I
Past, present and future
of post-graduate ed.ucation in hydrology
Proceedings of the Prague Workshop (29-31 August1994)
Edited by H. Salz
international Hydrologg
-
INTERNATIONAL HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAMME
Past, present and future of postgraduate education in hydrology
Proceedings of the Prague Workshop (29-31 August 1994)
Edited by
H. Salz
General Secretary (retired) of the International Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmmtal Engineering Delft, The Netherlands
IHP-IV Project E-3-l
UNESCO, Paris, 1996
The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not imply the expression of any opinion wbatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status
of any umntry, territory, city or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
I I
CONTENTS
1. THE BARCELONA INTERNATIONAL COURSE IN GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY:
EXPERIENCE OF 28 YEARS AND FITTING PROCESS TO A CHANGING BACKGROUND OF STUDENTS (A)*
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Page
Dr. E. Batista, E. Custodio and M. Valverde
EFFICIENCY OR EFFECTIVENESS IN COURSE EVALUATION (B)”
1
Prof. A. van der Beken 19
FUTURE STRATEGIES FOR SPECIALIZED COURSES IN HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES (C)*
Prof. J.J. Bogardi 27
POSTGRADUATE HYDROLOGY EDUCATION IN GALWAY (A) (B)*
Dr. KM. O’Connor 35
REVIEW OF THE HYDROLOGY EDUCATION IN HOHAI UNIVERSITY (A)*
Prof. Cui Guangbai, Yang Jue, Li Yuyao 65
TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN A HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL AND WATER MANAGEMENT TRAINING SYSTEM (A)*
Dr. D. Dvofgk and J. Hladny 75
THE CONCEPT OF POSTGRADUATE HYDROLOGICAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA (A)*
Prof. P.V. Efremov, Ph.D. 79
POSTGRADUATE HYDROLOGY EDUCATION IN AFRICA - EXPERIENCE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM (A)*
Dr. R.K. Kachroo 89
POSTGRADUATE WATER STUDIES PROGRAMME - THE MALTA EXPERIMENT (A)*
Dr. D. de Ketelaere 99
10. EXPERIENCES OF THE INTERNATIONAL POSTGRADUATE COURSES ON HYDROLOGY IN BUDAPEST (A)*
Dr. G. Kienitz and J. Tichy-R&x
11. POSTGRADUATE EDUCATION IN HYDROLOGY FOR GEOLOGISTS (B)”
Dr. P.J.M. de Laat
12. EVALUATION OF THE POLLUTION CONTROL COURSE (A) (B)*
Prof.dr. U. Maniak
13. UNIVERSITY STUDY AS PREREQUISITE FOR POSTGRADUATE EDUCATION (C)*
Prof.dr. U. Maniak
14. INTERNATIONAL POSTGRADUATE HYDROLOGY COURSE AT ROORKEE - PRESENT SCENARIO AND FUTURE PROJECTIONS (C)*
Prof. B.S. Mathur
15. POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA COURSE IN OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY (A)*
Dr. Ph.D. Munah
16. POSTGRADUATE EDUCATION IN HYDROLOGY TODAY AND FUTURE NEEDS (C)*
Prof. I. Muzik
17. IS THERE A MARKET FOR HYDROLOGISTS? (C)*
Prof. J. Nemec
18. THE ‘POSTGRADUATE’ CONUNDRUM (B) (C)*
Prof. I. Simmers
Page 109
121
129
133
155
157
169
177
181
19. POSTGRADUATE HYDROLOGY TRAINING IN VIEW OF FUTURE NEEDS OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (C)*
Dr. A. Svoboda 189
20. HYDROGEOLOGY IN THE POSTGRADUATE COURSES IN HYDROLOGY OF Page UNESCO (II)*
Prof. J. Silar 195
21. COMPUTER-AIDED-LEARNING AND HYDROINFORMATICS (D)”
Prof. J. Zezulak 201
22. TRENDS IN HYDROLOGICAL EDUCATION (A)*
Prof. H. Zojer 211
* (see the remark in the Preface)
PREFACE
Postgraduate activities, continuing education and training (CE + T) in hydrology and water resources management are part of the mandate of UNESCO. Within the framework of the International Hydrological Decade (1965 - 1974) and the ongoing International Hydrological Programme (1975 -) several courses and other activities have been started and developed with UNESCO’s assistance.
In spite of these successful efforts the need for continuous training and upgrading of professionals is likely to increase as the introduction of new ideas and techniques into the practice of water resources planners and managers becomes comparative. Environmentally oriented water resources development, sustainability considerations, integrated resource and demand management and the inherent challenges of man-made and climate change impacts on the hydrosphere have to be tackled worldwide by well trained engineers and scientists relying on state-of-the-art technology.
Therefore, irrespective of their unquestioned actuality, scope and concepts, the CE + T activities should be scrutinized and updated to match the ever changing requirements.
The International Workshop on “Postgraduate Education in Hydrology” which was organized between 29 and 31 August 1994 by the Agricultural University of Prague responded to this need. This well organized meeting brought together representatives of CE + T institutions and other experts being closely involved in postgraduate education of hydrology and water resources. A key paper on
“Postgraduate education in hydrology” co-authored by P. Kovaf of the Agricultural University of Prague and W.H. Gilbrich of UNESCO formed the focal point of the discussions. This over 50-page- long document, which was published separately as a state-of-the-art report in the “Technical Documents in Hydrology” series of UNESCO in 1995 summarizes the evaluation of past experience and future of 32 UNESCO sponsored hydrology courses.
This volume presents 22 contributions introduced and discussed during the workshop. Next to the obvious questions of form and content of the postgraduate educational activities, the contributions address issues like course recognition and methods of course evaluation. Manpower and market analysis belong to the problems to be recognized and tackled by course organizers just as the question of recognition of diplomas and certificates. Problems of the CE + T activities (mainly courses) are dealt both in the retrospective and by analysing future prospects.
The contributions can be grouped into four classes, addressing A - Introduction and experience with ongoing CE + T activities B - Course and participant evaluation
C - Concepts and future trends D - Curriculum and course content.
With a certain, inevitable overlap contributions 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15 and 22 correspond with Theme A. Contributions 2, 4, 11, 12 and 18 constitute Theme B. Papers 3, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18 and 19 can be associated with Theme C. whereas 20 and 21 address the Theme D.
Double counting in the classification underline the well kept balance between the presentation of individual courses and general topics. The workshop experienced a valuable exchange of information and vivid discussions.
This proceedings is edited by Mr. H. Salz. His careful work is highly appreciated.
This UNESCO publication is dedicated to Mr. Wilfried H. Gilbrich, to honor his almost three- decade-long service and valuable contributions to postgraduate education in hydrology.
THE BARCELONA INTERNATIONAL COURSE IN GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY:
EXPERIENCE OF 28 YEARS AND FITTING PROCESS TO A CHANGING BACK- GROUND OF STUDENTS
DR. E. BATISTA, E. CUSTODIO AND M. VALVERDE
International Centre for Groundwater Hydrology, Dept. of Ground Engineering and Mapping, UPC, C/Beethoven, 15,3’, 08021 Barcelona, Spain
ABSTRACT
The experience of 28 years of the International Groundwater Course of Barcelona is presented. It is the result of the sponsoring effort of several national and regional public organizations and private enterprises, with a changing administrative status to adapt to the new circumstances. The scientific support come from the Polytechnic University of Catalonia, and UNESCO coordinates it. A Teaching Commission formed by professors and professionals has proved to be a right solution to adapt to the changes of student’s background and previous experience, to developments in groundwater science and technology, to variable goals and to the new trends in the environment and sustainable development. A key issue is the quantitative approach to scientific and practical problems of groundwater hydrology, although this is something that relies on the training the students are assumed to have. The Course focuses on basics, leaving specialized aspects to later courses, and provides the principles to understand the contents and capabilities of the techniques and tools in use to solve the problems the students have to use, but where direct application and interpretation requires the additional training.
INTRODUCTION
The UNESCO’s International Hydrological Decade (19651974) was a landmark in the world hydrological studies and in groundwater resources assessment and development. A lack of trained personnel was noticed soon, especially in developing countries. Not only countries with knowledge in groundwater resources evaluation, exploitation and management were asked to increase their capabilities in these disciplines but it was also urgently needed to transfer this
knowledge to developing areas, under conditions as close as possible to the real problems and circumstances.
At that time intensive groundwater exploitation existed in several areas of Spain, mainly along the Mediterranean coast and the two main archipelagos (the Balearic and the Canary Islands), mainly as the result of private initiatives. At that time public projects were starting to enlarge irrigated agricultural areas or create new ones, mainly by the Instituto National de Colonizacion (INC, National Institute for New Settlements), now the IRYDA (Institute for Agrarian Reform and Development).
Salination problems, groundwater level drawdown, clashes of interests and litigation were appearing. At that time the Water Act considered groundwater as owned by the abstractor. Some protection areas of public water in the rivers against induced recharge by pumping wells were established causing new administrative and legal problems.
In 1964 near Barcelona, .where groundwater was being intensively used for urban and industrial supply, the Comisaria de Aguas de1 Pirineo Oriental (CAPO, Western Pyrenees Water Authority) and in Barcelona the office of the Public Works Geological Service (SGOP) launched a pioneering study of total water resources in the area with special emphasis on groundwater. A working team was formed by Dr. J.M. Llanso (head of the CAPO) ‘and directed by Drs.
M.R.Llamas and F. Vilaro. They reacted to UNESCO’s appeal and in 1966 decided to start a training course for University graduates aimed at Spain’s needs but open to other countries as well.
Then, the mentioned organizations, jointly with the Barcelona’s Water Supply Company (the main user of groundwater with experience in management) and the University Research Centre, launched in 1967 the Course that soon became the Curso International de Hidrologia Subterranea (International Course for Groundwater Hydrology), now a well consolidated activity linked to the Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC) and sponsored by several national and regional public and private organizations, dealing with water management and use, under the coordination of UNESCO.
THE COURSE ORGANIZATION
The Course started as a joint venture, without institutional framework, although the CAP0 and SGOP provided space and some services for the Secretariat and the UPC (or the former organizations) teaching facilities and locals. The responsible professors, mostly professionals from the sponsoring institutions, used facilities existing at the working place or at the University. The Director’s Board, meeting twice a year, agreed on the next course, the orientation of the teaching and the financial support to be granted by them or to be asked from other institutions. The Board of Professors (Teaching Commission) carried out the directives, a large part of the lectures and practical classes, the academic control tasks and the guidance of the practical works to be carried out by the students.
A formal organization was needed to handle the finances and grants, and to be able to contract the staff for a more autonomous functioning. Later, as an interim solution, the Association for the International Course on Groundwater Hydrology was finally approved in 1987, under the recent regulations for Associations established by the regional Catalan Government. The scope of activities was enlarged and included the support to a Master degree programme and to carry out research specialized work.
At the same time the final stage was approached. The most feasible form was a Foundation starting from the Association’s assets and initially under the tuition of those organizations of the Board of Directors that had the legal capability of being founders. The others would join after- wards. The Foundation International Centre for Groundwater Hydrology was legally ‘established in 1991 and in 1993 the UPC joined; the rest is expected to join as soon as the remaining administrative problems are solved, but continue to be the former Course Director’s Board.
Currently, the Foundation has a Board of Patrons to control it and to establish the guidelines, a Council to supervise the activities and an Executive Committee to carry out the direct supervision of the tasks, with the support of a Manager and a Secretariat. The International Course is an autonomous activity within the Foundation, with a Director and a Teaching Commission. The actual number of persons involved in each activity is as low as possible. They are mostly university professors and professionals from the sponsoring organizations working on an extra time basis.
Especially contracted personnel is currently limited to three persons.
THE INTERNATIONAL COURSE STRUCTURE AND ATTENDANCE
The general outline of the Course has been kept about the same since the beginning, which means that the formula initially adopted was right. A University degree, mainly in Sciences or Engineering is needed to be accepted. Classical classroom lectures prevail. Applied theory is alternated with examples and selected problems. Pure theoretical and research topics as well as specific problems of local interest are avoided as much as possible. They are part of the subjects of the Master and Doctoral Courses, but not of the International Course. Students are asked to solve problems at home which are later commented in the classroom. Where possible real data is used.
No laboratory work is done except for some visits, but some detailed field visits to hydrologically interesting areas and projects under way are a key factor in knowledge transfer. All students have to prepare - generally forming two person teams of complementary background - a practical work based on field data collecting, that generally - but not always - refer to areas in Catalonia, especially those where some work is being carried out or where there is the possibility of assigning a motivated supervisor. A diploma of the Foundation and afterwards another from the UPC’s postgraduate organization is awarded to the students who pass examinations, attend the lectures and field visits, solve the problems and are able to prepare a practical work good enough to be screened by the Teaching Commission. The practical work has to conform to the general outline and necessarily deal with a series of topics.
The first course was five-month long and included 150 classroom lecture hours, but rapidly expanded to six complete months of about 300 classroom lecture hours and 450 teaching hours, besides the practical work. This has been kept almost constant for twenty years, as the result of a balance between student’s capacity to effectively attend lectures and do practical work, and the completeness of the programme. This means a year by year adaptation of the Course’s contents and syllabus to follow the changing circumstances and priorities of groundwater hydrology science and technology.
Attendance has been about 25 students per year which is considered the more managable size of the Course, with extremes of 16 and 32 students, most frequently between 22 and 27.
Students attending the first courses included a large fraction of Spanish professionals from the Water Administration (mainly the Water Authorities and the Public Works Geological Service), but soon young Spanish graduates prevailed. This means a change that will be considered later. At the
beginning engineers (civil industrial, agricultural, . . .) and geologists were in about equal numbers, plus a few chemists, physicists, biologists, . . . , but little by little geologists outnumbered engineers.
This reflects a little the employment opportunities (engineers find more easily a job), the willingless to increase the education (since engineers spent more years at the university they are less motivated to continue the studies) and the increasing role of geologists in Public Administration Offices and Firms. Fig. 1 shows how participants are divided as engineers, geologists and others since the beginning.
19 qa 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 0 6 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
67 66 60 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 i7 78 79 60 81 a2 83 a.4 85 88 87 88 89 90 01 82 93 94
YEAR
Fig. 1 Number of engineers, geologists and others who attended the courses during 28 years (1967/1994)
Foreign students showed up since the first courses started, mainly from South and Central America, and also from Portugal and former Portuguese Territories, taking advantage of the language - the teaching is carried out in Spanish (Castillian) - but other countries have been represented as well, mainly from Europe. Students from Africa (except former Portuguese Territories) and Asia have been rare. A special short intensive course in English was given in 1982 directed to professionals from these areas, with good success, but this was a costly experience supported by the Foreign Ministry that was not repeated.
The Course tuition fees cover about half the total cost of running it, the other half being paid by contributions from the organizations forming the Course Board of Directors. The Course cannot waive the fees to any students since there is no other source of income, and now even a certain amount per student has to be covered by the University Administration as an overhead for common services.
The participation of young graduates and professionals from developing countries depend largely on the availability of grants in order to pay the whole or part of the tuition fees. The _ Course itself is able to raise a few grants by asking economic contributions from organizations and firms, mainly from Catalonia. Participants from developing countries rely for support mainly on international organizations (American States Organization, United Nations Development Programme, FAO, UNESCO, IAEA, . . .) or Spanish institutions (Ibero-American institute for Cooperation, Spanish Agency for Cooperation, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, . ..). The support was increasing at the beginning, but during the last ten years it decreased suddenly, partly due to the UN System financial problems, partly due to new priorities of Spanish institutions. Later, grants for foreigners have been scarce or limited to persons involved in some projects. In many cases they do not include travel costs or/and tuition fees. This has prevented a large number of qualified professionals and good young graduates to attend, but a few have been able to raise funds by themselves, students from Eastern Europe (mainly from Romania, due to language similitude) have not been able to attend since the political conditions
changed.
The total number of graduated professionals from the Course are 679, from 39 countries.
See Table 1 and Fig. 2.
Table 1 Distribution of the participants by countries
Country Argentina
Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil Caboverde Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Denmark
Dominican Republic Ecuador
El Salvador Finland France
Germany Guatemala Honduras Iraq Italy Mexico Morocco
Mozambique Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Poland
?ortugal Romania Spain Sweden Switzerland Syria
United Kingdom Jruguay
USA Venezuela
Number of participants 43
1 1 8 27 1 7 20
8 7 1 6 7 3 1 1 1 7 4 1 10 37 1 4 6 3 1 11
1 23 6 402
1 2 1 1 7 1 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
-1
Fig. 2 Number of Spanish and foreign students in the 28 courses
THE COURSE SYLLABUS
Every year and according to the wide scope of the course, a new syllabus is presented, including the modifications suggested by the Teaching Commission.
The current course syllabus is as follows:
1. Hydrological cycle, recharge and groundwater balance 2. Groundwater flow
3. Hydrochemistry
4. Groundwater exploration 5. Well hydraulics
6. Pipe and pumps hydraulics 7. Mass transport in the ground 8. Well drilling and construction
9. Fresh-saltwater relationships in coastal aquifers 10. Environmental isotope hydrology
11, Groundwater quality and contamination 12. Groundwater modelling
13. Water economics
i4. Groundwater hydrology and environment
15. Water resources planning and management 16. Groundwater legislation and legal issues 17. Real cases
Surface Water Hydrology 2,6% piiiGzq
---
Groundwater Hydrology 20.4%
Fig. 3 She-ws how the different topics - grouped - occupy the available time. Theoretical and applied lectures, practical classes, examples, discussions, examinations and field work are included.
THE COURSE CHANGING ORIENTATION
Groundwater resources exploration, survey, assessment, exploitation and management have been the dominant aim of the Course. This comes from the original goals and the professional orientation of the professors. These were also the main subjects promoted by UNESCO during the International Hydrological Decade. Later the emphasis was changing little by little following the country’s needs, and the world trends, as reflected in the professional demand as well as in the main contents of the successive International Hydrological Programmes of IJNESCO.
Exploration and development were dominant goals - which still are important in some developing areas. They have been partly suppressed by objectives more aimed at groundwater resources management and integration of groundwater exploitation with other water resources, including joint use of surface and groundwater. Increasing problems of sea water intrusion, natural saline water displacement and important water level drawdown in some aquifers have led to the need of more detailed knowledge of aquifer behaviour considering long-lasting transient situations and designing improved distribution of well patterns. The widespread idea that most groundwater was of good quality for human supply and well protected against pollution proved to be wrong. At the beginning this was considered a special problem of developed areas raised by excessively health conscious citizen groups, but now this is a real concern in developed as well as in developing areas, with far reaching and intergenerational consequences. Water quality, as an important problem, needs improved knowledge of aquifer behaviour. This means the careful consideration of the unsaturated zone - formerly mostly ignored - the more widespread use of flow numerical simulation models and the first affordable mass-transport numerical simulation models.
Little by little they are becoming the tools of common study, assessment and prediction. The more complex situations can be dealt with and with better accuracy by means of new study tools, such as hydrogeochemistry and environmental isotopes, and in some cases by means of artificial tracers in well-designed tests and by means of improved observation and monitoring, including multiple isolated-screen boreholes, new sampling devices and field instruments for in situ acquisition of data.
The changing orientation now includes management tools such as protection areas for groundwater quantity and quality, introduction of assessment concepts such as that of vulnerability - still a poorly defined and untested one - and techniques such as geographical information systems, many of whose capabilities for groundwater are still to be proven.
Man’s ability to explore, exploit and damage groundwater has dramatically increased over the last decades. A widespread concern about the availability of fresh potable water for the future is growing. To some extent this is a new “malthusian” concern. But among its negative overtones real points for present and future action appear in order to get a sustainable use of aquifers without excessively burdening neither the present human generation nor the future ones. Care is needed to keep alive valuable development initiatives, but taking care that benefits are real with no cost transfer to the future. Participation in present benefits is necessary in order to compensate the present indirect costs.
Among these broad aspects other more specific ones appear, needing some general attention. One of them is the hydrology of low permeability formations from the scientific point of view of explaining slowly changing - in geological terms - groundwater systems. This includes the understanding of the associated hydrodynamic and hydrochemical aspects, as a step for establishing more correct conceptual models of groundwater systems. But there are practical points of view as well that aim at the geological confinement of solid chemical and nuclear wastes.
Another specific aspect refers to the dependence of many valuable wetlands on groundwater flow and its associated chemical quality, Wetland conservation and restoration is an important issue in many areas. Another topic is the contaminated soil and aquifer restoration, a major activity in densely populated and industrial areas that is fastly extending to developing regions, where many of the highly polluting activities are being transferred.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE COURSE CONTENTS
The above commented complex panorama has been considered in the successive course contents to give the best service to students and to the society in which they will carry out their professional activities. To keep the aquifer size more or less constant this means compromising, adjustments and optimizing efforts. A first classification of topics is:
Basic, providing the necessary knowledge to be able to make correct assessments, calculations and interpretations.
Formative, providing working knowledge about hydrogeological techniques. The student has to acquire the capability to use these techniques at least at a general level.
Informative, providing general knowledge on groundwater and water resources topics needed for a correct understanding of the water problems and the way to communicate with other
specialists, but not to the point of being especially trained in them.
Comulementarv, not directly related with groundwater aspects but necessary for the correct understanding of the basic or applied contents. They are needed when they are not in the student’s background.
At the beginning students did not have any previous knowledge on groundwater and water resources. Moreover some of them had a low background in mathematics or geology. More recently these defficiencies have been removed. Thus complementary teaching has disappeared little by little, and also some groundwater topics can be introduced earlier and at a faster pace.
But what is valid for a majority of students is not necessarily apllicable to all individuals. Some of them fill the gaps easily, especially in natural sciences aspects, but others are not able to do it.
This happens when there is no previous training for quantitative approaches of real situations and when the studies followed by the student lack the depth and completeness of others holding nominally similar grades. Differences among Universities are sometimes conspicuous, even with similar syllabi. The differences are especially enlarged when dealing with quantitative aspects and depth and analysis of real situations. These same types of problems appear when considering new professors as well, and this may become a major difficulty for some topics.
The general trends to cope with the increasing complexity includes:
Careful formulation of consistent hydrogeological conceptual models using available data and techniques.
Careful screening of data and samples for its representativeness in an initially three- dimensional system.
Quantitative checking of the different conceptual models using simple but well tested methods.
Choosing a quantitative approach to the real situations of problems to be solved.
Selecting an explanation only after other alternatives have been duly considered and evaluated.
Adopting a study, solution or assessment approach similar to that needed for a simulation model.
The quantitative approach does not necessarily mean aiming at numerical simulation models, since they may be not needed or are not feasible if the time, money and human resources available to the problem under consideration are taken into account. This explains that, in spite of
the great development of groundwater modelling in the last two decades and its widespread use, models are not the central topic in the course. In fact some aspects are shown only at an informative level. More complete training in models is the subject of advanced courses. The course focuses on basic concepts and the way to formulate consistent conceptual models and how to test them preliminarily.
The evolution of the 28 courses can be summarized as (see Fig. 4 for the number of lecture changes):
Suppression of complements such as basics of mathematics, introduction to geology and elements of statistics. Most of the students currently have a sufficient background.
Furthermore a few condensed lectures do not solve the background defficiencies. Sustaining a clear quantitave orientation in the lectures of the course is the only way to try to catch up with the gap.
Keeping groundwater flow principles as a key discipline, complemented with unsaturated flow basics. A key point is securing the principles which are well understood by everybody.
In shorter time condensing well hydraulics as students generally have some previous knowledge. Simple methods have to be secured, as well as a clear vision on how real tests may deviate (water capacity of the well, changing discharge, water table drainage, effect of well losses , . . .). Computer codes to adjust pumping test data are given a secondary priority.
Putting more emphasis on hydrochemical principles and giving more importance to hydrogeological model formulation with the support of hydrogeochemistry and environmental isotope data.
First introducing and later giving more importance to mass transport principles in the ground.
Decreasing groundwater exploration and study lectures as the contents are dominantly descriptive. They can be easily derived from basics if they are well understood by students.
Descriptions are being changed by lectures on basic methods and systematics.
Maintaining the time devoted to borehole and well drilling methods - but including new ones that are now commonly used, but enlarging lectures about well completion, deep wells, avoiding sand penetration well testing - including downhole geophysical logs - rehabilitation techniques, disinfection, etc.
Conserving some lectures to deal with the basics of groundwater management methods such as artificial recharge of aquifers, groundwater quality evaluation, protection and restoration, groundwater planning, groundwater economics and groundwater legislation principles and norms.
Reducing the number of lectures devoted to surface water hydrology and other sources of water, but conserving the basics, and giving more weight to aquifer water balance and recharge calculation.
Introducing a few lectures on environmental aspects related to groundwater and how to consider groundwater in environmental impact studies.
Keeping a number of lectures to discuss real cases presented by professionals. New aspects of groundwater hydrology such as geological confinement of wastes, palaeowaters and climatic change are presented as discussions and not as formal lectures.
70 ____
I
-
so-l
i! -5 4Q - .- s Q30-
20 -
10 -
0 -1
I I I
_
20 24 28Cause number
Fig. 4 Number of lectures for the different topic groups of the 28 courses
TEACHING AIDS
Legend
-
n Grwnwaler Hydrdogy
m Chemical aspecb
Waler Balancs m Sutve~ng Ff!l Wells
. .i
a Surfaca Water Hydrology .~_--
At the start no book in Spanish or any other language was available to cover all the different subjects that it was thought the course had to embrace. A series of books was too inadequate for students receiving intensive training. Thus, it was decided to produce notes submitted by lecturers with the help of some students. In three years half of the lectures were
available as notes. Then it was decided to improve and bind them into a book. This two-volume book appeared in 1976 under the title “Hidrologia Subterrinea” (Groundwater Hydrology), edited by E. Custodio and M.R. Llamas, who wrote more than half of it, the rest being the contributions of a series of other professors and collaborators. This book (printed by Ediciones Omega, Barcelona, two volumes, total 2350 pages) is partly a text and partly a manual, and was prepared to contain the whole syllabus of the course, even the informative part. The students were informed on the basic chapters, the chapters intended to expand the knowledge and those providing complementary information. It became soon also a study and reference book in other Centres of Spain and Latin America, as well as in some European countries. It was reprinted in 1983 with minor changes to correct errors. As time has been passing, a.part of the chapters have become obsolete or do not include new useful developments. But about half of it, the part containing basic principles, is still valid as it is, and another fourth of it dealing with applied aspects are usable with only a few complements. The remaining fourth and some new relevant topics have to be covered by lecture notes. Notwithstanding, professors are asked to stick to the book as much as possible, even if other texts are considered more convenient or felt more suitable due to personal reasons.
The type of course here discussed is for professional training, not for researchers. The study does not have to rely on bibliographical search or the, use of a series of books to get the subjects included in the syllabus. It is important to know where information is and how to use it, and this is one of the tasks left to the practical work, mainly for data collecting, but not for studying. The study tasks have to rely on readily available material. An academic approach, as it is common in doctoral studies, is not only outside the scope of the course but has proven difficult in mastering basic knowledge in the short time available.
COMPLEMENTARY FORMATION
Students who want to go deeper into a subject, extend their theoretical training or move into research topics, have the option to continue, attending the Master in Groundwater Hydrology - a joint venture of the Department of Ground Engineering and the Foundation - or the Doctoral Programme of the same Department. Both ways share courses which, with some different requirements, are also offered as part of a specialization Programme of the Civil Engineering School. The Master degree is obtained after passing a minimum of eight specific credits and submitting a thesis under the guidance of a tutor. For the completion of the course, the Master
needs a minimum of nine months, but usually one year or more are used. The Doctorate needs 20 additional credits in specific matters and complementary formation, plus a Doctoral Thesis. At least two years are needed but usually three to four years are used, during which the student is generally involved in some research and academic work.
CONCLUSIONS
The experience of 28 years of the International Course on Groundwater Hydrology of Barcelona shows that changing conditions can be solved by adopting the most appropriate administrative and management form. There is enough time to implement the changes without hurry. The student’s background is also changing, mainly because groundwater is now not a fully new subject to many of them. But this raises new problems since a gap is opened between students who have and those who lack a previous background. The main handicap comes from students that do not have and are not able to acquire the ability to approach real problems as a common working tool quantitatively.
The course syllabus has been slowly adapted to groundwater science and technology development and this can be easily done when a Teaching Commission includes professors with professionals of groundwater. To keep at bay the length and intensity of the course, adaption to an expanding groundwater science and technology means giving more emphasis to basic principles and complementing them with well prepared examples and study cases, and at the same time reducing descriptive lectures.
COMPLEMENTARY PAPERS
BATISTA, E. (1991): Ensefianza y formation en Hidrologia Subterrinea: situation general.
Hidrogeologia, Estado Actual y Prospectiva. Curso International de Hidrologia Subterranea.
CIMNE. Barcelona: 331-336.
CUSTODIO, E. (1994): Tendencia en la docencia e investigation hidrogeologica en Espaiia. La Contribution Academica al Conocimiento y Aprovechamiento de las Aguas Subterraneas en Espatia. Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Fisicas y Naturales. Madrid (in press).
CUSTODIO, E.; MARTIN ARNAIZ. M.(1981): Desarrollo de la enseiianza de la hidrologia subterranea en Catalufia: papel de la Universidad Politecnica de Cataluiia y otros Organismos.
Quaderns d’Enginyeria, ETSIIB, Barcelona. 3(l): 77-92.
CUSTODIO, E.; BAY6, A. (1980): Contribucio de1 Curs International d’Hidrologia Subterrania al coneixement geohidrolbgic, cientific i aplicat de Catalunya. Recerca, Tecnologia i Societat (Jordanes). Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya. Barcelona: 187- 19 1.
CUSTODIO, E.; BATISTA, E. (1991): Hidrologia Subterrinea: estado actual y prospectiva: a modo de prologo. Hidrogeologia, Estado Actual y Prospectiva. Curso International de Hidrologia Subterranea. CIMNE. Barcelona: i-x.
GURGUI, A. (1991): Evolution de1 contenido de un programa coherente sobre ensenanza de la Hidrologia Subterrinea. Hidrogeologia, Estado Actual y Prospectiva. Curso International de Hidrologia Subterrinea. CIMNE. Barcelona: 359-370.
MANIAK, U. (1993): Curricula and syllabi for hydrology in university education. Technical Documents in Hydrology. Int. Hydr. Progr., UNESCO Paris: l-29 + Annexes.
NASH, J.E.; EAGLESON, P.S.; PHILIP, J.R.; VAN DER MOLEN, W.H. (1990): The education of hydrologists. Hydrological Sciences Journal, IAHS, 35(6): l- 11.
2. EFFICIENCY OR EFFECTIVENESS IN COURSE EVALUATION PROF. A. VAN DER BEKEN,
Interuniversity Programme in Water Resources Engineering (IUPWARE) Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels
Belgium
ABSTRACT
The challenge of developing a full methodology for evaluating postgraduate programmes is beyond the scope of this paper. Some thoughts will be presented partly based on the author’s own limited experiences, partly based on literature.
A complete methodology would require extensive research. A series of questions arise:
* For what purpose do we want to evaluate the programmes?
* How do we evaluate? What approaches to evaluation do we want to or could we use?
* What should be done with the evaluation results?
The answers to these questions, which are clearly interlinked, may constitute a basis for a methodology. They may also inspire new developments in the network of the postgraduate programmes.
PURPOSES OF EVALUATION
Purposes of evaluation of Education and Training (ET) may be split up into those related to
“ET-efficiency” and those related to “ET-effectiveness”. ET-efficiency has to do with achieving the goals of education and training in the best possible (most economical) way. These goals can be found in a typical definition of education and training: “The systematic development of the attitude/knowledge/skill/behaviour pattern required by an individual to perform adequately a given task or job”.
The key concepts are:
* “Systematic development” which implies planning and control, e.g. in a well-structured postgraduate programme.
* “Individual” which is part of our Western culture.
* “Task or Job” which is an organizational or institutional goal.
ET-eflciency has been traditionally measured by some assessment of the “systematic development of the individual”, i.e. by examinations. This allows only for comparisons of the changes among individuals attributable to the transfer process applied in the given ET-programme, but clearly it does not allow for comparisons of transfer processes across different programmes. The additional inclusion of the economic (cost-benefit) and quality aspects of organizing the programme brings us inevitably to a much more complex purpose for the evaluation of ET-efficiency with consequences for the methodology of the evaluation.
One enters into ET-effectiveness when one considers the “job or task” concept in the above definition. Success in the job or task performance and personal fulfilment in this performance is certainly the ultimate goal of our educational and training systems. But the evaluation or measurement of this performance, in the context of an organization, or of society in general, implies evaluation of team or group procedures and behaviour. In other words, the training effectiveness should be evaluated by investigating the “effectiveness” of the (part of the) organisation in which the individual works, in both the present and subsequent jobs (Fig. 1). Hence the approach of the evaluation is totally different. Evaluation of personal fulfilment would require yet another approach.
Changes in technology
J
/ Organizational structureTraining Giving information
Organizational culture
Selection
Actions of competitors
Fig. 1 Interaction between people and work-situation (ref. BRAMLEY, p.4)
It must be recognized that most of our traditional training processes are oriented towards individual learning. ET-effectiveness would probably be enhanced by introducing (more) group- training methods, e.g. integrated project design including multi-disciplinary teams.
Another purpose of evaluation is the up-front identification of ET-needs and the selection of trainees which are crucial ‘for any programme. In fact, both ET-efficiency and effectiveness depend on the above identification and selection because the programme design (or model) and organization should be based on the ET-objectives (Fig. 2)‘. In practice, the programme designers/organizers have very little access to or can do nothing about the identification of ET-needs. Ideally, the ET-process should be interactive such that a sponsor can select the most appropriate programme for a given trainee, and such that programmes are designed/organized for the most called for ET-objectives. The programme may be efficient in doing what it sets out to do, but it cannot be effective if the wrong people are attending. If this interaction is not fulfilled, and this may be rather the rule than the exception, ET-efficiency as well as ET-effectiveness will decrease. In practice, the availability of grants or sponsorship will limit the proper interaction between ET-needs, selection of trainees, design and organization of programmes. A minimum one should expect is a clear definition of and information about the objectives and content of the programmes. Within a network of postgraduate programmes, one should strive towards a range of ET-models which correspond to the different ET- needs.
1 Identification of
training
Fig. 2 The systematic ET-cycle (ref. BRAMLEY, p.6)
HOW DO WE EVALUATE?
The classical approach of evaluation of a course has been fully explained in the key-note paper of this Workshop. Therefore, we will approach the evaluation problem from a different angle.
We want to stress that the classical approach remains fully applicable.
Evaluation has to do with cost and quality assessment. A very extensive literature about
“Total Quality Management - methods (TQM)” has recently emerged, partly triggered by the application of the IS0 9000 standard in many fields, including education and training (ET). The IRDAC Report “Quality and Relevance - the challenge to European education” (1993) gives a wealth of information about adopting quality concepts in ET.
ET-resources are expensive and scarce: co-operation and internationalization is doubtless a must. But this is also a big challenge because effective co-operation and internationalization is likely to be a blur if not a systematic and transparent way of cost and quality assessment is introduced. The cost assessment is probably even more difficult than quality assessment. Assessment of the value of knowledge and skill needs more fresh-thinking. The “depreciation” over time of skills, if not properly updated, is one side of the coin. Current practice of cost assessment is to measure the cost of a course against salary costs. But one may consider relating it to other benchmarking, such as turn-over, R&D-efforts, project-development.
The current trend in quality assessment is a cycle including an internal and external part common to all participating in ET-programmes (Fig. 3). The internal part consists of a “self- assessment”. The approach of the Dutch and Flemish universities includes a check-list covering a large number of subjects to be addressed in the self-assessment. But the departments responsible for the ET-programme can stress points which they consider of particular importance, or they can clearly define their own goals as points of departure of the self-assessment.
The external part consists of a visiting committee of 7 members. Special care is taken to appoint an independent chair. The self-assessment reports of all participating programmes are collected by the visiting committee before it starts on its “tour”. The visits culminate in a report for each programme with a judgement and comments, an outlook, expectations and recommendations, which supposedly lead to quality improvements of the given ET-programmes.
Internal
elf-study
F report
1 committee 1
External
Quality
judgement Visiting
committee
Fig. 3 The quality assessment cycle (ref. IRDAC, p.85)
It goes without saying that such a quality assessment cycle is especially interesting when it can be repeated after some years in order to evaluate the follow-up of the assessment and to assess the real consequences. It also goes without saying that the approach is costly, but affordable compared to the total expenditure of ET-programmes. A well-adapted approach would fulfil many objectives of the IHP-IV Project E-3.1. Of course, the adapted approach should address programmes which are comparable in duration.
WHAT TO DO WITH THE EVALUATION RESULTS?
Both the classical evaluation approach, explained in the keynote paper, as the quality assessment cycle approach, described above, should lead to an improvement of the quality of the given programme. For reasons explained in $2 “PURPOSES OF EVALUATION” it may, however, not be easy to improve as well the ET-effectiveness as the ET-efficiency. The latter may be easier, while the former depends also on the up-front identification of ET-needs and trainees, on the proper interaction between the “market” and the “provider” and, more in general, on the interaction between people (trainees) and their work situation. The work situational factors, beyond the control of the programme organizer, may be dominant when evaluating the ET-effectiveness, although the ET- efficiency of the programme may be of the highest. A proper evaluation methodology among the ET- models, could bring some further light into the efficiency versus effectiveness issue.
The results of the quality assessment cycle approach with an internal and external part would certainly bring the IHP-programmer closer to each other and enhance the possibilities to learn from each other and to co-operate. More specifically, Advanced Learning Technologies (ALT), often very expensive to develop and to use in a small market, could be shared. All this assumes not only a framework programme, such as the Education subprogramme of IHP, but also a multilateral funding for co-operation.
CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY
Course evaluation needs a methodology. A contribution to this methodology is presented by discussing:
1. the difference between Education and Training (ET) eficiency and effectiveness;
2. the quality assessment cycle approach;
3. the follow-up of the evaluation.
The results of an evaluation are supposedly applied to improve the quality of the programme, but the course-effectiveness depends on the proper interaction between course-designer/provider and the decision maker. Up-front identification of ET-needs and trainees is crucial. A range of ET-models which corresponds to different ET-needs is the best answer.
Evaluation results, especially ‘those of the quality assessment cycle, should also be incentives for closer co-operation among ‘the programmes in the IHP-network. IH-V offers the appropriate framework if multilateral funding would be available.
REFERENCES
BRAMLEY, P. : “Evaluating Training Effectiveness”. The McGraw-Hill Training Series. McGraw- Hill Book Cy, UK, 1991, 144 pp. ISBN o-07-707331-2
IRDAC (Industrial Research and Development Advisory Committee of the European Commission):
“Quality and Relevance - The challenge to European Education”, Brussels, 1993, 109 pp.
(available from IRDAC-Secretariat, fax +32-2-2954361)
3. FUTURE STRATEGIES FOR SPECIALIZED COURSES IN HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES
PROF. J.J. BOGARDI
Agricultural University, Dept. of Water Resources Nieuwe Kanaal 11, 6909 PA Wageningen
The Netherlands
ABSTRACT
Postgraduate courses in hydrology and water resources management became quite numerous in the last four decades. They did not only contribute substantially to dissemination of knowledge in the respective fields but through their usually international characteristics contributed also to regional cooperation and goodwill.
In spite of these significant contributions the need for postgraduate education and training did not diminish at all. The outreach services of universities, courses of specialized international educational centres and the training programmes of reputed research institutes. are sought after as ever.
This interest is not astonishing by considering the expected challenges ahead.
Demographic explosion with the inherent increase of water demand is predicted to lead to conflicts both between water use and environmental concern and among the different users themselves.
Further conflicts may arise between nations sharing a river basin. The expected shortage of fresh water in the 21” century might be even more aggravated if climatic change scenarios turn out to be true. The pressure on the water resources would further increase if public health and standard of living were improved.
Thus need for well trained (and re-trained) professionals is obvious. The shortage of experienced professionals in the water sector is especially felt in the developing countries. Unfortunately this
“sustainable” demand is confronted with the harsh reality of substantial cuts in national. and international educational budgets. The economic recession experienced by the economically leading countries further accentuated the already emerging ‘donor fatigue’. In the present meagre years errors in the concept or execution of courses or inappropriate selection of participants (political reasons, nepotism or interagency squabbling) can be particularly harmful, as it could be used as pretext to curtail contributions.
F’UTURE CHALLENGES
The task postgraduate course organizers are facing is clear: to achieve more with less input.
Under these preconditions new concepts and new strategical approaches are needed.
In order to avoid duplication a world wide network of courses is needed with inherent coordination preferably under the stewardship of UNESCO.
Joint courses offered by geographically close locations should be considered.
This option might help existing programmes as well.
(for example VITUKI, Budapest and the Agricultural University Prague could combine their efforts both to enhance a regional cooperation and to sustain their well established international courses).
Alternatively regional centres could be created to respond to particular programme needs and languages of the region. Lecturers could be recruited from the respective regions, or from countries of the same language.
As far as the financial and administrative constraints allow “independent” or UNESCO sponsored courses should seek cooperation with educational programmes of the European Union (ERASMUS, COMETT, TEMPUS-PHARE, TEMPUS-TACIS, etc.). This type of cooperation would particularly enhance courses offering degree programmes.
To ensure efficiency of the international programmes a clear distinction is needed among target groups:
degree training (on which level) technical upgrading for practitioners refresher courses for practitioners
introduction of new techniques for practitioners.
As far as academic programmes are concerned international postgraduate courses might make a virtue out of the need by coordinating their curricula to offer modules as parts of a common M.Sc., or even Ph.D. programmes. While the administration and coordination of this cooperation model is a formidable task, the rewards are worth the efforts. Course quality is likely to improve by concentrating on less subjects at one place than before. This modular M.Sc.
programme would enable more senior professionals to accumulate gradually the credits needed for a higher degree. This model would require, next to the inherent formal agreements, a regional or
global student registry system to be managed by one participating institution or by an international organization.
Beyond their present scope and efficiency postgraduate courses might even be strengthened by this “cooperation out of need”. Especially university cooperations can be conceived to offer joint Ph.D. level lectures, which otherwise could not be realized in national or single university
context.
Joint Ph.D. programmes would also enable institutions which at present cannot confer Ph.D. degrees to participate in this research-oriented activity.
It is strongly advised to keep an international registry of participants to avoid proliferation of “course boys” and “course girls”, a breed of excellent young professionals who virtually collect course certificates and M.Sc. degrees. The postgraduate courses cannot afford to waste resources.
Likewise donors should insist that the course committees or receiving faculties make the final decision concerning admissions of participants. Political objectives might be accepted in form of (flexible) country- or regional quotas.
Course organizers should lobby themselves; not ‘only for fund-raising but to lift unnecessary administrative obstacles (limitations of EU educational programmes, simplifying credit transfers etc.).
CREDENTIALS
The author, being associated with a number of postgraduate courses, both as alumni and recently as external lecturer takes the freedom of the outsider with insider’s knowledge to put forward some ideas concerning the “ideal” setup and coordination of postgraduate courses in the future. By the adjective “ideal” it is acknowledged that some of these ideas might look infeasible at the first glance. They are, however, worth to be discussed, to be considered as a type of catalyst to draft the individual course programmes and in particular to reflect the unavoidable interdependence among them. In the following emphasis will be given to the Master of Science level postgraduate education. It is believed that shrinking resources could be best used by focusing the international efforts towards strengthening this level of professional training.
THE “IDEAL M.SC. COURSE” CONCEPT
To make it clear from the very beginning, the ideal course does not exist, since objectives, target groups, duration etc. vary considerably. There should be a clear distinction between professional upgrading courses and postgraduate courses. The last group is defined as the one which either awards an academic degree (M.Sc.) or provides the basis for achieving higher degrees. Within these distinctions the attributes of an “ideal” course are easier to be defined. Still it is believed that it is unlikely that a single model would fulfil all these requirements. Rather long term cooperation among existing and future courses should be sought to capitalize on each others strength.
it is believed that future water resources management problems on global scale would require a large number of well trained, high level professionals. Thus major thrust should be made to increase the number of postgraduate course participants who achieve an internationally acknowledged academic grade, the M.Sc. or M.Eng. degree.
This emphasis would require (modified) postgraduate courses which might contribute towards this global objective.
Thus coordination is much more needed for the academic type of courses. Therefore, the present paper will concentrate on courses which offer diplomas or M.Sc. degrees either straight or in a two stage approach. These courses are usually longer. Their duration is ranging between eleven months and two years. A successful candidate, once admitted into one of these programmes has (or at least had) a fair chance to leave the course with an internationally acknowledged degree.
Between these “established” long-term courses and short (up to 3-month-long) specialized courses there is a large number of courses of medium length with a fairly broad scope. Yet absolvents of these courses leave the institution only with a certificate. The international value of this recognition by no means reflects the efforts of the participants and the organizers.
The attractiveness of these medium term courses could considerably be improved by introducing an internationally administered credit system with transfer option. Thus for example two six- month-long courses + a master thesis, or an entirely course-work-based M.Sc. of 18 months (three 6-month-long modules) could be targetted and achieved by a candidate.
Next to upgrade the status of the medium-long courses this approach would allow mature candidates to accumulate credit points over an extended period, yet without major interruption of their official duties.
There are several problems to be solved towards the implementation of this shared M.Sc.
model,
First of all the medium term courses have to coordinate their programmes. Duplication should be avoided as much as possible.
In order to avoid problems inherent in the heterogeneous background of the candidates it is recommended to carry out entry examination before the first module is commenced.
A targetted M.Sc.-oriented approach (irrespective of the length of the programme) requires a more serious screening of the applicants. Quotas allocated to certain countries can be accepted as guidelines, however, the postgraduate institutions should have the final say in selecting among the individual candidates.
Without keeping proper academic standards the whole scheme is jeopardized.
The completion of a six-month-long module might be acknowledged by a certificate. In order to show the increasing level of qualification it is recommended that after the completion of the second module a diploma is awarded. This diploma should then serve as qualification to enter either a thesis-term leading to the M.Sc.-degree or to apply for a third module.
Thesis work could also be carried out in reputed research institutions which otherwise are not involved institutionally in the postgraduate course.
This international scheme calls for very profound coordination of:
Curriculum development, comparable examination schemes, course credit system and its
“free” transfer.
Acknowledgement of certificates and diplomas among the participating courses.
Eventual recommendation which courses could be linked as modules towards a (specialized) M.Sc. degree. Recommendation of course module sequences.
Barring applicants who already have M.Sc. from entering one of the modules. (It necessitates an Jnternational data bank on course participants .)
Appointment of institutions entitled to issue M.Sc. degrees. (At this stage the national ministries of higher education and science are challenged.)
Preferably this model can be started under the participation of geographically close courses (like Prague, Budapest, Padua, etc.). A cooperation with the long-term courses, having M.Sc.
experience is highly recommended, both to learn from their experience and to cooperate.
It is conceivable that the long-term courses might follow the module concept as well and admit students holding a certificate or diploma from somewhere else into their second or third module stage.
International coordination of these cooperating courses on global scale should be carried out by an international organization having global mandate such as UNESCO. Alternatively the academic self-government is carried out by a joint board of the participating courses and universities under the sponsorship of UNESCO International Hydrological Programme.
The development of joint educational efforts is likely to be appealing to the European Union.
Courses which qualify for European funding should seek assistance also from one of the respective programmes of the EU. Preferably these European schemes should be open for participants from outside Europe. European credit transfer system might serve as an example to conceive the credit accumulation and monitoring schemes for the cooperating international postgraduate courses.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Internationally coordinated, cooperating modular M.Sc. courses are certainly essential elements to insure postgraduate training and international exchange of ideas and experience. By emphasizing the academic degree programme(s) the interest and participation of both excellent candidates and renowned lecturers can be secured.
M.Sc. programmes, however, would not eliminate the need for upgrading specialized courses.
Ph.D. programmes may emerge from a well functioning M.Sc. network.
