local schools.42
The major attractions of Baja California and of Mexicali (State capital) for GNK was its closeness to the US; the stability of its workers; the flatness of the land, proper for assembly operations and the labor cost. Labor savings are at the operator level, which tend to be 5 times cheaper than in the US. The difference is smaller for the middle management. It is only 50-75% less expensive; and at the management level is practically the same.43
According to Mr. Najafian, the main challenge of Mexicali operations are the labor ethics of Mexican workers who tend not to report mistakes “afraid of the reaction of their boss”.44
In an industry where 50% of the time is spend filling up paper reports to secure quality and traceability of the parts, building trust and discipline among workers has become a top priority. The second challenge is to retain skilled workers. As new aerospace firms arrive to the state, they tend to offer higher wages in order to attract already trained workers. The government´s strategies to attract new aerospace to the region (which tend to make the newspaper headlines) and to demand existing firms to develop local suppliers do not go hand-by-hand with State and Federal policies to train new workers. Such mismanagement of policies generates a wage war among firms for skilled technicians.45
Training workers or new students for the aerospace sector is a rather complex activity for several reasons. Schools seem to lack the specialized equipment; the instructors; and the updated academic programs to conduct such training. With the pressure to keep the current production on check and with new product divisions to arrive, Mr. Najafian decided to approach a local school with the support of the aerospace cluster and local authorities.46 GNK donated state-of-the art equipment to the school, trained instructors, and helped to update school curricula. The firm ended up putting 75% of the effort to train new technicians and public local school the rest, when he expected to be the other way around when he first arrived to Mexico.47
40 http://www.gkn.com/aboutus/Documents/locations/trollhattan/booklet_engine_systems_final_screen.pdf; retrieved: 28 December 2014 41 http://www.gkn.com/media/News/Pages/GKN-Aerospace-to-open-composite-aerostructures-manufacturing-facility-in-Mexico.aspx; retrieved: 28 December 2014
42
(Interview III - GNK manager, 2013). 43
(Interview III - GNK manager, 2013). 44
(Interview III - GNK manager, 2013). 45
(Interview III - GNK manager, 2013). 46
The firm even had to turn down a German request to manufacture 200-300 different parts, as each part requires different machinery and thus diverse training to workers. In the firm’s sector, there could even be 2,000 different parts… (Interview III - GNK manager, 2013).
47
c. Bombardier – Querétaro
Bombardier, a Canadian OEM manufacturer of regional planes announced in 2005 the establishment of a $ 200 million manufacturing facilities in Querétaro State.48 The firms started with simple
operations of harnesses and electrical sub-assemblies, moving to the manufacturing of structural aircraft components (aft fuselage) and flight control work packages. The movement of Bombardier to Mexico seems to respond to the competitive pressures from the Brazilian Embraer,49 which operates in the same segment market than Bombardier. Moreover, Querétaro’s plant has allowed Bombardier to reduce its dependence on external contractors and manufacture structural aircrafts components directly by itself, having a significant operating cost reduction.50 In 2010, Bombardier built a new facility in Querétaro to assemble the wings of its new LearJet 85 state-of-the-art business jet. The components of the wings were manufactured in its Belfast plant in Northern Ireland where the technology on Resin Transfer Infusion (RTI) process was developed.51 By 2014, Bombardier’s commitments in in Querétaro reached $ 0.5 bn, employing 1,800 workers.
As part of the negotiations to attract the firm to the State, federal and state governments funded the Universidad Nacional Aeronáutica de Querétaro (UNAQ) in 2007.52 Prior 2005, there were no aerospace technical schools in the state, thus the institution had to be built from scratch. New facilities which resemble a manufacturing aerospace plant were built next to the airport. Instructors were trained and certified by Centre de Formation Profesionelle des Moulins and the Commission Scolaire de Montreal in Quebec.53 Links were set up among other aerospace institutions in Mexico City, Toulouse University in France, the Universidad Politécnica in Madrid, Spain and Notre Dame University in Indiana, USA. By 2011, the UNAQ was offering certifications on the BASA (Bilateral Agreement for Safety in Aviation) agreement, and it was fully integrated with the new aerospace firms in the state providing a range of training courses for their workers. The UNAG offers a diversity of programs:
Basic training for new workers already hired by Bombardier or other aerospace firms (Middle school, or 8th grade completed, required)
Tailor made short training programs for a particular firm.
Technician: 2-year technical degree on either avionics; turbines & structures; or precision machinery (full-time, high-school required)
Engineering – Aerospace manufacturing
Master’s degree on Aerospace Engineering
48
http://www.bombardier.com/content/dam/Websites/bombardiercom/countries/supporting-documents/Bombardier-CountryBrochure-Mexico-en.pdf; retrieved: 28 December 2014
49
(Villavicencio, Hernández, & Souza, 2014). 50
http://www.bombardier.com/content/dam/Websites/bombardiercom/countries/supporting-documents/Bombardier-CountryBrochure-Mexico-en.pdf; retrieved: 28 December 2014
51
http://www.bombardier.com/en/media-centre/newsList/details.717-bombardiers-belfast-facility-to-manufacture-learjet-85-aircraft-wing-structures.bombardiercom.html; retrieved: 28 December 2014
52
http://www.unaq.edu.mx/index.php/nuestra-historia; retrieved: 28 December 2014 53
The UNAQ has been visited by delegation from all over the world because it offers a new educational system. This university does not have classrooms as such, but it has been built as a real industrial facility, where the large parts of the aircrafts can be brought to the work area and “studied” by the students. This university is unique in the Americas because it offers specific technical training for Bombardier and its suppliers; tailor made programs for firms; technical degrees; university degrees, Master and soon even a PhD program. Local people have the chance to join one of the aerospace firms and then be trained at the university; or start their educational training in aerospace at the level they want. Out of the 1,616 people trained at the UNAQ from 2006-10, 88% work now for Bombardier and the rest for the Spanish firms Aernnova and ITR.54
III. How Dual Vocational Systems work in Germany
The Mexican Federal government through the Educational ministry or Secretariat started in July 2013 the Mexican Dual System (o Modelo Mexicano de Formación Dual or MMFD) during the scholar period 2013/14.55 Among the participants were 12 federal states, including Baja California and Nuevo León, 150 private firms and 50 CONALEP schools.56 The goal of the pilot program was to identify: the specific features of the Mexican dual system, including medium term goals and objective; the
vocational options based on the labor demands of the private sector; and the efforts needed to institutionalize the model. By October 2014, the Educational Ministry was analyzing legal reforms to the (ley federal del trabajo) to include the apprentice figure and the labor relationship between students and private firms; and to the SEP itself to allow students to work during their educational period.57 Reviewing how the vocational systems operate in Germany shares some light to suggest policy recommendations to firms, schools, local and federal governments in Mexico.
In Germany, vocational training is a competence of the federal government, whereas school education is the task of the subnational states or Bundesländer, which is why close cooperation between the national and subnational level is needed in Germany for realizing a high quality dual system of apprenticeships Vocational apprenticeships are offered mainly by private firms but also by the public sector in administrations and agencies at all levels of government. At the federal level, the Ministry of Education and Research and the Institute for Vocational Training are responsible for officially recognizing and streamlining vocational apprenticeships offered.58 The Federal Labour Market Authority in turn provides information on vacant apprentices to students, who choose among a diversity of apprentice positions available.59 Even though school programs vary among states, in general terms the system works in the following way. After having received a recommendation by their teachers, which is based on their grades and behavior in class, students (and their families) decide at the age of 9, i.e., after 4years of primary education, which educational track they want to
54
(Villavicencio et al., 2014) 55
Secretaría de Educación Pública:
http://www.sems.gob.mx/es_mx/sems/autoridades_educativas_empresariales_acuerdan_impulsar_proyecto_piloto_formaci on_dual. Retrieved: 1 March 2015.
56 Idem. 57 58 (CEDEFOP, 2007, pp. 20–21) 59 (GFLMA, 2013b).
pursue: Gymnasium, Realschule or Hauptschule.60 Each track prepares students for different career opportunities:
Gymnasium.- Students who followed the Gymnasium track usually finish school (high-school)
after 12 or 13 years of education. This track prepares them for all the available options during tertiary education, including programmes at universities and universities of applied sciences. At the same time, they can apply for apprenticeships if the students do not wish to pursue an academic career after all.
Realschule.- Students in the Realschule track generally finish school after 10th grade (a long version of a secondary school). After receiving a Realschule certificate, the students have 4 options: (a) return to the Gymnasium track and study for 3 more years; (b) enrol in tertiary education at schools which have a specific focus on an occupational field such as economics, technology, health and social sciences with a duration from 1 to 3 years; (c) start an
apprenticeship which provides vocational training combined with training at a company, which is the “typical” apprenticeship form in Germany known as the dual system61
; and (d) start an apprenticeship where the students attend a full-time vocational school with longer practical phases 62.
Hauptschule.- The Hauptschule students received their “leaving certificate” after 9 years of
school or secondary school. Then, they have two options: (a) they either start an
apprenticeship in the dual system; or (b) continue school for one year and thereby finish the
Realschule (see above). If they choose the first option, students get enrolled in a compulsory
dual program where they receive vocational training at school (following general courses and courses related to work) and practical training at the firm. Students must follow this dual program because schooling in Germany is compulsory until they are 18 years old, or after finishing their apprenticeship successfully.63
Once in the apprenticeship period, students spend most of their time in the firm where they are assigned to an experienced colleague and they receive a salary.64 At the end, students present their final exam with evaluators, including people from the profession.65 After studying and working for several years, they might get offered a position at the end of their apprenticeship.66 According to the German authorities, apprenticeships are successful because they are constantly being adapted to technological and social developments and they offer career opportunity and upward mobility.67 In fact, the option to conduct an apprenticeship is open to all students and a school certificate is not even needed to apply for an apprenticeship.68 Nevertheless, those students with a “better” type of
60
In some states, this choice can be made at the age of 11 after finishing 6th grade. 61
(GFLMA, 2013a, p.6)
62 Ibid. In other words, there are these two types of apprenticeships, one with part-time school and part-time job (whereas part – time school can mean you have 2 days of the week in school or you can also have longer block seminars, there are multiple ways to do it), and another one with full-time school and longer practical phases.
63
If students do not find positions for apprenticeships, there are special schools and programs to help them. 64 (GFLMA, 2013a). 65 (GFLMA, 2013a). 66 (The Economist, 2013). 67 (GFLMA, 2013a). 68 (GFLMA, 2013a, , p.8)
school certificate have higher chances to be accepted for an apprenticeship of their choice.69 Typically, highly contested apprenticeships such as in the areas of banking, computer sciences and media design are mostly given to students from the Gymnasium track.70 Students in the Realschule track complete apprenticeships in the commercial sector and electronics. Hauptschule students go for baker, hairdresser and craftsman painter apprenticeship positions.71 In any case, students under 18 can only do apprenticeships in “officially recognized occupations which require formal training”.72
There are about 350 recognized occupations and they are subject to regulation, such as apprentice duration, which is around 2 to 3.5 years. These apprenticeship regulations ensure that apprentices across Germany and the different companies receive a uniform training in the respective
apprenticeship.73
Exhibit 5: Apprenticeship and job starter wages
Educational Track Exemplary Profession Exemplary Wage
Gymnasium Banks,
Insurance Companies, Tax Consultancies,
Technical jobs in Computer Science
Wage of Banker
1. year of apprenticeship: 766-830 EUR 2. year of apprenticeship: 826-880 EUR 3. year of apprenticeship: 885-950 EUR Starting salary: 1800-2100 brutto
Realschule Commercial Sector,
Electronics
Wage of Electronic Technician
1. year of apprenticeship: 798-804 EUR 2. year of apprenticeship: 845-849 EUR 3. year of apprenticeship: 911-912 EUR 4. year of apprenticeship: 969-970 EUR Starting salary: 1600-2000 brutto Hauptschule Baker, Hairdresser,
Craftsman Painter
Wage of Baker
1. year of apprenticeship: 400 EUR 2. year of apprenticeship: 500 EUR 3. year of apprenticeship: 600 EUR Starting salary: 1700-1900 brutto
Source: GFLMA, 2013a; and official links74
Throughout the years, there have been several issues raised regarding the vocational dual system related to the socio-cultural relationship among actors; the obsolescence of the skills learnt; the supply and demand of apprenticeships; and the flexibility of the programs. In Germany, it took several
69 (GFLMA,2013a). Whereas students from Gymnasium have a “better” certificate than students from the Realschule, and respective, students from the Realschule have a “better” certificate than those from the Hauptschule. In other words, Gymnasium students get the apprentice positions with that have the highest demand, no matter if their skills are actually needed. However, this might not be necessarily the case, especially when small company owners conduct the interviews with the students themselves. A successful interview might allow a “less educated” student to get the apprentice position. Who are getting the best apprentice positions is a current debated issue in Germany.
70
(GFLMA, 2013a). 71
(GFLMA, 2013a). 72
(GFLMA, 2013b). Own translation. 73
(GFLMA, 2013a, , p.11) 74
See the following links: http://www.ausbildung.de/berufe/bankkaufmann/gehalt/ ;
http://www.ausbildung.de/berufe/elektroniker/gehalt/ ; http://www.ausbildung.de/berufe/baecker/gehalt/ (consulted on 17/Jan/2015).
decades for schools, firms, unions and government to agree and develop dual systems.75 Thus, there are cultural and social particular aspects, complex legislation, and voluntary cooperation among actors which make the system difficult to transfer to other countries.76 In addition, vocational training has been caught between private interests and private commitment on the one hand, and public and state intervention on the other hand, which “has led critics to point to the obsolescence of traditional apprenticeship training in the face of a rapidly mutating economic and social environment”.77
That is, the skills demanded in today’s firms might become obsolete quicker; therefore, dual systems might get young people faster but might generate higher unemployment later on.78
Furthermore, there have been periods where the apprenticeships would go to the students with higher education, leaving those students from the Hauptschule, which have no other career opportunity than the dual system, with fewer options. More recently, the demand for apprenticeships among young people both, from the university and non-university tracks, is decreasing.79 As a result, since 2004 Germany conducts “national pacts” to solve these and other issues related to the dual systems.80
Lastly, students decide whether they enroll in the university, technical or manual tracks early on in school. Once the technical or manual tracks have been chosen, it is then difficult to get a university degree later on (obtaining a university degree is not a guarantee of a better wage, though). Even though the Bologna process81 has tried to ease up the transition from apprenticeship to tertiary education, universities still struggle with acknowledging work experience and job skills as qualifiers for entry into study programs.82 Therefore, the system has been designed to insert them into the labor market as soon as possible and once in a non-university track, students are committed to
apprenticeship positions. In 2013, two out of three German students went through this dual system.83
IV. Conclusions
Aerospace manufacturing will continue to increase worldwide. Industry reports and demand
projections showed that the aerospace industry will continue to grow in the next 20 years, faster in the commercial than in the defense sector. The later, nevertheless, is still rather important for the size of the market.
Mexico has become a prime location for aerospace manufacturing. As firms need to expand
production capacity worldwide Mexico has become a prime location for several factors. First, the wage level of engineers and technicians is attractive versus other countries. Second, friendly
75 (The Economist, 2013). 76 (Lehmann, 2000). 77
(Geissler, 1991 as cited in Deissinger & Hellwig, 2005, p. 5). In Germany, however, this problem is addressed by the Federal Institute for Vocational Training, which is regularly contacted by different companies about the fact that training contents are outdated. The Federal Institute for Vocational Training then modernizes and adapts the training regulations (CEDEFOP, 2007, p.50). 78 (The Economist, 2013). 79 (GFLMA, 2010). 80 (GFLMA, 2010). 81
The Bologna process aims at harmonising the higher education systems of participating countries by establishing Bachelor, Master and Doctorate degrees and also introduced a system of transferable credits. For more information and the official Bologna Declaration see http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/education_training_youth/lifelong_learning/c11088_en.htm 82
(Weber, 2008). 83
business environment and public policies at the local and federal levels, including cluster initiatives which help to solve market failures. Third, lack of a national OEM assembler which could generate a new global competitor; facilitating the transferring of new technologies to the Mexican plants. Next, Mexico has signed the BASA and the Wassenaar agreements promoting the attraction of defense related technologies which are employed in both commercial and defense aerospace sectors.
Policy is being increasingly targeted to understand the needs of the aerospace sector. The
policy documents reviewed show that Mexican officials at the national and subnational level are increasingly learning about the way the industry operates, the types of products and services demanded worldwide, and about the technological and labor skills required by the industry. Universities and technical schools are doing the same. Most of the learning has come from the aerospace firms themselves with manufacturing facilities in Mexico. The interaction between firms, schools and government has to some degree become institutionalize through aerospace cluster in Baja California, through a shelter in Sonora, and through the aerospace university in Querétaro.
There is not a lack of jobs, but of skilled technicians. In the tree cases, the bottle neck to make
the transition to highly specialized clusters is the lack of specialized pool of workers, such as aerospace cases showed above. The scarcity of workers and the constant arrival of new aerospace firms have generated a huge concern among plant managers about labor mobility since trained labor force can switch from one company to another pushing wages and job benefits up, three times the minimum wage at the entrance level.
Clusters help to solve market failures. The lack of a pool of specialized technicians is a public good
or market failure, which is being addressed by aerospace clusters through a tropicalized version of the German Dual Vocational System. The way to solve the market failure was by firms transferring information on the aerospace curricula to local schools; providing state-of-the-art equipment; and training of instructors. Local schools lack the information on how the aerospace firms operate; therefore, the involvement is a key for the development of the right skills on new workers.
Clusters of aerospace firms seem to be helping people from low income neighborhoods.
Besides salaries, the opportunity to join the labor market can be taken as a way to expand people´s freedom in way managed by Amartya Sen.84 By providing the skills to work in sensitive assembly-type of operations, people from poor communities have the opportunity to choose whether they would like to pursue these types of jobs, or to do something different, such as fishing or agriculture. Having a stable source of income, which pays higher than the average manufacturing job, plus social security benefits for the family seems to be attractive enough for workers to join aerospace firms. Cluster initiative objective, however, do not target poverty alleviation per se, but in the cases shown above, to the formation of a specialized pool of workers. The study case shows one possible dimension to be empirically tested: To what degree this new pool of specialize workers is contributing to the reduction of poverty. One possible way to test this relationship is by surveying workers involved in German dual systems in Mexico as it is currently being piloting through several states in Mexico.
The German dual system is different than the types of pilot test of dual systems in Mexico. The
complete adaptation of the German dual system as is currently implemented in Germany does not seem to be an option for the short and medium terms in Mexico. The main reason is that the GDS system is deeply embedded into the secondary and preparatory school (junior-high and high-school)
84
at all levels. The apprenticeships are coordinated and regulated at the national level. Firms interact with federal institutions to place their apprenticeships there. Government approves them and provides a guideline to the skills to be taught and developed through the firms. In other words, in Germany dual systems are fully integrated into the educational system. Firms register apprenticeships with the federal government who in turn approves them, and advertise them through the state governments and schools. Students decide early on in their studies whether they will pursue a more applied career which might include a vocation dual training. Others will choose a track that makes vocational dual system compulsory. This systematic vocational training to German students seems to be generating a constant flow of technical labor force to industry. The Mexican pilot programs observed in this case study are individual efforts made by clusters, firms and local schools. These experiences, however, can be used to design a more comprehensive and systematic vocational dual system in Mexico.
V. Policy Recommendations
Continue to embrace the aerospace challenge. The aerospace industry provides a wide range of
opportunities for Mexican workers at the managerial, engineer, and technical levels. Currently, these jobs pay better wages and provide more job training (skill formation) than similar jobs in other manufacturing industries.
Promote the formation of clusters to upgrade workers’ skills. As wages continue to increase in
the aerospace sector some production lines might leave the country, freeing capacity for more technologically advanced manufacturing lines. The spectrum of manufacturing jobs in the aerospace sector is large and expanding. While production lines might leave, clusters can play a key role upgrading workers skills systematically, attracting new production lines from the same firms, or attracting new firms.
Implement a more aggressive Mexican dual vocational training. Dual system seem the quickest
way to transmit to local schools what the industry needs, incorporating students early on to the manufacturing high tech processes. The higher the availability of specialized technicians, the higher the changes of attracting more FDI from new and existent firms in the clusters.
Give priority to schools in low income neighborhoods. Students from low income neighborhoods
do not have the stigma that middle and upper middle classes have regarding pursuing a technical career rather than an engineering one. This case study showed that technical positions in high-tech in a high tech industry offer sustainable jobs with attractive employment opportunities and revenue to people from low income neighborhoods.
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